Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Fruit bats'

Hendra virus is a bat-borne RNA virus that has recently emerged as a public health concern in Australia. Hendra virus is maintained in its reservoir hosts, pteropid bats (Pteropus alecto, P. poliocephalus, P. conspiculatus, and P. scapulatus) and occasionally spills over into horses. Previous research notes the considerable spatiotemporal variability in both spillover events and viral excretion from bats, which has generated many hypotheses to explain Hendra virus disease dynamics. However, the complex drivers of disease emergence make it difficult to ascertain the ecological drivers to spillover and the human-mediated factors that influence them. In this thesis, I employ a diverse set of analyses to investigate patterns of Hendra virus spillover and viral prevalence in bat populations, focusing on foraging resources as a driver of bat population distribution. Specifically, I develop an integrative theoretical foundation to model transmission among roosts using a resource-driven metapopulation approach. I use temporal models of bat population flux and foraging intensity built with remotely sensed proxies of Eucalypt phenology to understand changes in resources and population abundance. I analyze the periodicity, spatiotemporal synchrony, and environmental drivers of viral prevalence among bat roosts. Concerning future data collection studies, I develop theoretical spatial simulations to optimize the use of under-roost sheet sampling methods that collect pooled urine samples.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Griffith School of Environment
Science, Environment, Engineering and Technology
Full Text

The maintenance and restoration of tropical forest biodiversity is a global priority. Madagascar, a biodiversity 'hots pot', is unique, yet highly threatened due to ongoing deforestation. In this thesis I focus on the Madagascar flying fox (Pteropus rufus), the largest Malagasy fruit bat, and its role in forest regeneration and maintenance. I use ecological niche modelling to indicate the most suitable roosting habitat for the species and predict changes in distribution based on future climate change scenarios. Future predictions suggested that by 2080 there will be significant shifts in the distribution of P. rufus towards the central, more upland part of the island. To evaluate the role of these bats in forest regeneration, I compare germination rates of bat-processed and unprocessed seeds. Furthermore, I conduct high-resolution Global Positioning System (GPS) tracking of P. rufus to document their home ranges, movement, foraging patterns and habitat preferences. The results indicate that passage through the gut of bats increased the germination rate of defecated fig seeds and bats were able to disperse seeds over large areas and into areas cleared of trees. The bats were recorded to fly up to 66.5 km per night at a maximum speed of 17.04 m/s and the home range of all of the 15 tagged bats was over 58,000 ha. Additionally, the bats preferred feeding in forest remnants hence increasing the chances of seed deposition in such habitats, and ultimately their regeneration. Pteropus rufus bats have short gut retention times (GRTs) (estimated at 12 min) but are sometimes able to retain seeds for over 20 h. Through feeding observations in the wild, captive feeding trials and GPS tracking, seed shadow maps were created. The maps indicated that bats produced extensive seed shadow webs when feeding on figs within their large forging areas. Although P. rufus plays an important role in the early succession of tropical forest in Madagascar, it is threatened by hunting and by roost disturbance. This study provides new insights into the ecology and behaviour of the Madagascar flying fox.

The aim of this project was to investigate the ecology of fruit bats within an area of old growth lowland dipterocarp forest in Peninsular Malaysia, with particular reference to Balionycteris maculata. Food particle size and crop size were two important factors that influenced diet choice and the partitioning of food resources throughout the fruit bat community at Kuala Lompat (Krau Wildlife Reserve, Pahang). Balionycteris maculata was the only species that fed regularly on the small, low-density fruits of understorey trees. Because they exploit food resources that are locally available throughout the year, male B. maculata are able to divide their nightly activity time between foraging and roost defence. Hence this species has developed a harem-based polygynous mating system, in which the roost cavity represents a critical resource for the recruitment of females. The roost cavities occupied by B. maculata were found within a variety of forest structures, including ant nests, termite nests, and epiphyte root masses. The consistent shape and positioning of these roost cavities, along with a single observation of cavity enlargement, indicate that B. maculata plays an active role in their creation. Balionycteris maculata has a polyoestrous reproductive cycle and gives birth to up to two litters per year. Although lactating females were captured throughout the year, the highest incidence of lactation was recorded between May and November. This period coincided approximately with the fruiting season of a number of large-seeded non-pioneer food plant species. Hence the reproductive timing of this species may have evolved in response to seasonal variation in the quantity and/or nutritional quality of available food resources. A botanical survey of one hectare of old growth forest revealed that 14% of trees (> 15 cm g.b.h.) were at least partially dependent upon fruit bats for pollination and/or seed dispersal. Hence fruit bats are likely to play a significant role in maintaining the biological diversity of Malaysian forests. Since several fruit bat species are strongly associated with old growth forest, the greatest threat to their survival comes from habitat destruction and agricultural expansion. The Krau Wildlife Reserve, and other protected areas in Malaysia, are therefore of critical importance for the long-term conservation of these species.

The Ebola viruses cause sporadic outbreaks of Ebola hemorrhagic fever (EHF) where origins have been traced to the continent of Africa and the Philippines. Since the initial discovery of Zaire and Sudan ebolavirus in 1976, the Ebola viruses have been responsible for severe hemorrhagic fever outbreaks in Africa with case fatality rates between 40-90%. The natural reservoir(s) of the Ebola viruses is currently unknown, but there is mounting evidence that fruit bats may play a key role. The goal of the current study is to screen a large variety of bat species from Africa and Asia where Ebola is known to be endemic for the presence of IgG specific antibody to Ebola virus in order to see which bat species may show evidence of past Ebola virus infection. Ebola virus would not be expected to cause lethal disease in its natural reservoir; therefore the presence of IgG antibody would be present. Identifying the species of bats that have been infected will allow researchers to hopefully isolate Ebola virus from bats adding to the evidence that bats are a reservoir species. The knowledge gained may also provide clues to new species of bats yet to be identified as possible natural reservoir(s) as well as expand the known geographical range of known Ebola virus outbreaks. Knowing which species of bats as well as their geographic range may help prevent future Ebola outbreaks by minimizing human-reservoir contact.

4 Summary Seasonal metabolic adjustments and partitioning of evaporative water loss in Wahlberg’s epauletted fruit bat, Epomophorus wahlbergi Student: Ingrid A. Minnaar Supervisor: Prof. A. E. McKechnie Co-supervisors: Prof. N. C. Bennett, Prof. Christian T. Chimimba Department: Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria Degree: MSc: Zoology The capacity to thermoregulate over a wide range of TaS is critical for maintaining homeostasis in endotherms. Several aspects of the thermoregulatory properties of bats remain poorly studied when compared to other mammals and birds. I examined two specific aspects of thermoregulation in bats: the seasonal variation of maximum metabolic heat production and the partitioning of total evaporative water loss (TEWL) into respiratory and cutaneous components. I measured basal metabolic rate (BMR) and summit metabolism (Msum) in captive and wild Wahlberg’s epauletted fruit bats, Epomophorus wahlbergi, during summer and winter. I measured metabolic rate using flow-through respirometry, and elicited Msum by exposing bats to low temperatures in a helox (21% O2, 79% He) atmosphere. BMR decreased by 22-25% during winter in both captive and wild bats, with the BMR of captive bats 9-13% lower than the wild individuals across seasons. Msum was approximately seasonally stable in both captive and wild bats, but Msum in captive individuals was 13-18% higher than their wild conspecifics during both seasons. The ratio between Msum and BMR (i.e., metabolic expansibility) was greater in winter than during summer for both captive and wild bats. One likely explanation for the greater resting thermogenic capacity of the bats in captive individuals concerns their reduced activity levels; compared to wild, free-ranging bats, heat produced as a by-product of activity probably contributed far less to thermoregulation, apparently leading to an increase in resting heat production capacity in captive individuals. 5 At the other end of the thermal scale, knowledge of heat tolerance and the evaporative cooling mechanisms employed by bats in hot weather remains rudimentary. At high air temperatures (Ta), endotherms avoid overheating by dissipating heat via evaporative water loss. TEWL may be partitioned into cutaneous evaporative water loss (CEWL) and respiratory evaporative water loss (REWL). I quantified CEWL and REWL in E. wahlbergi at Tas of 10-40 °C using a latex mask. When Ta exceeded normothermic Tb, bats drastically increased their TEWL, metabolic rate and Tb. The relative contribution of CEWL to TEWL was the greatest at moderate Tas where it represented up to 80% of TEWL. REWL was the major route of evaporative cooling at the highest Ta: at Ta = 40 ºC, REWL represented 45% of TEWL. To avoid hyperthermia, E. wahlbergi greatly increased metabolic rate at high TaS to avoid hyperthermia, further compounding the need to cool down. REWL is thought to be less efficient as than CEWL in offloading heat at high TaS as panting increases metabolic heat, whereas CEWL occurs passively. There is a need for further studies to be conducted on the thermoregulatory capabilities of bats in varying environmental conditions, both intra- and interspecifically.
Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2013.
gm2014
Zoology and Entomology
unrestricted

The straw-coloured fruit bat, Eidolon helvum, has been identified as a reservoir for potentially-zoonotic henipaviruses and Lagos bat virus (LBV) in continental Africa. Longitudinal studies at a large urban colony in Accra, Ghana aim to better understand E. helvum and viral ecology, as well as the nature of human-bat interactions. To assess whether the findings from these studies can be extrapolated across the species’ continental range, more information on the movement ecology of the species and connectivity of populations across its range was required. A multifaceted approach, using techniques from the field of genetics, population ecology, and virology, was used to understand the ways in which the structure and dynamics of fruit bat populations across Africa may affect the viral transmission dynamics within them. Given recent difficulties in using electronic positioning systems on E. helvum to track movement, genetic methods were proposed as the most appropriate way to assess connectivity between populations across such a vast range. Henipavirus and LBV serological analyses were undertaken on samples from 12 populations of E. helvum bats across its continental and offshore-island range. A combination of mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite markers were used to describe the genetic metapopulation structure of E. helvum and data were obtained in each location on population sizes, demographic structure, reproductive and migratory seasonality, as well as bat-human interactions. Consistent with expectations for a vagile migratory species, a panmictic continental population structure was detected across its continental range, although the extent of this panmixia was greater than previously detected in any other mammal or bird. Antibodies to henipaviruses and LBV were detected in all continental populations. Isolated island populations in the Gulf of Guinea were genetically distinct from each other and the continental population. Given the isolation of these island fruit bats and the lack of connectivity with other populations, it was expected that populations would be too small to allow persistence of any viruses that cause acute, immunising infections. Contrary to expectations, island individuals displayed evidence for exposure to both viruses. E. helvum is known to roost close in proximity to human populations across continental Africa, and these results could therefore have important public health implications. Further longitudinal studies across multiple locations and information on social structure, daily and seasonal movements are needed to make inferences about virus transmission dynamics and zoonotic risks within the complex population structure.

Throughout their world distribution, fruit bats (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae) play an extremely important role in forest ecology through seed dispersal and pollination. However, the recognition of their role in maintaining forest ecological diversity has been largely overshadowed by the fact that fruit bats are known to cause damage to a wide variety of cultivated fruits and, as a result, significant effort is undertaken to control fruit bat numbers in areas where crop damage frequently occurs. In Australia, fruit bats of the genus Pteropus (or flying foxes) are well known for their role in destroying valuable fruit crops, particularly along the east coast from Cairns to Sydney. Historical evidence suggests that flying foxes have been culled as an orchard pest in large numbers for the past 80 years. Uncontrolled culling both on-farm and in roosts coupled with extensive habitat destruction in the past century, has resulted in noticeable declines both in flying fox distribution and local population numbers. In New South Wales, flying foxes have been 'protected' under the National Parks and Wildlife Act (1974) since 1986. From that time, fruitgrowers have been required to obtain a licence (referred to as an occupier's licence) from the National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) to cull flying foxes causing damage to fruit crops. However, despite the 'protected' status of the species, flying foxes continue to be culled in large numbers as an orchard pest. An examination of the management of flying foxes in NSW, has shown that, between 1986-1992, fifteen NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service Districts issued a combined total of 616 occupier's licences to shoot flying foxes with an total allocation of over 240,000 animals. In addition, most flying foxes are culled when the female is carrying her young under wing or when the young remain in the camp but continue to be dependent on her return for survival. Further evidence on the extent of culling includes a widely distributed fruitgrower survey with responses indicating that as few as 50% of the fruitgrowers shooting flying foxes in NSW obtain the required licence from the National Parks and Wildlife Service. While the NPWS has undertaken research into the role of flying foxes in seed dispersal and pollination, management effort largely continues to focus on resolving conflicts between fruitgrowers and flying foxes primarily by issuing culling permits to fruitgrowers. At present, there is no NPWS policy on the management of flying foxes in NSW to guide the administration of the permit system. As a result, the process of issuing permits for flying foxes is largely inconsistent between NPWS Districts. The absence of comprehensive goals and objectives for the management of flying foxes has resulted in the current situation where large numbers of flying foxes are being culled both legally and illegally in the absence of any data on the impacts of unknown culling levels on local flying fox populations. The NPWS has a statutory obligation to manage flying foxes consistent with the 'protected' status of the species in NSW and several well known principles of wildlife management. However, current management of flying foxes in indicates that the Service may be in violation of the requirement to 'protect' and 'conserve' flying foxes as required under the National Parks and Wildlife Act (1974). This study recommends that licences issued to fruitgrowers to cull flying foxes be discontinued immediately and that adequate enforcement be engaged to reduce illegal shooting. This action should continue until such time that research on flying fox populations is able to demonstrate that the culling of flying foxes will not lead populations into decline. Furthermore, management effort should focus on the development of alternative strategies to reduce crop damage by flying foxes and provide incentives for growers to utilize existing control strategies such as netting.

Human activities are a major driver of biodiversity degradation and loss, especially in tropical forest areas, where forest-fringe towns and villages depend on the forests for their livelihoods. In order to reduce threats that human activities pose to biodiversity, livelihoods support programs are employed as economic incentives for biodiversity conservation. These programs support the livelihoods activities of local communities, with the aim of triggering favorable attitudes and behaviors towards conservation, and ultimately reduce biodiversity degradation. Their effectiveness as conservation tools has not been evaluated. I investigated the effects of livelihoods programs on conservation attitudes and the consequent effects on biodiversity in the Afadjato-Agumatsa and Atewa forest areas in southeastern Ghana. The study areas are coupled human and natural systems, which are excellent for research in the theoretical framework of biocomplexity in the environment. Using literature reviews and field visits, I documented the specific livelihoods support activities (LSAs) used for biodiversity conservation, their historical trend and geographical distribution in Ghana. I used ex-post cost-benefit analysis to determine socio-economic estimates of the LSAs in the two forest areas. Since communities were not randomly assigned to the interventions, I employed quasi-experimental design to evaluate the effects of LSAs on environmental attitudes. I evaluated the effect of conservation attitudes on biodiversity at two levels. These levels included 1) functional biodiversity at the landscape level represented by mean Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) of forest; and 2) compositional biodiversity at the species level represented by species diversity of fruit bats. The earliest record of LSAs used for biodiversity conservation in Ghana was in 1993. I identified 71 different activities belonging to eight categories. Some of these activities are beekeeping, animal husbandry, crop farming, and snail rearing. Most LSA programs have been in northern Ghana. There was an increasing tendency to make LSAs part of every conservation program in Ghana and this satisfies the current policy of collaborative conservation. The socio-economic estimates of LSAs included: 1) capital investment; 2) net socio-economic benefits; and 3) the benefit-cost ratio. The per-community values of the three estimates were not different between the two study areas. The per capita values of capital investment and net economic benefit were not significantly different between the two study areas. However, benefit-cost ratio per capita was higher in Afadjato-Agumatsa than in Atewa. Estimates of economic returns from LSAs were marginal but the perceptions of success were relatively high. Environmental attitudes in LSA communities and non-LSA communities were not significantly different, and this was confirmed by an estimate of infinitesimal effects of LSAs on forest conservation attitudes. Among LSA communities, benefit-cost ratio of LSAs predicted favorable forest conservation attitudes; and change in pro-conservation attitudes were significantly higher in communities that had active LSAs than in communities which had no active LSA. Mean NDVI of the forests decreased from 1991 to 2000 and decreased further but at a slower rate to 2010. Higher forest conservation attitudes predicted higher mean NDVI in 2010. Higher change in mean NDVI from 1991 to 2000 predicted higher change in mean NDVI from 2000 to 2010. Eleven of the 13 fruit bat species in Ghana were recorded in the study areas. Longer distances between a local community and its forest predicted higher species diversity of forest-specialist fruit bats. The results indicate that LSAs have become a major contribution to Ghana's current collaborative forest policy. The fact that perceptions of LSA success were moderate even though the economic returns from them were marginal suggest that other factors such as provision of employment, training in new skills and community cohesion played a part in how communities viewed the success as LSAs. Evaluations of conservation attitudes suggest that just participating in LSAs did not improve attitudes; but higher benefit-cost ratio predicted favorable conservation attitudes, and conservation attitudes were higher in communities that sustained their LSAs. Therefore, it may serve biodiversity conservation to invest in LSAs that can be sustained and involve the least costs to local communities. Primary production of the forests, a proxy for a functional habitat, continued to decrease. Preventing communities from locating closer to forests could improve fruit bat diversity, which contributes to natural forest regeneration. Improving conservation attitudes should be an objective of conservation at the landscape scale. On the basis of the results, I developed a conceptual model for forest biodiversity conservation in a biocomplexity framework. This model could be useful for evaluating conservation in tropical forest areas. Lessons from this study can be applied in other incentive-based conservation programs such as payments for ecosystem services systems and carbon market schemes. I suggest that this study be repeated after a decade and that other socio-political and biogeochemical variables be integrated into future studies.
ID: 031001519; System requirements: World Wide Web browser and PDF reader.; Mode of access: World Wide Web.; Adviser: Charles Ross Hinkle.; Title from PDF title page (viewed August 19, 2013).; Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Central Florida, 2012.; Includes bibliographical references (p. 238-259).
Ph.D.
Doctorate
Biology
Sciences
Conservation Biology; Applied Conservation Biology

Submitted by Sandra Pereira (srpereira@ufrrj.br) on 2017-01-26T12:52:36Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2015 - William Douglas de Carvalho.pdf: 2195014 bytes, checksum: b6deab05010b9d498b671e9f59a39141 (MD5)
Made available in DSpace on 2017-01-26T12:52:36Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2015 - William Douglas de Carvalho.pdf: 2195014 bytes, checksum: b6deab05010b9d498b671e9f59a39141 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-12-09
Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior - CAPES
Many world hotspots for conservation are located in mountains, which are considered priority areas for preservation of plants and vertebrates species. Species that occur in these locations have functional traits that favor the colonization of forests in high areas. Furthermore, we know little about the biology of these species along elevational gradients, for example, reproductive rate. Thus, the objectives of this thesis were divided into two sections, namely: (1) verify how the species and the different Phyllostomidae guilds vary in richness along an altitudinal gradient and identify the functional traits that facilitate the colonization of forests in high areas, and (2) determine if the reproductive rate of fruit bats Phyllostomidae varies locally and if this variation can be explained by local responses to variations in the abundance of resources. For this, we compiled studies in the Atlantic Forest of southern and southeastern Brazil through database (Capes bank of thesis; Scielo; Web of Science), journals and the database of Laborat?rio de Diversidade de Morcegos (LADIM) of Instituto de Biologia of Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ). After the selection of 35 different species of Phyllostomidae bats of 45 different locations, where the altitude varies between 60 and 2.450 m.a.s.l., 10 functional traits for each species were selected: trophic guild (GT), trophic level (NT), relative wing load (CRA), aspect ratio (AA), degree requirement forest habitat (GEHF), using natural cavities (UCN), southern latitudinal limit (LLS), body mass (MC), forearm size (TA) and body size (TC). The selected functional traits were related to an altitudinal index, calculated for each species, and those with greater correlation were chosen to be the best model to describe and determine the main functional traits that lead the species to colonize forests in high areas. Furthermore, we considered species with over 300 captures (Carollia perspicillata, Sturnira lilium e Artibeus spp.) to verify the effect of altitude on their reproductive rate. We found that there was a decline in the abundance and richness of Phyllostomidae species in high altitudes, with a decline in the abundance of fruit bats and increase of hematophagous species. The nectarivorous bats, gleaners and omnivore bats were not affected by altitude. The results also indicated that the forest habitat requirements degree was the main functional trait that leads the species to colonize forests in high areas, and the use of natural cavities and southern latitudinal limit could be relevant to colonize. All bat species had a higher reproductive rate in months of major rainfall (October to March). Sturnira lilium was the species that has the highest reproductive rate in high altitudes, which coincides with the area where there is a greater wealth and abundance of Solanum sp. Artibeus sp. had a higher reproductive rate in medium and low altitudes, where there is a greater richness of Ficus species and Carollia perspicillata showed no altitudinal preference for reproduction. At the areas with larger bat abundance, more reproducing females were observed, as these sites appear to have a higher amount of resources. The conservation of the whole altitudinal gradient with the possible implementation of conservation units is necessary, because bat species occur in greater abundance at different altitudes and reproduce at different altitudes.
Em ?reas montanhosas localizam-se muitos hotspots mundiais para conserva??o, sendo que esses locais s?o considerados ?reas priorit?rias para preserva??o de esp?cies de plantas e vertebrados. Esp?cies que ocorrem nesses locais possuem tra?os funcionais que propiciam a coloniza??o de florestas em ?reas elevadas. Al?m disso, pouco ? conhecido sobre a biologia dessas esp?cies em gradientes altitudinais, como por exemplo sua taxa reprodutiva. Sendo assim, os objetivos da presente tese foram divididos em dois cap?tulos, sendo eles: (1) verificar como as esp?cies e as diferentes guildas de Phyllostomidae variam ao longo de um gradiente altitudinal e identificar que tra?os funcionais facilitam a coloniza??o de florestas em ?reas elevadas e (2) determinar se a taxa reprodutiva de morcegos Phyllostomidae frug?voros varia localmente e se esta varia??o pode ser explicada pelas respostas locais ? varia??o na abund?ncia de recursos. Para isto, compilamos estudos realizados na Floresta Atl?ntica do sul e sudeste do Brasil atrav?s de banco de dados (banco de teses da CAPES; Scielo; Web of Science), revistas especializadas, e do banco de dados do Laborat?rio de Diversidade de Morcegos (LADIM) do Instituto de Biologia da Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ). Ap?s a sele??o de 35 diferentes esp?cies de morcegos Phyllostomidae de 45 diferentes localidades, onde a altitude variou entre 60 e 2.450 m de altitude, selecionamos 10 tra?os funcionais para cada esp?cie: guilda tr?fica (GT), n?vel tr?fico (NT), carga relativa da asa (CRA), aspecto da asa (AA), grau de exig?ncia de habitat florestal (GEHF), utiliza??o de cavidades naturais (UCN), limite latitudinal sul (LLS), massa corporal (MC), tamanho do antebra?o (TA) e tamanho corporal (TC). Os tra?os funcionais selecionados foram relacionados com um ?ndice altitudinal, representando a altitude em que a esp?cie ? mais abundante, e aqueles tra?os funcionais que apresentaram maior correla??o foram submetidos a escolha de melhor modelo para descrever quais foram os principais tra?os funcionais que levam as esp?cies a colonizarem florestas em ?reas elevadas. Al?m disso, consideramos as esp?cies com mais de 300 capturas (Carollia perspicillata, Sturnira lilium e Artibeus spp.) para verificar o efeito da altitude sobre sua taxa reprodutiva, relacionando a propor??o de animais em reprodu??o com a altitude. Encontramos uma queda na abund?ncia e riqueza de esp?cies de Phyllostomidae em altitudes elevadas, com queda na abund?ncia de frug?voros e aumento de esp?cies de h?bitos hemat?fagos. As guildas de nectar?voros, catadores e on?voros n?o foram influenciadas pela altitude. Nossos resultados tamb?m indicaram que o grau de exig?ncia de habitat florestal foi o principal tra?o funcional que leva as esp?cies a colonizarem florestas em ?reas elevadas, sendo que a utiliza??o de cavidades naturais e o limite latitudinal sul tamb?m podem ser relevantes para a coloniza??o. Todas as esp?cies de morcegos apresentaram maior taxa reprodutiva nos meses em que historicamente ocorrem maiores precipita??es (de outubro a mar?o). Sturnira lilium foi a esp?cie que apresentou maior taxa reprodutiva em altitudes elevadas, sendo esta taxa coincidente com a ?rea onde h? maior riqueza e abund?ncia de Solanum sp. Artibeus sp. apresentou maior taxa reprodutiva em m?dias e baixas altitudes, locais onde h? maior riqueza de esp?cies de Ficus e Carollia perspicillata n?o apresentou prefer?ncia altitudinal para a reprodu??o. Naquelas localidades onde a abund?ncia de morcegos foi maior, mais f?meas estavam reproduzindo-se, sendo que estes locais parecem ter maiores quantidades de recursos. Mostra-se necess?rio a conserva??o de todo o gradiente altitudinal com a poss?vel implanta??o de unidades de conserva??o, pois determinadas esp?cies de morcegos ocorrem em maior abund?ncia em altitudes diferentes, al?m de se reproduzirem em altitudes diferentes

This dissertation broadly seeks to understand the effect different kinematic parameters, external forces, and dynamic wing conformation have on the fluid dynamics of flapping flight. The primary motivation is to better grasp the fundamental fluid phenomena driving efficient flapping flight in the Reynolds number regime of birds, bats, and man made fliers of similar scale. The CFD solver (GenIDLEST) used is a Navier-Stokes solver in a finite volume formulation on non-staggered structured multiblock meshes. It has the capability for both body-fitted moving grid simulations and Immersed Boundary Method (IBM) for simulating complex bodies moving within a fluid.
To that purpose we investigate the response of a rigid flapping thin surface planar wing in forward flight, at Re=10,000, subjected to frontal gusts. Gusts are a common ecological hazard for flapping fliers, especially in crowded environments. Among the various temporal and spatial scales of gust possible, we look at the phasing and duration of very large spatial scale gusts and their impact on the unsteady fluid dynamics of flapping within a single flapping cycle. The gust is characterized by a step function with time scale much smaller than the flapping time period. Having the advantage of prescribing the motion, as well as the timing and duration of the gust, this allowed the observation of the effect of angle of attack (AOA) and wing rotation on the evolution of the Leading Edge Vortex (LEV) and, hence the instantaneous lift and thrust profiles, by varying the parameters. During the downstroke, frontal gusts accelerated the flow development resulting in early separation of existing LEVs and formation of new ones on the wing surface which influenced the force generation by increasing the lift and thrust. These phenomena underscored the importance of the unsteady vortex structures as the primary force generators in flapping flight.The effect of the gust is observed to be diminished when it occurs during rapid supination of the wing. Unlike the influence of the vortices during the downstroke, the upstroke primarily reacted to effective AOA changes.
A key characteristic of the kinematics of fliers in nature is stroke deviation. We investigate this phenomenon using a similar framework as above on a rigid thin surface flat-plate flapping wing in forward flight. Stroke deviation happens due to a variety of factors including wing flexion, wing lateral translation, and wing area change and here we investigate the different stroke deviation trajectories. Various trajectories were analyzed to assess the different capabilities that such kinematics might offer. The instantaneous lift and thrust profiles were observed to be influenced by a combination of the Leading Edge Vortex (LEV) and the Trailing Edge Vortex (TEV) structures existing in the flow at any given time. As an index of the cost of performance across all cases, the power requirements for the different cases, based on the fluid torques, are analyzed. Anti-clockwise figure-of-eight-cycle deviation is shown to be very complex with high power costs while having better performance. The clockwise elliptic-cycle held promise in being utilized as a viable stroke deviation trajectory for forward flight over the base non stroke deviation case.
Armed with insight gained from these simple flapping structures, we are able to conduct the analysis of the flapping flight data obtained on a fruit bat. Understanding the full complexity of bat flight and the ways in which bat flight differs from that of other vertebrate flight requires attention to the intricate functional mechanics and architecture of the wings and the resulting unsteady transient mechanisms of the flow around the wings. We extract the detailed kinematic motion of the bat wing from the recorded data and then simulate the bat wing motion in the CFD framework for a range of Reynolds numbers. The Strouhal number calculated from the data is high indicating that the flow physics is dominated by the oscillatory motion. From the data the bat exhibits fine control of its mechanics by actively varying wing camber, wing area, torsional rotation of the wing, forward and backward translational sweep of the wing, and wing conformation to dictate the fluid dynamics. As is common in flapping flight, the primary force generation is through the attached unsteady vortices on the wing surface. This force output is modulated by the bat through varying wing camber and the wing area. Proper orthogonal decomposition of the wing kinematics is undertaken to compile a simpler set of kinematic modes that can approximate the orignial motion used by the fruit bat. These modes are then analyzed based on aerodynamic performance and power cost for more efficient flight. Understanding the physics of these modes will help us use them as prescribed kinematics for mechanical flappers as well as improve upon them from nature.
Ph. D.

Passiflora (Passifloraceae) é um grande gênero de espécies vegetais encontradas, principalmente, na flora tropical. Algumas passifloras são cultivadas como plantas ornamentais, frutíferas ou exploradas pelas suas propriedades medicinais. A principal espécie comercial brasileira, o maracujá-azedo (Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa, 2n = 18), ocupa 95% da área plantada. Os frutos são consumidos in natura ou processados pela indústria de suco. Estudos genéticos e cromossômicos têm sido gerados para esta espécie. Entretanto, devido ao pequeno tamanho e a similaridade morfológica dos seus cromossomos, as medições do cariótipo convencional do maracujá-azedo têm levado a resultados inconsistentes, sendo necessário o desenvolvimento de marcadores cromossomos-específicos. Estes marcadores são produzidos a partir da identificação de sequências de cópia-única em clones de bibliotecas de BACs (Bacterial Artificial Chromosome), que são utilizadas como sondas em ensaios de FISH (Hibridização in situ Fluorescente). Neste trabalho, foi construída uma biblioteca genômica de maracujá-azedo em BACs contendo 82.944 clones, com tamanho médio dos insertos de 108 kb, e provendo uma cobertura de seis vezes o genoma. A biblioteca apresentou baixa contaminação com cpDNA e mtDNA (~0,04% e 0%, respectivamente), e foi possível o isolamento de oito clones contendo genes putativos de P. edulis f. flavicarpa. Estes clones foram marcados e utilizados como sondas em ensaios de FISH. Destas sondas, quatro apresentaram sinal único de hibridização, e foram mapeadas nos cromossomos 1 (gene ERS), 3 (gene ACCO) e 4 (genes G3PD e CYCD1). As demais sondas (genes LOX, NDID e MIPS) apresentaram sinais de hibridização subteloméricos ou pericentroméricos, indicando a presença de DNA repetitivo nos clones; a sonda contendo o gene EMB não revelou sinal fluorescente. Com base em análises de FISH, definiu-se, no presente trabalho, um novo cariótipo para o maracujá-azedo, com marcadores específicos para os cromossomos 1, 3 e 4, localizando, também, sítios de DNAr 45S nos cromossomos 7 e 8, e um sítio de DNAr 5S no cromossomo 5. A exploração da biblioteca de BAC, bem como o mapa físico aqui estabelecido, representa importantes avanços para guiar pesquisas futuras sobre o gênero Passiflora.
Passiflora (Passifloraceae) is a large genus of plant species essentially found in the tropical flora. Some passiflora are grown as ornamentals, cultivated for their edible fruits, or exploited due to their medicinal properties. The main Brazilian commercial species, the yellow passion fruit (Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa, 2n = 18) occupies 95% of all planted orchards. The fruits are eaten fresh or used for industrial juice production. Genetic and chromosomal studies have been carried out on the species. However, due to the small size and morphological similarity of their chromosomes, the conventional measures of the karyotype have produced some inconsistent results, being imperative the development of chromosome-specific markers. These markers are produced by identifying BAC (Bacterial Artificial Chromosome) library clones that harbor single copy sequences, which are used as probes in FISH (Fluorescent in situ Hybridization) assays. In the present work, a yellow passion fruit genomic BAC library of 82.944 clones was constructed, with average insert sizes of 108 kb, and covering six times the genome equivalent. The library has shown a low level of cpDNA and mtDNA contamination (~0.04% and 0%, respectively), and it was possible the isolation of eight clones harboring putative genes of P. edulis f. flavicarpa. These clones were labeled and used as probes in FISH assays. Of these probes, four have shown single hybridization signals, and they were mapped on chromosome 1 (ERS gene), 3 (ACCO gene), and 4 (G3PD and CYCD1 genes). The other probes (LOX, NDID and MIPS gene) revealed subtelomeric or pericentromeric signals, suggesting the presence of repetitive DNA sequences in the clones; the probe harboring the EMB gene did not reveal any hybridization signal. Based on FISH analyses, a new karyotype for the passion fruit was established in the present work, with specific markers in chromosomes 1, 3 and 4; we also mapped 45S rDNA sites in chromosomes 7 and 8, and one 5S rDNA site in chromosome 5. The exploitation of the BAC library, as well as the physical map here established, represents novel and essential advances to guide future researches on the Passilfora genus.

L’artisanat verrier forestier moderne connaît un développement particulièrement important dans la région languedocienne qui bénéficie d’une tradition ancrée depuis le XIIIe s. Pour autant, les modes et structures de production sont encore peu documentés et l’historiographie en livre généralement l’image d’un modeste réseau d’officines isolées. Fondée sur la complémentarité des sources écrites, archéologiques et archéométriques, cette étude privilégie l’analyse de ces fabriques à partir de huit ateliers fouillés. Elle livre une approche des divers acteurs comme de l’environnement qui contribuent à la structuration formelle de cet art du feu. Une centaine de centres de production modernes a été recensée, le plus souvent rassemblés en foyers. Si leur développement demeure limité, ils font en revanche état d’une certaine autonomie dans la production. De la plus petite unité forestière aux grands établissements assimilés à des centres villageois, chaque site assure le cycle complet de la production du verre. Les ateliers bénéficient en général d’infrastructures relativement simples, rassemblées autour de deux à trois fours à vocation complémentaire : préparation des matières, fusion et recuit. Leur morphologie ainsi que les usages combinés qui en sont faits varient en fonction des époques et de l’importance de la fabrique. Terre propice à l’établissement de l’industrie verrière pour ses nombreuses ressources naturelles, le Languedoc moderne produit principalement du verre creux destiné à alimenter la province. Toutefois, à partir du premier tiers du XVIIIe s., cet artisanat forestier s’étiole progressivement au profit de grandes manufactures alimentées au charbon de terre
The modern woodlands glassmaking enjoys a particularly siginifant development in the Lower Languedoc region which benefits from a deeply rooted tradition from the thirteenth century on. However, the ways and structures of production are as yet very poorly documented and the historiography generally gives a picture of a modest network of workshops producing objects for daily use.Based on the additionnal information of written archaeological and archeometrical sources, this study favours the analysis of these factories from eight excavated sites. At first place it gives an approach of the people as well as the surrounding area which shows the formal structuring of this ceramic skillset. About a hundred moderns production centres emerged, grouped together in a number of zones with several workshops near each other. Their extent is limited, on the other hand they indicate a certain autonomy in production. From the smallest unit in the woodlands to the big establishments which resembledl proper village settlements, each site ensured the complete cycle of the operational chain of glass production. Generally, the workshops were a relatively simple infrastructure assembled around two or three furnaces with complementary functions: frit, fusion and annealing furnaces.As a region favourable to the establishment of glassmaking due to the rich resources in raw materials, modern Languedoc produced mainly hollow, concave glass.. Basically their production supplied the province which was the biggest of the kingdom. It is only from the first third of the eighteenth century that this woodland craft industry declined progressively as big coal-fired factories took over

Degradation of forest environments in South Africa have greatly affected both the plants and animals that interact with these plants. It is therefore important to understand plant-animal interactions in forest ecosystems in an effort to develop strategies for forest conservation. Animal dispersal can assist in the restoration of forest plant diversity and consequently animal diversity. Wahlberg’s epauletted fruit bat (Epomophorus wahlbergi) occurs in the eastern part of South Africa and is known to feed on fruit, nectar, pollen and flowers. It is an important disperser of various indigenous and alien invasive forest fruit species. Little is known about the benefits these bats get from feeding on fruit. Furthermore, the buccal cavity and lingual adaptations of fruit bats in Southern Africa are unknown. This study investigated morphological and physiological adaptations for frugivory in E. wahlbergi. In particular, the palatal and lingual morphological structures of E. wahlbergi were examined by light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The results of this study showed that the morphological structures of tongue papillae in E. wahlbergi were similar to that of other fruit and nectar feeding bats. The structural arrangement of tongue papillae in E. wahlbergi probably allows food to move from the anterior part of the tongue and collect at the median line of the posterior part of the tongue, and thereafter move down to the pharynx. These bats had an elongated tongue, wide, flattened molar teeth, and a hard papillae structure observed on the upper palate at the posterior end of the buccal cavity. This papillae structure has not been described previously; and it appears that it is with this structure, together with the palatal ridges, and teeth that E. wahlbergi crushes fleshy fruit to extract the juices when feeding. Consequently palatal and lingual structures of E. wahlbergi showed morphological adaptations for efficiently feeding on fleshy fruit and nectar. South African indigenous and exotic fleshy fruits available to E. wahlbergi are found to be generally hexose dominant. These bats are suggested to have high glucose intake irrespective of sugar concentration to power their high energy demands due to flight. High glucose intake could result in increased blood plasma glucose levels which are detrimental to mammals of small body size. This study investigated the diel variations in blood plasma glucose concentrations of E. wahlbergi. Epomophorus wahlbergi’s blood plasma glucose concentration was lower (5.24 ± 0.38 mm ol/l) at 18h00 before feeding and increased during/after feeding (8.19 ± 1.24 mm ol/l), however bats appeared to regulate it within limits. Their range in concentrations was higher than the normal mammalian blood plasma glucose concentrations range. Consequently these bats appear to regulate their blood plasma glucose concentration although at a range higher than normal mammalian levels and thus reduce the negative consequences associated with hyperglycemia. The data obtained provide a baseline for comparison with free-ranging E. wahlbergi. Proteins are important in a diet to provide the required nitrogen and amino acids necessary for maintaining body tissues. Fruits, however, appear to have energy-rich but protein-limited foods. Frugivores that feed exclusively on fruit may therefore have difficulties in maintaining their protein requirements since fruits are generally high in sugar content but low in protein content. The importance of protein in the diet of E. wahlbergi was determined by measuring diet intake at varying levels of protein in the laboratory. Epomophorus wahlbergi were offered equicaloric 15 % glucose solutions with varying protein concentrations (2.58, 5.68, 7.23 g soy protein/kg H2O) and a solution with no protein. This was repeated using 15 % sucrose instead of glucose solutions. Epomophorus wahlbergi’s volumetric intake of the respective glucose and sucrose solutions varied among individual bats, with total volumetric intake highest for the solution with no protein (control) and lowest at 2.58 g/kg soy protein concentration solution for glucose and 5.68 and 7.23 g/kg soy protein concentration for sucrose. These bats appeared to prefer sugar solutions without or low protein, and their daily protein intake was relatively low. This suggests they have low-protein requirements, and this relates to their characteristic low-protein fruit available in the wild. Feeding and digestive efficiency has been widely studied in frugivorous and/or nectarivorous birds but relatively few studies have been done on bats, particularly African bats. Feeding on a liquid nectar diet and fruit juices could cause physiological challenges for nectarivores and/or frugivores as they have to balance water and energy intake from this liquid diet. Mammalian kidneys have to eliminate salts and nitrogenous wastes, conserve water during water restriction as well as excrete it when ingested in excess. Morphological renal characters are known to be reliable indicators of urinary concentrating abilities in mammals. Short digesta residence time is a digestive trait that is known to be associated with frugivory and this may be a problem since digestive efficiency is a function of the length of digesta retention time. Histological sections of E. wahlbergi kidneys and small intestines were examined under microscopy to determine water regulation and specialization for sugar absorption respectively. Cortex and medulla length measurements were taken to calculate the medulla: cortex ratio (M/C) and the percent medullary thickness (PMT). The observed M/C ratio and PMT of E. wahlbergi is typical of a mesic species. Epomophorus wahlbergi feeds on a watery diet and does not need to concentrate urine; therefore the medulla and cortex were more or less the same size. Analysis of the histological sections showed that the kidney structure of these bats allows efficient water regulation in a mesic environment. The microvilli of E. wahlbergi intestine were relatively long with a large surface area thus serves the purpose for efficient digestion and absorption of sugars in these bats. Future studies need to be done to determine the mechanisms by which these bats regulate their blood plasma glucose levels, and also determine intake on a selection of fruit in order to broaden research to adaptation of these bats on low-protein diets. This study contributes to a greater understanding of the physiological and morphological mechanisms that may affect fruit intake and consequently dispersal. It will contribute to a greater understanding of plant-animal interactions in southern Africa.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Piertermaritzburg, 2012.

Tese de mestrado, Biologia da Conservação, Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências, 2019
A perturbação humana em animais selvagens é uma ameaça que causa crescente preocupação. Apesar da perturbação poder ter causas naturais (e.g. eventos climáticos), esta está mais frequentemente relacionada com actividades humanas, como lazer, caça, ruído associado a centros urbanos e alterações ao nível da paisagem. O rápido crescimento da população humana, consequente expansão de meios urbanos e urbanização de meios rurais, leva a que o contacto entre seres humanos e animais selvagens seja mais frequente, aumentando o risco de perturbação da fauna. A perturbação pode desencadear respostas fisiológicas e comportamentais, podendo causar alterações no comportamento alimentar, sucesso reprodutivo, condição corporal, ou mesmo levar à morte dos indivíduos. Desta forma, a perturbação pode conduzir mudanças na abundância, distribuição e riqueza das espécies. Apesar da ameaça que representa, o estudo da perturbação em animais selvagens continua a revelar-se um desafio para a comunidade científica. Em parte, porque as respostas à perturbação tendem a ser específicas de cada espécie, mas também devido a limitações metodológicas. Actualmente, muitos dos estudos sobre perturbação da fauna, avaliam a perturbação através de alterações comportamentais nos indivíduos, uma vez que as respostas comportamentais à perturbação são as mais comuns e facilmente identificáveis. Dentro das respostas comportamentais, a fuga - que em morcegos e aves se traduz em voo - é a resposta mais frequentemente utilizada. Este comportamento é muitas vezes identificado através de observação directa, ainda que seja reconhecido que a presença do observador pode também causar perturbação, enviesando os resultados. Novos desenvolvimentos tecnológicos permitem identificar e quantificar as reacções à perturbação através de telemetria e detectores de movimento por infravermelhos, removendo assim o impacto da presença do observador. Além disso, o contínuo desenvolvimento dos dispositivos e tecnologia de bio-logging permite a recolha remota de dados, num grande leque de espécies e em habitats que de outra forma seriam inacessíveis. Os dispositivos utilizados permitem a recolha de dados de GPS e aceleração tri-axial, e a integração destes dois tipos de dados permite contextualizar espacialmente os dados de comportamento, fornecendo informação sobre os uso de habitat e a identificação de áreas importantes para as espécies, como as áreas de alimentação, abrigo e reprodução. Dado que os voos são uma resposta comum à perturbação em aves e morcegos, e dada a capacidade da aceleração tri-axial para discriminar este comportamento, é possível fazer uso desta tecnologia para identificar voos e utilizá-los como proxy de perturbação. A perturbação pode afectar especialmente animais nocturnos e gregários, uma vez que o pico da actividade humana ocorre durante o dia, que corresponde ao período de repouso destes animais, e também porque estes tornam mais conspícuos quando agregados em colónias. Eidolon helvum (Kerr, 1792) é uma espécie de morcego frugívoro da família Pteropodidae, que se distribui amplamente pela África subsariana. Esta espécie forma colónias com milhares, em alguns casos milhões, de indivíduos, e tem actividade crepuscular e nocturna, sendo por isso um bom modelo para avaliar perturbação em abrigos diurnos. É capaz de grandes migrações e de percorrer longas distâncias para se alimentar, sendo uma espécie-chave para a dispersão de sementes em África. Actualmente, encontra-se classificada como “Quase Ameaçada” pela IUCN, em grande parte devido à sua caça. Este estudo tem como principal objectivo identificar as principais causas de perturbação de E. helvum nos seus abrigos, utilizando voos diurnos, identificados a partir de aceleração tri-axial, como proxy de perturbação. Além disto, espera-se avaliar a influência da perturbação no comportamento alimentar e utilização de locais de repouso diurno. Para concretizar estes objectivos, foram estudados morcegos em cinco colónias em África continental - duas em Kibi (Gana), uma em Accra (Gana), uma em Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso), e uma no Parque Nacional de Kasanka (Zâmbia). Os morcegos foram capturados nos abrigos, quando regressavam de se alimentar, e foi-lhes aplicado um datalogger que recolhia dados de GPS e aceleração tri-axial. No total, foram obtidas 167 observações a partir de 46 indivíduos. Os dados de aceleração tri-axial foram utilizados para identificar voos durante o dia, em detrimento de outros comportamentos. Os voos diurnos foram transformados numa variável binária, de presença/ausência de voos durante o dia, usada como proxy de perturbação. As localizações exactas dos abrigos foram obtidas através dos dados GPS, que permitiram identificar 25 novos abrigos (abrigos secundários) para além dos cinco abrigos principais, onde os morcegos foram capturados. Um conjunto de variáveis ambientais, climáticas e intrínsecas aos animais, assim como o tipo de abrigo (principal ou secundário), e a ocorrência de sessões de captura de morcegos para instalação de dataloggers, foram extraídas e utilizadas para modelar a presença de voos diurnos nos abrigos de E. helvum. O tipo de abrigo, principal ou secundário, mostrou ser um importante preditor para a presença de perturbação, e a probabilidade de voos diurnos foi maior nos abrigos principais. É possível que este resultado se deva a diferenças de conspicuidade entre tipos de abrigo. Embora nada se saiba sobre os abrigos secundários descobertos, é possível que estes locais sirvam de abrigos temporários para pequenos grupos, perto das áreas de alimentação. Em contraste, os abrigos principais albergavam grandes colónias de E. helvum, muito conspícuas e consequentemente mais susceptíveis a predação e perseguição humana. As sessões de captura para aplicação dos dataloggers nos abrigos principais também revelaram ser um bom preditor da presença de perturbação, sendo que a probabilidade de voos diurnos foi maior nos dias em que decorreram capturas. Este resultado é esperado, uma vez que as capturas podem causar uma perturbação directa nos morcegos, o que simultaneamente valida a abordagem metodológica usada neste estudo. O vento e a energia solar têm também algum poder preditivo na presença de voos diurnos, embora este seja mais evidente quando o efeito das sessões de capturas é removido da análise. O vento teve um efeito negativo e a energia solar um efeito positivo na presença de voos diurnos. Menor velocidade do vento pode levar a que os morcegos não consigam dissipar energia de forma tão eficiente, da mesma forma que maior energia solar pode aumentar o ganho de energia por radiação. Desta forma, a maior probabilidade de voos diurnos pode dever-se a comportamentos de termorregulação, em que os morcegos mudam de posições no abrigo, de forma a encontrarem refúgio em partes com maior ensombramento. Ao contrário do esperado, a perturbação (i.e., presença de voos diurnos) não parece ter efeito na distância percorrida na noite seguinte, nem parece explicar as mudanças de abrigo registadas neste estudo. Tanto a mudança de abrigo como a distância percorrida podem estar relacionadas com a disponibilidade de recursos, nomeadamente de áreas de alimentação, uma vez que parece haver uma relação entre a localização dos recursos alimentares e a localização dos abrigos noutras espécies de morcegos e de aves. Contudo, isto não significa que a perturbação não tem efeitos negativos nestes morcegos. A perturbação pode provocar outros efeitos nos indivíduos, como alterações no metabolismo, sistema imunitário ou reprodução, que não são identificáveis pelos parâmetros testados. Este estudo fornece uma avaliação da perturbação em abrigos diurnos de E. helvum e dos seus principais preditores, e revela 25 novas localizações de abrigos diurnos. Desta forma, os resultados deste estudo podem ser utilizados para aumentar a vigilância em abrigos principais, e servem de base para aumentar o conhecimento sobre a perturbação em abrigos de E. helvum e contribuir para a sua protecção. Por fim, este estudo fornece uma nova abordagem metodológica para identificar perturbação em abrigos diurnos, que pode ser aplicada em outras espécies de Pteropodidae ou mesmo noutras espécies coloniais, e assim avaliar uma das maiores ameaças que enfrentam: a perturbação.
Disturbance of wildlife is a threat of growing concern. It can be caused by natural effects, such as climatic events and by human related activities. It can negatively impact wildlife, causing changes in body condition, activity patterns, foraging behaviour, and can lead to changes in species distribution and richness. Assessing disturbance on wildlife has proven to be challenging, as different species can have different responses to disturbance. However, behavioural responses are the most common and have been widely used to assess disturbance in birds and bats. This has been done mostly through direct observation, which may result in disturbance caused by the observer. Advances in bio-logging allow the remote collection of GPS and tri-axial acceleration data, removing the effect of the observer. Tri-axial acceleration can provide valuable information on behaviour, and its integration with GPS data may be used to identify important habitat areas (e.g. foraging and roosting areas). As flight is a common response to disturbance in bats and birds, and tri-axial data can discriminate flight behaviour, daytime flights may be used as a proxy for disturbance. Therefore, this study aims to assess disturbance of straw-coloured fruit bats (Eidolon helvum) in day roosts across continental Africa and its most important predictors, using daytime flight as a proxy of disturbance. Tri-axial acceleration and GPS data was retrieved from 46 bats captured in five different colonies, located in Ghana, Burkina Faso and Zambia. In addition to the five main roosts where bats were captured, 25 other roosting locations were found and classified as secondary roosts. The results show that main roosts are good predictors of daytime disturbance, possibly due to increased conspicuousness and consequent human predation. Capture events for bat sampling were also good predictors, and the probability of daytime flight was higher in days when captures were conducted. Wind speed had a negative effect, and solar energy a positive effect on presence of daytime flights. Lower wind speed and higher solar energy may lead bats to exhibit thermoregulatory behaviours, translated in flights to change towards more shaded positions in the roost. Disturbance, as measured, appears to have no effect on the distance travelled by the bat in the following night, nor could it explain the changes of roost recorded. This study was able to successfully identify day roost disturbance in E. helvum, using daytime flights as a proxy, and to identify important predictors of disturbance. Ultimately, it provides a new methodological approach to assess day roost disturbance, which can be applied to other Pteropodidae or other colonial species.

Urbanisation through the process of habitat loss and fragmentation has caused drastic changes in ecosystem dynamics around the world. Many species can no longer survive in these urban areas; however there are those species that have been able to survive and in fact thrive in the newly created habitats. With increasing urbanisation it is important that animals are able to adjust to a life in close association with humans. One such group of organisms which has adjusted well to urbanisation is the suborder Megachiroptera (Chiroptera). Some species from this suborder have benefited from increased food and roost resources in certain urban areas. Exotic fruiting plants (introduced purposely and accidentally) as well as increased cultivated gardens have provided additional food sources in some urban environments, while man-made structures, and increased suitable vegetation, have provided additional roosting opportunities. Although these urban dwelling species live in close association with humans, very little is known of their ecology in urban areas. Wahlberg's epauletted fruit bat Epomophorus wahlbergi is one such species of which little is known of its suburban ecology despite its increased presence in many urban areas. This study on the ecology of E. wahlbergi was conducted from February to October 2011 in the urban environment of Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. The aim was to examine foraging movements and habitat use of E. wahlbergi in this urban environment. The objectives were to determine seasonal differences in foraging movements and home range sizes in this urban environment. In addition the roosting dynamics and roost characteristics of E. wahlbergi in this urban environment were determined. In late summer, it was found that individual E. wahlbergi movements ranged considerably, with some bats making extensive flights to different parts of town while others stayed in particular areas throughout; no bats were recorded to have left the urban environment. Some of the larger distances covered in a single night's movements were two and five km. In late summer roosting fidelity varied between individual bats; all the individual bats changed their roosts at least once during late summer. Some individuals had as many as three known daytime roost sites. There was a difference in home range size between the sexes; with females occupying a larger home range size than males. This variation in movement patterns of individual bats suggests that their social interactions, roost site preferences, or dietary preferences vary between individuals in late summer. A significant difference in home range size and habitat use by E. wahlbergi was found between winter and spring, with home range sizes being larger in winter. The increased home range sizes and habitat use in winter were a consequence of bats feeding on the fruits of the alien invasive Syringa (Melia azedarch) with few other trees in fruit. Consequently bats had to move greater distances for food in winter. In spring, fruit availability was greater and more varied including both indigenous and exotic fruits. Consequently in winter, the bats were more reliant on a few fruiting species to meet their dietary requirements than during spring. Bats changed their roosts regularly in summer, winter and spring. There was considerable variation in roost temperatures however roost temperatures were higher than ambient temperatures. Roosts in man-made structures were higher in temperature than those in natural vegetation. This study suggests the importance of temperature in the selection of daytime roosts, however other factors such as predator avoidance and proximity to food resources are also considered in selection of daytime roosts. Within the order Chiroptera, species from the suborder Microchiroptera have generally not been well represented in urban areas, it is important that the reasons for this be better understood. Further research is still required to better understand the ecology of urban dwelling species as well as to understand the reasons why many species are not able to adjust to urban environments.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.

Iron storage disease is a significant cause of liver disease and mortality in captive Egyptian fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus). The nature of the susceptibility in this and other captive exotic species to iron storage disease is not clear. Hepcidin, a key iron regulatory hormone, is involved in the regulation of iron absorption in humans and other mammalian species and a deficiency in hepcidin has been associated with a number of genetic mutations resulting in hemochromatosis in humans. The objectives of this thesis were to identify whether there is a functional mutation in the hepcidin gene in the Egyptian fruit bat that may increase the susceptibility of this species to iron storage disease, and whether there is a functional deficiency in hepcidin gene expression in the Egyptian fruit bat in response to iron challenge. We compared the coding region of the hepcidin gene amongst several species of bats and investigated hepcidin response to intramuscular injection of iron dextran amongst three species of bats with variable susceptibility to iron storage disease; the Egyptian fruit bat, the straw-colored fruit bat (Eidolon helvum), and the common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus). While a number of genetic differences were identified amongst species, a functional mutation that could result in decreased hepcidin activity was not identified in the Egyptian fruit bat. Bats exhibited marked variation in hepcidin gene expression, with the highest level of hepcidin response to iron challenge in the common vampire bat. While the Egyptian fruit bat exhibited significant hepcidin response to iron challenge, the magnitude of response was lower than that in the common vampire bat and lower than expected based on findings in healthy humans. The straw-colored fruit bat did not exhibit any hepcidin response despite a significant increase in iron stores, which suggests this species may have evolved an alternate mechanism for coping with excessive iron or may be more susceptible to iron overload than previously recognized.
Toronto Zoo Scholarship Fund

Population structure, biogeography and phylogenetic relationships of the fruit bat genus Rousettus have been studied in Africa and adjacent regions. The current population patterns of rousettine fruit bats in the Old World are influenced by several environmental attributes, namely the topography, climate and land cover. These variables are mirrored in fruit bat plesiomorphies related to the ecological niche of tropical flying frugivore, as well as apomorphies of rousettines including echolocation ability, roosting in caves and dispersal capacity in open landscapes with discontinuous tree cover. Phylogenetic relationships among species and subspecies of the genus have been indicated and confronted with the existing colonization scenarios. Insular populations (including habitat islands within desert oases) show frequent genetic differentiation from their mainland relatives suggesting successful founder events after traversing stretches of unsuitable habitats. Genetic differentiation evolving in less distant islands suggests involving behavioural mechanisms maintaining cohesion of isolated demes as site fidelity and natal habitat-biased dispersal. In sub-Saharan mainland Africa within the large range reaching from the southern border of Sahara to Cape Peninsula, Rousettus populations share a...

South Africa is one of the world's most biologically invaded countries and has spent billions of rands on efforts to eradicate alien invasive plants. Chemical and mechanical control methods have varied in success and the need for integrated management strategies has been realised. This requires a better understanding of all aspects of the invasion process. Some of the most invasive plant species rely on vertebrate dispersers which facilitate long-distance seed dispersal. Frugivory is based on a mutualism in which the frugivores gain a resource and the plants benefit from seed dispersal away from the parent plant. Seed germination itself may either be enhanced, reduced or not affected at all after gut passage. The first aim of this study was to determine if generalist avian frugivores and a fruit bat species (Epomophorus wahlbergi) enhance or decrease seed germination of invasive alien plants in South Africa, by either pulp removal or seed coat abrasion, or if they serve as dispersers only. The second aim was to determine if avian frugivores are able to meet their energetic demands by feeding on a specific alien fruit diet. Finally, we also quantified the nutritional content and morphological characteristics of fleshy fruits of various invasive alien and exotic plant species. Avian frugivores: Red-winged Starlings (Onychognathus morio), Speckled Mousebirds (Colius striatus), and Dark-capped Bulbuls (Pycnonotus tricolor), varied in their effects on the germination success of seeds of four invasive alien species, namely: Lantana camara, Solanum mauritianum, Cinnamomum camphora, and Psidium guajava. However, this was not associated with differences in seed retention times. Similar germination success was observed for avian ingested and de-pulped seeds. This was also observed for fruit bat spat and depulped seeds of Psidium guajava, Melia azedarach, Eriobotrya japonica, and Morus alba. Therefore seed coat abrasion was not important for the germination of these fleshy-fruited invasive alien plants. Pulp removal resulted in significantly earlier seed germination as well as higher seed germination percentages than in the case of whole fruit controls for some of these invasive species. Gut passage is thus important for long-distance dispersal, and in some cases, for enhanced germination of seeds. The invasive Solanum mauritianum and indigenous congener S. giganteum showed similar germination responses, with both ingested and depulped seeds germinating profusely. However, S. giganteum benefited from pulp removal as seeds from whole fruits had less germination. Avian frugivores varied significantly in most energetic parameters calculated when given diets of invasive alien fruit. Speckled Mousebirds and Dark-capped Bulbuls were able to maintain body mass and efficiently process fruits of all four alien invasive plants, while Red-winged Starlings were only able to do so on lipid-rich C. camphora and sugar-rich S. mauritianum. Furthermore, frugivores also adjusted their feeding behavior by eating more nutritionally poor fruit and less energetically rewarding fruit. Fruit bats consumed more fruit per gram body mass than avian frugivores did. They therefore process proportionately more seeds than avian dispersers and thus their role in invasive seed dispersal, which has previously been underestimated particularly in South Africa, is highlighted. Fruits of invasive plant species were similar in morphology, but greater in nutritional content, than fruits of indigenous species. These fruits also contained small, light seeds with approximately only 30% having more than 10 seeds per fruit. The ability of frugivores to efficiently process these fruits and the greater nutritional rewards offered by these provide new insights into why these invasive fruits are preferred by frugivores. In addition, invasive alien plants may have a competitive edge over indigenous species because of their larger reproductive outputs and not necessarily because of greater germination success.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.

碩士
大仁科技大學
食品科技研究所
104
The basic materials used in this study are Irwin mangoes produced in Shizi Township in the south of Taiwan. After mincing to puree, and adding the optimum ratio of agar powder and xanthan gum, different proportions (0%, 16%, 28%, 37%, 44%) of granular sugar are used to make mango fruit bars; and different baking times (25min, 30min, 35min, 40min) are used to make mango fruit slices. The study is designed to investigate the physical properties of the products, their antioxidant capabilities and the sensory evaluation. The results reveal that the optimum ratio of agar powder and xanthan gum of the products is 1.5%: 0.5%. When the mango fruit bars are made and sugar added, the sugar content rises while the moisture content and water activity of the products both decrease. With respect to color, after adding sugar, the L value, a value and b value all decrease. As the amount added increases, the trend becomes more obvious, resulting in a significant difference (p<0.05). When conducting the texture profile analysis (TPA), without addition of sugar in mango puree (the control group), the mango fruit bars have a hardness of 5.25N, a springiness of 0.82mm, a gumminess of 0.94N, and chewiness of 0.76N; as the added sugar increases from 16% to 44%, the hardness, springiness, gumminess, and chewiness all increase. With respect to antioxidant capabilities: the total phenolic compounds, DPPH free radical scavenging capability, and reducing capacity were optimum in the control group with no added sugar. In this case, the total phenolic compound content was 0.25mg GAE/g, the DPPH free radical scavenging capacity was 53.81%, and reducing capacity was 0.27. In the test for detection of reducing sugar, the control group with no added sugar had a reducing sugar content of 12.86mg/g; when the added sugar reached 44%, the reducing sugar content decreased to 1.78mg/g. In the sensory evaluation analysis there was no significant difference (p>0.05) in the overall acceptance score of the products; however, the acceptance score for the mango fruit bars with sugar added to 37% was the highest. While the baking time of the mango puree increased, the moisture content and water activity of the mango fruit slices gradually decreased. In terms of color, after baking, the L value, a value and b value of the products each decreased; however the a value did not show a significant difference (p>0.05). In the texture profile analysis (cutting force), with a 25min baking time, the cutting force was 0.85kg. When the baking time reached 40min, the cutting force increased to 5.37kg. For the antioxidant capabilities: the total phenolic compounds and DPPH free radical scavenging ability of the product were the highest when the baking time was 40min, having a total phenolic compound content of 1.61mg GAE/g, and a DPPH free radical scavenging capacity of 81.03%. Meanwhile, the reducing capacity declined slightly; however, the change was insignificant (p>0.05). In the test for detection of reducing sugar, there was an upward trend in the reducing sugar capacity of the product when the baking time was 25min to 35min. However, when the baking time was 40min, it slightly decreased, dropping to 26.11mg/g. In the sensory evaluation analysis, there was no significant difference (p>0.05) in the overall acceptance score of the product; however, the acceptance score for the mango fruit slices with a baking time of 25min was the highest.

Este trabalho foi efectuado com o apoio da Universidade de Lisboa, Instituto Superior de Agronomia com o Centro de Engenharia dos Biossistemas (CEER
The development of novel food products designed to maximise both the health benefits and enjoyment of the consumer’s eating experience is an important area of research nowadays. Fruits and vegetables are also increasingly recognized as important components of a healthy diet. Within this context, the work in this thesis aimed the development of a novel convenient food product – fresh like mango bars - based on mango (Mangifera indica L) and gellan gum, designed to have sensory quality similar to that of fresh mango, to be of easy consumption and to have an extended shelf-life. The influence of gellan concentration and of the ratio of L (low acyl)/H (high acyl) gellan on the rheological and microstructural properties of mango/gellan gels was studied. This allowed optimising the concentration of gellan. The effect of the L/H ratio on texture, microstructure, syneresis and sensory acceptance was evaluated. Results separated bars into two sets: one showing a higher hardness and lower syneresis (only L gellan and L/H in the ratios of 75/25 and 50/50); and the other with bars having a higher proportion of H, with a softer structure with higher cohesiveness and syneresis (L/H25/75 and only H gellan). Through sensory analysis the bar with L/H 25/75 was identified as the preferred one. An edible coating was developed to improve the characteristics of the product. Its optimization was performed by the use of experimental design and mathematical modelling. Results showed that the coating improved appearance and firmness of bars, and reduced syneresis and volatiles loss during storage. Thermal and high hydrostatic pressure preservation treatments were applied on packaged products. Both treatments had similar performance considering microbial content and aroma release. Thermally treated bars were stored at 5 °C during 21 days, without changing significantly their texture, colour, microbial loading and sensory attributes. Overall results show that the process allows producing a stable ready-to-eat mango bar product appreciated by the sensory panellists.
Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT)- (SFRH/BD/64341/2009); FCT-MCTES funding the projects PTDC/AGR-ALI/114706/2009 and PEst – OE/AGR/UI0245/2014

5 Abstract The genus Rousettus represents the only fruit bat genus distributed both in Asia and Africa reaching northern distributional limits of the Pteropodidae family. This unusual distribution pattern is related to the ability of echolocation, subsequent cave dwelling and probably other thermoregulatory and behavioural adaptations to relatively cold and dry climate. Methods for identification of genetically discrete populations were used in the presented study to acquire better comprehension of historical ways of colonization along with current dispersal and migratory patterns of the Egyptian fruit bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus) in the Mediterranean basin and adjacent range patches. Modern approaches to population and landscape genetics were applied on a dataset comprising 553 individuals from 72 localities using 20 nuclear microsatellites. Our results revealed a significant genetic distance of East African individuals and certain substructure in the northern part of the range. Cypriot population is clearly separated, and - for higher K - the isolation of colonies from Egyptian oases is highly supported. Genetic proximity of south Arabian and Sinai populations contradict current taxonomy of the species. Our findings highlight the role of seas and deserts as barriers restricting gene flow and the evolution...