Relevant bibliographies by topics / Freedom of religion – Europe

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  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters
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Academic literature on the topic 'Freedom of religion – Europe'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 10 March 2023
Last updated: 30 July 2024

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Journal articles on the topic "Freedom of religion – Europe"

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Abramowicz, Aneta. "Reflections on Religious Freedom and Security in Europe – 2019 OSCE Guidelines." Teka Komisji Prawniczej PAN Oddział w Lublinie 15, no. 2 (December 31, 2022): 3–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.32084/tkp.4618.

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Freedom of thought, conscience and religion as one of the fundamental freedoms and human rights, the source of which is inherent, inalienable and inviolable human dignity, is guaranteed in addition to the provisions of international law also in documents issued by the Conference/Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE/OSCE). They emphasize a clear link between religious freedom and the need to ensure security. Of special importance to this issue are the political guidelines: Freedom of Religion or Belief and Security: Policy Guidance, which are entirely devoted to this subject in accordance with the concept of comprehensive security. The document formulates guiding principles, practical tips and recommendations on many important issues related to freedom of religion or belief and security in the OSCE region. In the study, the content of the indicated document was analyzed and an attempt was made to evaluate it. This allows for the conclusion that ensuring religious freedom is an important element in ensuring security.
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Kolodnyi, Anatolii M. "Civic and legal provision of freedom of missionary activity." Religious Freedom, no. 17-18 (December 24, 2013): 204–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.32420/rs.2013.17-18.1007.

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Ukraine is a country of freedom of beliefs and beliefs. The Constitution of the country (Article 35) provides its citizens with not only the right to profess any religion, but also the freedom of religious activity, prohibits the binding of any one of the religions by recognizing it as a state. In the civil society of Ukraine, each of its citizens is sovereign. In accordance with the Law on Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organizations (Article 3), he is free to accept or change his religion of his choice. Every citizen has the right to express and freely distribute his religious beliefs. "No one can set obligatory beliefs and outlooks. No coercion is allowed in determining a citizen's attitude to religion ..., to participation or non-participation in worship, religious rites and ceremonies, teaching religion. " Thus, by proclaiming the right to freedom of religion, freedom of religion, the Ukrainian state, if it considers itself to be democratic and claims to join such a united Europe, is obliged to create conditions for the functioning of different religions in its territory.
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Sauer, Christof. "Religious Freedom and Pluralistic Europe. Challenges for Christians." European Journal of Theology 29, no. 1 (December 1, 2020): 49–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.5117/ejt2020.1.006.saue.

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SUMMARY Christians in Europe face challenges regarding freedom of religion or belief which differ in magnitude or character from those facing Christians elsewhere. The 51 states associated with geographical Europe are predominantly Christian but denominationally diverse and in part highly secularised. Those which cause highest concern in global religious freedom surveys are on the fringe of Europe: populous Russia and Turkey and less populous Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan. Yet numerous western countries also give cause for concern. Problems identified are stereotyping, vilification and hate speech; violence against people and objects; state control of religious practices; excluding religion from public life; and suppressing conscience, traditional Christian ethics and truth claims. Christian responses to such challenges include descriptive, legal and spiritual approaches, such as litigation, political lobbying and campaigning, cooperative strategies, intellectual engagement and attempts at shaping culture. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Christen in Europa stehen vor Herausforderungen im Blick auf Religions- und Weltanschauungsfreiheit, die sich in Ausmaß und Charakter von denen unterscheiden, denen sich Christen anderswo gegenübersehen. Die 51 Staaten, die mit dem geographischen Europa assoziiert werden, sind überwiegend christlich, aber konfessionell vielfältig und zum Teil stark säkularisiert. Diejenigen, die in globalen Erhebungen zur Religionsfreiheit am meisten Anlass zur Sorge geben, liegen am Rande Europas: die bevölkerungsreichen Länder Russland und Türkei sowie die weniger bevölkerungsreichen Aserbaidschan und Kasachstan. Aber auch zahlreiche westliche Länder geben Anlass zur Sorge. Als Probleme werden Stereotypisierung, Verunglimpfung und Hassreden, Gewalt gegen Menschen und Objekte, staatliche Kontrolle religiöser Praktiken, Ausschluss der Religion aus dem öffentlichen Leben und die Unterdrückung des Gewissens, der traditionellen christlichen Ethik und der Wahrheitsansprüche genannt. Christliche Antworten auf solche Herausforderungen umfassen beschreibende, rechtliche und geistliche Ansätze, wie Prozessieren, politische Lobbyarbeit und Kampagnen, kooperative Strategien, intellektuelles Engagement und Versuche die Kultur zu gestalten. RÉSUMÉ En Europe, les chrétiens font face à des problèmes en matière de liberté religieuse et de liberté de conscience, dont la nature et l’ampleur diffèrent de ceux que rencontrent les chrétiens dans d’autres parties du monde. Les cinquante-et-un États constituant l’Europe géographique sont majoritairement chrétiens, mais en même temps très divers au plan confessionnel, et en partie très sécularisés. Ceux qui suscitent le plus de préoccupations selon les enquêtes mondiales sur la liberté religieuse se trouvent à la périphérie de l’Europe : la Russie et la Turquie, très peuplées, ainsi que l’Azerbaïdjan et le Kazakhstan, moins peuplés. Cependant, la situation dans de nombreux pays d’Europe de l’ouest est également préoccupante. Parmi les problèmes constatés figurent les stéréotypes, la diffamation, les discours haineux, les actes de violence contre les personnes et les biens, le contrôle exercé par l’État sur les pratiques religieuses, l’exclusion de la religion de la sphère publique, les atteintes à la liberté de conscience et la mise en cause de l’éthique chrétienne traditionnelle et de la revendication de vérité. Pour y faire face, les chrétiens peuvent avoir recours à des approches descriptives, juridiques et spirituelles, telles que les procès, le lobbying, les campagnes politiques, les stratégies de coopération, la présentation argumentée de leurs positions, et les tentatives de façonner la culture.
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Sauer, Christof. "Religious Freedom and Pluralistic Europe. Challenges for Christians." European Journal of Theology 29, no. 1 (December 1, 2020): 49–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.5117/ejt2020.1.006.saue.

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SUMMARYChristians in Europe face challenges regarding freedom of religion or belief which differ in magnitude or character from those facing Christians elsewhere. The 51 states associated with geographical Europe are predominantly Christian but denominationally diverse and in part highly secularised. Those which cause highest concern in global religious freedom surveys are on the fringe of Europe: populous Russia and Turkey and less populous Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan. Yet numerous western countries also give cause for concern. Problems identified are stereotyping, vilification and hate speech; violence against people and objects; state control of religious practices; excluding religion from public life; and suppressing conscience, traditional Christian ethics and truth claims. Christian responses to such challenges include descriptive, legal and spiritual approaches, such as litigation, political lobbying and campaigning, cooperative strategies, intellectual engagement and attempts at shaping culture.ZUSAMMENFASSUNGChristen in Europa stehen vor Herausforderungen im Blick auf Religions- und Weltanschauungsfreiheit, die sich in Ausmaß und Charakter von denen unterscheiden, denen sich Christen anderswo gegenübersehen. Die 51 Staaten, die mit dem geographischen Europa assoziiert werden, sind überwiegend christlich, aber konfessionell vielfältig und zum Teil stark säkularisiert. Diejenigen, die in globalen Erhebungen zur Religionsfreiheit am meisten Anlass zur Sorge geben, liegen am Rande Europas: die bevölkerungsreichen Länder Russland und Türkei sowie die weniger bevölkerungsreichen Aserbaidschan und Kasachstan. Aber auch zahlreiche westliche Länder geben Anlass zur Sorge. Als Probleme werden Stereotypisierung, Verunglimpfung und Hassreden, Gewalt gegen Menschen und Objekte, staatliche Kontrolle religiöser Praktiken, Ausschluss der Religion aus dem öffentlichen Leben und die Unterdrückung des Gewissens, der traditionellen christlichen Ethik und der Wahrheitsansprüche genannt. Christliche Antworten auf solche Herausforderungen umfassen beschreibende, rechtliche und geistliche Ansätze, wie Prozessieren, politische Lobbyarbeit und Kampagnen, kooperative Strategien, intellektuelles Engagement und Versuche die Kultur zu gestalten.RÉSUMÉEn Europe, les chrétiens font face à des problèmes en matière de liberté religieuse et de liberté de conscience, dont la nature et l’ampleur diffèrent de ceux que rencontrent les chrétiens dans d’autres parties du monde. Les cinquante-et-un États constituant l’Europe géographique sont majoritairement chrétiens, mais en même temps très divers au plan confessionnel, et en partie très sécularisés. Ceux qui suscitent le plus de préoccupations selon les enquêtes mondiales sur la liberté religieuse se trouvent à la périphérie de l’Europe : la Russie et la Turquie, très peuplées, ainsi que l’Azerbaïdjan et le Kazakhstan, moins peuplés. Cependant, la situation dans de nombreux pays d’Europe de l’ouest est également préoccupante. Parmi les problèmes constatés figurent les stéréotypes, la diffamation, les discours haineux, les actes de violence contre les personnes et les biens, le contrôle exercé par l’État sur les pratiques religieuses, l’exclusion de la religion de la sphère publique, les atteintes à la liberté de conscience et la mise en cause de l’éthique chrétienne traditionnelle et de la revendication de vérité. Pour y faire face, les chrétiens peuvent avoir recours à des approches descriptives, juridiques et spirituelles, telles que les procès, le lobbying, les campagnes politiques, les stratégies de coopération, la présentation argumentée de leurs positions, et les tentatives de façonner la culture.
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Kyrychenko, Yuriy, and Hanna Davlyetova. "Theoretical-legal aspects of constitutional regulation of the right to freedom of opinion and religion in Ukraine and the countries of continental Europe." Naukovyy Visnyk Dnipropetrovs'kogo Derzhavnogo Universytetu Vnutrishnikh Sprav 2, no. 2 (June 3, 2020): 15–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.31733/2078-3566-2020-2-15-20.

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The article explores the constitutional practice of normative regulation of the right to freedom of thought and religion, enshrined in Art. 35 of the Constitution of Ukraine and in similar norms of the constitutions of the states of continental Europe. The necessity to state the stated norm in the new version is substantiated. It is determined that the right to freedom of worldview and religion, which is enshrined in Art. 35 of the Constitution of Ukraine, relates to civil rights of man and citizen and consists of three basic elements: freedom of thought, freedom of conscience and freedom of religion. This right includes the freedom to profess any religion or not to practice any religion, to freely send religious cults and rituals, as well as to conduct religious activities. It is noted that in the states of continental Europe the constitutional and legal regulation of the right to freedom of opinion and religion is implemented differently. Thus, in the constitutions of Andorra, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Armenia, Georgia, Estonia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Romania, San Ma-rino, Serbia, Czech Republic and Montenegro, the analyzed law is enshrined along with other human rights. In other constitutions of European states, the law under study is formulated in a separate article. It is stated that the constitutions of European states use unequal verbal designations of this right. In particular, such terminological expressions as "freedom of conscience and religion", "freedom of cults", "freedom of conscience, religion and other beliefs", "freedom of conscience and religion", "freedom of conscience", "freedom of religion and worship", " freedom of religion ”,“ freedom of choice of religion ”,“ freedom of conscience, religion and worship ”,“ freedom of religion and conscience ”,“ freedom of religious beliefs ”, which differ but have much in common. The expediency of deleting the term “freedom of world outlook” from Part 1 of Art. 35 of the Constitution of Ukraine and the consolidation of the term "freedom of conscience", which in its content, first, covers a broad sphere of spiritual, world-view of human being, and second, acts as the freedom of choice and assertion of the individual in the system of religious coordinates. It is proposed taking into account the European experience of constitutional and legal regulation of the right to freedom of opinion and religion of the provision of Art. 35 of the Constitution of Ukraine shall be read as follows: “Everyone has the right to freedom of conscience and religion. This right includes the freedom to profess any religion or not to practice any religion, to freely send religious or ritual rites alone or collec-tively, to conduct religious activities. The exercise of this right may be restricted by law only in the interests of public order, the health and morals of the population, or the protection of the rights and freedoms of others. Churches and religious organizations in Ukraine are separated from the state and the state education system from the church. No religion can be recognized as binding by the state. Churches and religious organizations are equal before the law. It is forbidden to compel a person to choose and profess any religion or belief, to participate in re-ligious and ritual ceremonies or activities of a religious organization and to receive religious education.”
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Alidadi, Katayoun, and Marie-Claire Foblets. "Framing Multicultural Challenges in Freedom of Religion Terms." Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights 30, no. 4 (December 2012): 388–416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/016934411203000403.

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Multicultural challenges in Europe are being framed in human rights language, and in particular in terms of the freedom of thought, conscience and religion. The question is whether the practical case-by-case application of the fundamental right to freedom of religion in national and European case law facilitates a ‘deep (and normative) diversity’ in Europe or rather only allows space for a limiting or ‘conditioned diversity’ instead. While opening up possibilities for minorities to live out their lives in accordance to their deeply-held convictions, it seems to us that the human rights working frame in a predominantly ‘minimalist’ conception comes with its inherent limitations as to the management of Europe's religious diversity. While human rights purport to liberate and protect, they also impose conditions, criteria and standards that are grounded in a Western vision of law, society and religion. Religious minorities stand to gain from playing by the human rights rules as long as they accept to mould, shape and limit their claims to fit dominant conceptions, which perhaps diverge from their own understandings, needs and aspirations. Drawing on case law collected through the RELIGARE project network, this article aims to illustrate some of the limitations and confines that Europe's diverse communities face in the areas of the workplace, the public place, the family, and State support to religions.
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Berger, Maurits. "Legal Trends in Western Europe Related to Freedom of Religion." Religion & Human Rights 4, no. 1 (2009): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187103209x440173.

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AbstractFreedom of religion is not a static concept, especially not when religion becomes an increasingly dominant actor in the social and political field. This is particularly the case in Western Europe, where legal systems based on different forms of secularism are confronted with increasing religiosity among its indigenous people and large numbers of migrants. The author discerns four legal trends resulting from this confrontation, ranging from engaging religion to rebutting it: state involvement with religious authorities and activities; active state promotion of organization of religious communities (in particular Muslims); the protection of religion rather than its believers; and curbing religious behavior by law.
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Sobczak, Jacek. "Obraza uczuć religijnych a wolność sztuki i ekspresji artystycznej." Themis Polska Nova 8, no. 1 (2015): 87–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/tpn2015.1.05.

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The offense against religious feelings expressed in the text of Art. 196 of PC is strongly embedded in the constitutional liberties and freedoms and human rights of both the Council of Europe and the European Union. Freedom of conscience and religion, which originated in the wording of Art. 196 of PC remains in antinomy to other constitutional values protected by both international acts such as freedom of expression, freedom of artistic expression, the freedom to teach and freedom to enjoy cultural heritage. This requires balancing the content of these freedoms. At present stage there is yet no way to resolve the alleged doctrine of countertype of art.
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Modood, Tariq, and Thomas Sealy. "Freedom of Religion and the Accommodation of Religious Diversity: Multiculturalising Secularism." Religions 12, no. 10 (October 13, 2021): 868. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel12100868.

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The classical liberal concern for freedom of religion today intersects with concerns of equality and respect for minorities, of what might be loosely termed ‘multiculturalism’. When these minorities were primarily understood in terms of ethno-racial identities, multiculturalism and freedom of religion were seen at that time as quite separate policy and legal fields. As ethno-religious identities have become central to multiculturalism (and to rejections of multiculturalism), specifically in Western Europe in relation to its growing Muslim settlements, not only have the two fields intersected, new approaches to religion and equality have emerged. We consider the relationship between freedom of religion and ethno-religious equality, or alternatively, religion as faith or conscience and religion as group identity. We argue that the normative challenges raised by multicultural equality and integration cannot be met by individualist understandings of religion and freedom, by the idea of state neutrality, nor by laicist understandings of citizenship and equality. Hence, a re-thinking of the place of religion in public life and of religion as a public good and a re-configuring of political secularism in the context of religious diversity is necessary. We explore a number of pro-diversity approaches that suggest what a respectful and inclusive egalitarian governance of religious diversity might look like, and consider what might be usefully learnt from other countries, as Europe struggles with a deeper diversity than it has known for a long time. The moderate secularism that has historically evolved in Western Europe is potentially accommodative of religious diversity, just as it came to be of Christian churches, but it has to be ‘multiculturalised’.
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Scharffs, Brett G. "THE (NOT SO) EXCEPTIONAL ESTABLISHMENT CLAUSE OF THE UNITED STATES CONSTITUTION." Journal of Law and Religion 33, no. 2 (August 2018): 137–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jlr.2018.33.

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ABSTRACTSince the end of World War II and the beginning of the human rights era, a common narrative has dominated international discussions of law and religion, especially in Europe, that emphasizes the alleged idiosyncrasy and uniqueness of U.S. Constitutional law regarding freedom of religion. What I call the “standard story” notes that unlike human rights instruments, and the constitutions of most European States, the U.S. Constitution contains an “Establishment Clause” prohibiting an establishment of religion, while European countries do not have prohibitions on state establishments, and indeed the relationships between religion and the state fall along a continuum running from cooperation, favored religions, to actual state establishments of religion. According to the standard story, the Free Exercise Clause of the U.S. First Amendment is a precursor of and has analogues in the human rights instruments’ provisions protecting freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, but the Establishment Clause is characterized as being sui generis, a thing unto itself. The U.S. experience with the antiestablishment principle, symbolized by Jefferson's wall of separation, the standard story notes, is so unique and so different that the lessons gleaned there have very little to offer Europe, or indeed perhaps the rest of the world. In this article I argue, as my title suggests, that the American experience is not as unique as some (especially Europeans) sometimes think it is.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Freedom of religion – Europe"

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Kiviorg, Merilin. "Freedom of religion or belief : the quest for religious autonomy." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2011. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:6c5916d8-d69d-4f2d-91e5-a5586f8abd4b.

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In this thesis it is argued that while the concept of freedom of religion or belief itself is opaque and difficult to define, the right to religious freedom must contain certain basic factors – most importantly the right to individual (religious) autonomy. The individual autonomy approach is seen here as providing the necessary rationale for the protection of freedom of religion or belief. This rationale is not cemented in stone in the practice of the Convention and this has caused the Court to lose its focus on individual freedom. It is a dangerous tendency. It allows the focus to be placed on the role of the State and leaves freedom of religion or belief to be heavily affected by politics and fluctuating social attitudes. In this regard, this thesis looks for the meaning and scope of individual and collective religious autonomy and how it is and ought to be represented in the practice of the European Court of Human Rights. It is the aim of the author to contribute to a clearer and more principled understanding of Article 9 of the ECHR. The right to individual autonomy is thought to be able to provide the necessary focus for the European Court of Human Rights in creating a more robust framework for the protection of freedom of religion or belief different from current Court practice which shows inconsistency in its reasoning and theoretical chaos. This lack of clarity has also contributed to freedom of religion or belief being a relatively weak right. It is explored here as to how the principle of autonomy (as developed in this thesis) relates to other principles provided by the Court, namely the principle of State neutrality, pluralism and the effective protection of rights, but also the margin of appreciation and the autonomy of religious communities. The individual autonomy centred theoretical framework in the first part of the thesis will be engaged to analyse the conflict in the triangle of state-individual-community explored in the second part.
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Anagnostou, Emmanouil. "The Re-emergence of Religion in European Politics: The Greek Case of Church - State Relations and Religious Freedom in the Context of Education." Thesis, Malmö universitet, Fakulteten för kultur och samhälle (KS), 2019. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:mau:diva-21701.

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Conducting research on the influence of religion on politics is nowadays a growing tendency as various authors seek to explore why and how the spiritual element affects the natural world of politics. The purpose of this study is to discuss the influence of the Christian religion on education in Europe. The exact research case is the Orthodox sphere and in particular the Greek state. The selection is not random. It has been observed that in the Orthodox part of Europe, the church - state relations are quite close to an extent that, especially in Greece, it makes many authors wonder whether such a relationship may be against the model of the liberal, European state. As an example of the church - state relationship, the study also extends to the human rights field where cases of religious freedom competence in the Greek, public school are reviewed. By applying a mix of case study and content analysis under the prism of liberalism, the thesis argues for a potential transition to a post-secular epoch in Europe
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Taylor, Paul M. "Freedom of religion : a critique of universal and European standards." Thesis, University of Nottingham, 2002. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.421493.

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Berry, Stephanie Eleanor. "The added-value of minority rights protection for Muslims in Western Europe : multiculturalist approaches and international law." Thesis, Brunel University, 2014. http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/13871.

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Against the backdrop that multiculturalism has failed in Western Europe, this thesis argues that minority rights standards should be applied to Western European Muslims. Western European States have consistently excluded Muslims from minority rights protection under international law on the basis that they constitute 'new minorities'. However, this thesis asserts that the justifications given by States for the exclusion of Western European Muslims from minority rights protection no longer hold true and have the potential to undermine the object and purpose of the minority rights regime – security and justice. Furthermore, by considering the content of both generally applicable human rights standards and minority rights standards in the light of the situation and specific claims made by Muslim minorities in Western Europe, in relation to the preservation of their identity, this thesis proves that there is an added-value to minority rights protection for these communities. Minority rights standards and multiculturalist policies adopt a similar approach to the accommodation of societal diversity. Thus, given the exclusion of Western European Muslims from the additional protection offered by minority rights standards, this thesis submits that multiculturalist approaches to the accommodation of European Muslims have not failed; insufficient measures have been adopted to ensure their success. If a multiculturalist approach to the accommodation of diversity is to be pursued in Western Europe, States must allow Muslim minorities to benefit from the protection available under minority rights standards.
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Maher, Julie. "Manifesting religious belief : a matter of religious freedom, religious discrimination, or freedom of expression?" Thesis, University of Oxford, 2014. http://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:eaf72dbe-ca5e-4767-97a6-b28c928be742.

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This thesis asks how manifestation of religious belief by religious individuals can best be protected in English law. It is particularly concerned with the protection available to religious individuals in the public sphere. This thesis assesses the current state of protection under religious freedom and religious discrimination models, before considering the potential for increasing protection by reconceptualising the right to manifest religious belief as an aspect of freedom of expression. This thesis asks whether the practical and conceptual limitations of a religious freedom model, and Article 9 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) in particular, can be overcome by reliance on alternative modes of protection, namely religious discrimination protections in domestic, Convention, and EU law, or through litigating religious manifestation claims as freedom of expression cases under Article 10 of the ECHR. The difficulty of communicating the harm in being denied the ability to manifest religious beliefs publicly is a key limitation of both religious freedom and religious discrimination models. Similarly, this thesis highlights the difficulty in assessing what weight should be attributed to such religious harm within a proportionality exercise balancing the rights of religious individuals with the rights and interests of other parties. The analysis in this thesis draws primarily upon the sources of law which shape domestic English law in this area, namely the ECHR and European Union law. However, this thesis also considers foreign precedent and case law from the United States in particular. This thesis contends that no one model can address the range of cases where manifestation of religious beliefs arise, and that litigants should be able to draw from religious freedom, religious discrimination, and freedom of expression protections depending on the nature of their case.
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Evans, Carolyn. "Freedom of religion or belief under the European Convention of Human Rights." Thesis, University of Oxford, 1999. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.313453.

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Ghazi, Ghasem Z. "Critical analysis of the freedom to manifest religious belief under Article 9 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms." Thesis, University of Huddersfield, 2018. http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/id/eprint/34744/.

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One of the key causes of disharmony on a global scale, throughout human history, has been the disregard for the protection of religious expression. This goes some way to explaining why the international community in the post-war era, particularly after World War II, have enacted legal instruments and implemented policies aimed at promoting religious freedoms at global and regional levels. Regionally, the ECHR with implementation mechanisms has led the way in terms of upholding the protection of religious rights and freedoms. Having progressive and effective mechanisms to protect human rights does not mean that decisions of the ECtHR as a judicial body are free of criticism. For example, the ECtHR has ruled in the number of cases against the practice of religious expression, particularly in cases relating to the wearing of the headscarf. These decisions, the ECtHR argues, were taken on the grounds of secularism and prevention of fundamentalism and intolerance. This research, unlike others written on the subject, examines the concepts of fundamentalism and tolerance through a historical and philosophical approach, which will be used to argue that a restriction on the headscarf cannot legally or logically be justified as the bases used by the court to provide a rationale for the rulings are undefined, ambiguous and often in conflict with the principle of religious expression. The ECtHR often prioritises national policies and political considerations such as secularism over the personal right to freedom of religious expression. Notably, recent polices in Turkey which now allow and encourage the wearing of headscarf in public places call into question the validity of previous judgments of the ECtHR supporting the ban on wearing of the headscarf. As a part of the qualitative methodology the researcher has chosen three methods to conduct this research including black-letter, historical and comparative themes. This thesis is critically analysis ECtHR cases relating to freedom of religious expression in the context of the wearing of the headscarf. In doing this thesis further explores the relationship between Article 9 ECHR, the wearing of the headscarf, and the concepts of fundamentalism and intolerance. The researcher argues that the link between the wearing of the headscarf and intolerant or fundamentalist behaviour is a difficult one to prove, and that by supporting the ban on wearing of the headscarf on grounds including intolerance, the ECtHR’s decisions are in effect validating intolerance of religious expression.
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Markoviti, Margarita. "Education and the Europeanization of religious freedoms : France and Greece in comparative perspective." Thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science (University of London), 2013. http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/813/.

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A European consensus on the centrality of education for the guarantee and promotion of religious freedoms has emerged over the last two decades. Initially articulated in the human rights discourse of the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and subsequently elaborated through the Council of Europe’s Recommendations, Declarations, Research Projects and Reference Books, this frame of reference forms a normative and legislative basis for states in Europe. Long national traditions of particular approaches to the ‘protected spaces’ of religion and education, however, render the development of common policies and practices amongst states problematic. This thesis examines the impact of the European framework of freedoms of religion and education on states’ education systems. An important contribution to the scholarship of social constructivism and interpretivist studies, the thesis contextualizes the research question within the conceptual framework of Europeanization. The nature and extent of the Europeanization process are approached through the structured comparative study of two cases: France and Greece. The respective educational provisions towards religion classify these countries as two of the hardest critical cases in this area of Europeanization in seemingly opposing ways. The thesis utilizes discourse analysis of the key documents of national education, including an analysis of the crucial findings of field research that investigates the social reality of religious freedoms in the educational settings of the selected cases. The conclusions denote a discrepancy between a degree of ideational convergence in the national discourse and the discernible divergence that characterizes the practical approaches to religious freedoms in the education systems of France and Greece. The limited and differential impact of the European norms reveals the particular national factors that prove resilient to external forces of normative and policy change in the fields of religion and education. By challenging the views on the transformative impact of the European recommendations, the thesis critically raises the question on the reconsideration of the origins, the objectives and the limitations of the complex of religious rights norms in Europe.
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Harms, Lisa. "Fragmented universalism : the making of the right to freedom of religion at the European Court of Human Rights." Thesis, Paris, Institut d'études politiques, 2019. http://www.theses.fr/2019IEPP0038.

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La thèse analyse la négociation du droit à la liberté religieuse dans les litiges à la Cour Européenne de Droits de l’Homme (CEDH) des années 1990 jusqu’à aujourd’hui. Une double observation constitue le point de départ de cette recherche : le constat d’une judiciarisation croissante de la régulation politique du religieux d’un côté, et celui d’une mobilisation stratégique croissante d’acteurs religieux et séculiers dans les arènes judiciaires transnationales de l’autre. La thèse pose la question de comment les acteurs religieux et séculiers influent sur le processus de construction de la norme juridique. Elle analyse l’activisme juridique déployé par des acteurs religieux, y compris les témoins de Jéhovah, des acteurs musulmans, sikhs, et chrétiens, et des activistes séculiers, dans des litiges concernant la liberté religieuse. Partant d’une approche par les champs, la thèse postule que l’inégalité en ressources et en pouvoir entre les acteurs structurent leurs approches et leurs interprétations du droit à la liberté religieuse. La Cour ne constitue une structure d’opportunité également accessible pour tous les acteurs. Tandis que certains des acteurs impliqués dans les litiges ont tendance à adapter leurs revendications religieuses de manière à correspondre aux paradigmes juridiques dominants, d’autres contestent et négocient les interprétations des fondements mêmes du droit. L’asymétrie entre les acteurs du droit se conjugue à des oppositions et tensions idéologiques qui sont inscrites dans la construction de la norme juridique
The thesis examines the litigious negotiation and contestation of the right to freedom of religion at the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) from the early 1990s until today. A twofold observation constitutes the starting point for this investigation. First, the trend of the judicialization of politics increasingly extends to the domain of the politics of religious regulation. Second, an increasing number of strategic religious and secular litigators has intervened in transnational judicial struggles. Against this backdrop, the thesis asks how religious and secular actors influence the construction of the judicial norm. It analyzes the judicial activism of a variety of religious actors, including Jehovah’s Witnesses, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians and secular actors. The main argument is that the unequal distribution of power and resources among religious minorities and majorities translates into diverging strategies of religious freedom litigation, and, thereby, into the interpretation of the right to freedom of religion. The power asymmetry leads to inequality regarding the degree of openness of the legal opportunity structure of the ECtHR and hence the participation in the judicial norm building. In particular, it shows that while some actors tend to adapt their religious claims in order to fit dominant interpretations of the law, other actors contest the interpretation of the foundations of the law itself. Furthermore, different means of litigation fuel an intensified ideological opposition and tension within liberal religious freedom interpretations
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BERTINI, ILARIA MARIAROSA. "Freedom of religion and state neutrality in the educational environment: a path through the jurisprudence of the european court of human rights." Doctoral thesis, Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/10281/55002.

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The aim of this work is to evaluate the debate surrounding the neutrality of public spaces in relation to religious freedom in light of the new liberalism advocated by John Rawls and Ronald Dworkin and the objections raised byMichael Sandel and Charles Taylor. In particular, I intend to point out why and how this theoretical debate is reflected in current case law, and will address the most important judgments delivered in recent years by the European Court of Human Rights regarding the protection of freedom of religion in the school environment. My analysis focuses in particular on uniform policies, religious sexual and ethics education and related opt-out policies, and, finally, towards the issues that may arise when a teacher’s religious duties conflict with a school’s ethos. The findings of this study suggest the importance of the concept of neutrality in assessing the place of religion in the public sphere. In addition, analysis of case law reflects the urgent need to give a true meaning to that notion, both from a theoretical and legal point of view.
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Books on the topic "Freedom of religion – Europe"

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United States. Congress. Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe. The deterioration of religious liberty in Europe. Washington, DC (234 Ford House Office Bldg., Washington 20515-6460): The Commission, 1999.

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Evans, Malcolm D. Religious liberty and international law in Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

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1932-, Børresen Kari Elisabeth, and Cabibbo Sara, eds. Gender, religion, human rights in Europe. Roma: Herder, 2006.

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Groen, Lisanne. Entangled rights of freedom: Freedom of speech, freedom of religion and the non-discrimination principle in the Dutch Wilders case. The Hague, Netherlands: Eleven International Publishing, 2010.

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United States. Congress. Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe. The deterioration of religious liberty in Europe: July 22, 1998, July 30, 1998 : two briefings of the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe. Washington, DC (234 Ford House Office Bldg., Washington 20515-6460): The Commission, 1998.

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United States. Congress. Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe. Religious freedom in Russia: January 14, 1997 : briefing of the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe. Washington, DC (234 Ford House Office Building, Washington 20515-6460): The Commission, 1997.

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1949-, Davis Derek, ed. Religious liberty in northern Europe in the twenty-first century. Waco, Tex: J.M. Dawson Institute of Church-State Studies, Baylor University, 2000.

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Cumper, Peter, and Tom Lewis. Religion, rights and secular society: European perspectives. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2012.

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United States. Congress. Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe. The status of religious liberty for minority faiths in Europe and the OSCE: Hearing before the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, One Hundred Fifth Congress, first session, December 5, 1997. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1998.

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International Association for Religious Freedom. World Congress. Proceedings: Congress theme : "Religions cooperating for one world" : 27th IARF World Congress, Europe, 27 July-2 August, 1990. Frankfurt: IARF, 1991.

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Book chapters on the topic "Freedom of religion – Europe"

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Glenn, Charles L. "Educational Freedom and Protestant Schools in Europe." In International Handbooks of Religion and Education, 139–61. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2387-0_8.

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Ruggiero, Roberta. "Article 14: The Right to Freedom of Thought, Conscience, and Religion." In Monitoring State Compliance with the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, 75–84. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84647-3_9.

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Wiener, Michael. "Universal Freedom of Religion or Belief." In Religion and European Society, 171–82. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119162766.ch11.

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Howard, Erica. "Freedom of expression and freedom of religion under the European Convention on Human Rights." In Freedom of Expression and Religious Hate Speech in Europe, 8–35. New York : Routledge, 2017. | Series: Routledge research in human rights law: Routledge, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315277257-2.

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Foblets, Marie-Claire, and Hatem Elliesie. "Islam in Europe: Balancing Between Conflicting Values and Interests – The Case of Unanaesthetised Slaughter of Animals." In Boundaries of Religious Freedom: Regulating Religion in Diverse Societies, 239–52. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27188-5_12.

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Plessis, Georgia Alida Du. "Reconstructing a right to conscientious objection in Europe." In Religious Freedom and COVID-19, 92–112. London: Routledge, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003316237-7.

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Martínez-Torrón, Javier, and Rafael Navarro-Valls. "The Protection of Religious Freedom in the System of the Council of Europe." In Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Belief: A Deskbook, 209–38. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-5616-7_10.

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Martínez-Torrón, Javier. "Freedom of Expression, Offences to Religion and Public Morals in Strasbourg Case Law." In The Rule of Law in Europe, 171–98. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56001-0_11.

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Howard, Erica. "Bans on religious symbols as a breach of the human right to freedom of religion." In Law and the Wearing of Religious Symbols in Europe, 67–101. Second edition. | Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2020.: Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780367178918-4.

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Bucciantini, Massimo. "A Battle for Freedom." In Nationalism, Religious Violence, and Hate Speech in Nineteenth-Century Western Europe, 43–58. London: Routledge, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003371342-4.

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Conference papers on the topic "Freedom of religion – Europe"

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Đurđević, Nenad. "KOLEKTIVNI ASPEKT SLOBODE VEROISPOVESTI." In MEĐUNARODNI naučni skup Državno-crkveno pravo. University of Kragujevac, Faculty of law, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.46793/dcp23.005dj.

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By its importance to the greatest number of people, freedom of religion, both historically and in the modern world, has become their universal need and interest, with characteristics that enable and require a greater and more specific presence of law than in the case of the legal treatment of freedom of thought, conscience and religion, into which she herself enters. It is about the so-called absolute human right (the right of personality), for which a person cannot only be punished but also harassed, including forcing him to reveal his religion. Freedom of religion is, above all, man's spiritual sphere, which represents his forum internum. However, unlike freedom of thought and conscience, freedom of religion also has an external component (forum externum), i.e., a collective aspect, the essence of which is the possibility of professing faith in communication and community with other people, publicly and privately, through non-institutional and institutional forms. At the same time, for the vast majority of believers, the freedom to associate with others for the purpose of expressing their faith, that is, the possibility to freely form their own religious community in legally recognized forms, is of the same importance as the right to have a particular religion in general. Freedom of religion, as an individual right, can be annulled if it is not supplemented by the right of a religious group to build an infrastructure that enables individuals to fully enjoy that freedom and the right to autonomy in their internal affairs. The collective aspect of freedom of religion is often connected in practice with state intervention in favor of some, as a rule, majority religious community to the detriment of minority religious communities or with state interference in the internal organizational or personnel issues of a religious community. Many of these cases ended up before the European Court of Human Rights with a decision on the violation of freedom of religion, often with violations of the prohibition of discrimination or freedom of association. The European Court of Human Rights found in all those cases that such a position of the state is contrary to its obligation to act neutrally in relation to all churches and religious communities on its territory, from the point of view of realizing both individual and collective aspects of freedom of religion. The persecution of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate and its clergy by the Ukrainian state and the complete siding with the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Kyiv Patriarchate, which we have witnessed in recent years and especially in 2023, clearly show all the fragility and politicization of the guarantee of the collective aspect of freedom of religion when it conflicts with state and geostrategic interests and policies. We can also add the recent events regarding the adoption of the Law on Freedom of Religion in Montenegro and the conclusion of the Fundamental Agreement between the State of Montenegro and the Serbian Orthodox Church. It can be freely said that the realization of freedom of religion, and especially its collective aspect, for a certain religious community/group in practice most often essentially depends on its relationship with the state authority on whose territory it operates and the model of state-religious community relations applied in a particular state.
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Režek, Mateja. "Shifting paradigms: atheization of school education in socialist Slovenia." In International conference Religious Conversions and Atheization in 20th Century Central and Eastern Europe. Znanstveno-raziskovalno središče Koper, Annales ZRS, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.35469/978-961-7195-39-2_03.

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The paper delves into the instruments of the atheization of school education in Socialist Slovenia, drawing from an analysis of school curricula, textbooks, archival sources, and public debates on religious policy. The atheization of society in Slovenia was a gradual process that developed in the awareness that most of the population was religious and that prior to the Second World War, the Catholic Church had played a key role in Slovenian society. Similarly, yet in line with the specifics of the different regions of the Yugoslav state and the respective predominant religions, the process of atheization took place elsewhere in Yugoslavia as well. The Yugoslav constitution guaranteed freedom of religion and respect for religious rights, but defined religion as a private matter, thus rendering it irrelevant and invisible in the public sphere. At the same time, non-religiosity and atheism as the official stances of the ruling Communist Party were mediated through all areas of social life. The dialectical materialism developed into the only recognized “scientific” way of explaining the world and coping with the “ultimate questions”, while religion was considered a sign of ignorance, an illusion, and the alienation of people. The education system served as a pivotal conduit for disseminating the new ideology. On the one hand, religious education faced constraints and rigorous oversight in public schools until its removal in 1952. On the other hand, the introduction of the new school subject Moral Education emerged as the most obvious mechanism for promoting atheization within the school system.
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Ramšak, Jure. "Depoliticisation of religious interest? The league of communists of Slovenia and the ambiguities of its religious policy during the final decades of Yugoslavia." In International conference Religious Conversions and Atheization in 20th Century Central and Eastern Europe. Znanstveno-raziskovalno središče Koper, Annales ZRS, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.35469/978-961-7195-39-2_04.

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The fact that progressive theologians and Marxist-humanist sociologists of religion had publicly displayed a significant level of mutual understanding and reached notably similar conclusions regarding Church-state relations by the early 1990s cannot obfuscate the controversies within the sphere of societal life in Yugoslavia that remained least affected by the principles of socialist self-management democracy. On the surface, the relationship between the Catholic Church and the state authorities in Slovenia, the northernmost and predominantly Catholic republic of Yugoslavia, appeared fairly peaceful and cooperative throughout the late socialist period. Furthermore, as this paper illustrates, Slovenian religious policy was proposed as a sophisticated model for the inclusive life of believers in a modern socialist society and presented to Vatican diplomats, international experts, and foreign journalists. Nonetheless, during that period, the more independent intellectuals, Catholic and Marxist alike, who warned that the Slovenian Catholic Church was departing from the course of the Second Vatican Council and that the Communist Party should abandon its orthodox Marxist-Leninist understanding of religion to foster genuine dialogue, were marginalised. Instead, there were lengthy debates focusing on whether certain social activities of the Catholic Church encroached on the domain designated for initiatives of the League of Communists and the Socialist Alliance of Working People. With a mounting crisis and increasing public pressure, some public religious manifestations were allowed in the second half of the 1980s, but the fundamental problems remained unaddressed. Although the liberalization of public discourse in Yugoslavia’s final years brought to the fore issues such as freedom of religion and freedom from religion ‒ both of which were integral to the contested programme of the ruling Communist Party and the type of socialist secular society the Slovenian reformed Communists sought to establish ‒, there was not enough time to rework the entrenched religious policy that had alienated many religious citizens.
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Stanić, Miloš. "DOZVOLjENOST UNOŠENjA RELIGIJSKIH ELEMENATA U SEKULARNU ZAKLETVU ŠEFA DRŽAVE." In MEĐUNARODNI naučni skup Državno-crkveno pravo. University of Kragujevac, Faculty of law, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.46793/dcp23.231s.

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In the world, as well as in Europe, there are several models of relations between states and religious communities. Nevertheless, regardless of the applied model of relations, there is one thread, perhaps small and imperceptible, which from ancient to modern times unites individual states and religion. It is the institution of an oath with religious elements, the text of which is pronounced by the holders of the highest state positions, upon taking office. The laws have changed over the centuries, but despite all the changes, oath has survived, and it exists even in modern European countries, which in their constitutions provide for the separation of state and religion. The first question that arises is: Why has the oath been maintained throughout the centuries, and why it continues to exist in modern legal systems? The answer to this question prompts another question: What is its function in the modern legal systems of European countries? In the end, it should be examined in what way is the principle of the secularity of the state reconciled with this type of oath, that is, the way in which the existence of this oath is explained with the proclaimed freedom of religion? In the end, an answer should also be given to the question, is it allowed for the president himself to "insert" some kind of religious element during the swearing- in? In order to properly investigate this issue, which often escapes the attention of researchers, it is necessary to investigate a number of special and related questions. First, it is necessary to explore the concept and significance of the oath itself. Second, models of relations between states and religious communities. Third, the issue of national and constitutional identity. Fourth, it is necessary to provide the appropriate comparative law examples, and finally: to offer appropriate conclusions. It is to be concluded, bearing in mind, first of all, the function of the oath, that it is allowed to "add" certain elements, which only serve to further strengthen the function of the oath within the legal order and constitutional identity of the state.
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Bakota, Boris. "EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE EUROPEAN GREEN DEAL." In International Scientific Conference “Digitalization and Green Transformation of the EU“. Faculty of Law, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.25234/eclic/27448.

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The European Green Deal aims to make Europe the first climate-neutral continent by 2050 and maps a new and inclusive growth strategy to boost the economy, improve people’s health and quality of life, care for nature, etc. EU Farm to Fork Strategy for fair, healthy and environmentally- friendly food system, among others, asks for „moving to a more plant-based diet“. Plant-based diet is a diet consisting mostly or entirely of plant-based foods. Plant-based diet does not exclude meat or dietary products totally, but the emphasis should be on plants. Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the meat consumption. Vegetarians consume eggs dairy products and honey. Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal product in diet and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. Article 9 of European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and article 10 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union almost use the same text enshrining Freedom of thought, conscience and religion. To ensure the observance and engagements in the Convention and the Protocols, Council of Europe set up European Court of Human Rights. All European Union Member States are parties to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. European Court of Human Rights had many cases dealing with above-mentioned article 9. This paper will focus on Court’s cases dealing with veganism, vegetarianism and plant-based diet. It will investigate obligations, which arise from European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms to public administration institutions, namely hospitals, prisons, army, school and university canteens, etc. The paper will explore the practice of several European countries and Croatia. The results will show if veganism, vegetarianism and EU promoted plant-based diet are equally protected under European Convention or there are differences, and what differences if there are any.
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Dimovski, Darko, Nikola Obradović, and Dragana Milovanović. "MUSLIMS IN THE PRACTICE OF THE EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS THROUGH THE PRISM OF FREEDOM OF RELIGION IN EDUCATION." In "Social Changes in the Global World". Универзитет „Гоце Делчев“ - Штип, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.46763/scgw221095d.

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Santoro, Roberta. "NEW ROLE OF RELIGIONS IN THE PANDEMIC CONTEXT." In 6th International Scientific Conference ERAZ - Knowledge Based Sustainable Development. Association of Economists and Managers of the Balkans, Belgrade, Serbia, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.31410/eraz.2020.43.

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The global pandemic produces rules that impose suffering on religions, which must reconsider their social role now. This entails the need to examine the rules of coexistence within societies, where Coronavirus phenomenon raises existential and religious questions. We need to look at the condition of the state of religious freedom – in the European context – referring to globalization in a climate of restriction of personal, social, and religious freedom. Complexity has undermined the role of states, the delimitation of competences regarding relations with religions. For them, building community and associations relations where religious freedom is expressed is fundamental. Believers are therefore bearers of specific interests. This particular situation calls for a new function for religions, focused on the value of the person who can lead to the common identity and guarantee «those values of social and community integration that seem particularly discovered today».
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Dura, Nicolae V. "THE FREEDOM OF RELIGION AND THE RIGHT TO RELIGIOUS FREEDOM." In SGEM 2014 Scientific SubConference on POLITICAL SCIENCES, LAW, FINANCE, ECONOMICS AND TOURISM. Stef92 Technology, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.5593/sgemsocial2014/b21/s5.110.

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Hasan, Moh Abdul Kholiq. "FREEDOM OF RELIGION IN RASHID RIDA'S PERSPECTIVE." In International Conference on Qur'an and Hadith Studies (ICQHS 2017). Paris, France: Atlantis Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.2991/icqhs-17.2018.9.

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Mamchenkov, Dmitry. "Foundation of Human Freedom in Religion and Science." In 3rd International Conference on Contemporary Education, Social Sciences and Humanities (ICCESSH 2018). Paris, France: Atlantis Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.2991/iccessh-18.2018.319.

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Reports on the topic "Freedom of religion – Europe"

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Idris, Iffat. Promotion of Freedom of Religion or Belief. Institute of Development Studies (IDS), January 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.19088/k4d.2021.036.

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Freedom of religion or belief (FoRB) is a fundamental human right. However, the general global trend in recent years is towards increased FoRB violations by both government and non-government actors. Notable exceptions are Sudan and Uzbekistan, which have shown significant improvement in promoting FoRB, while smaller-scale positive developments have been seen in a number of other countries. The international community is increasingly focusing on FoRB. External actors can help promote FoRB through monitoring and reporting, applying external pressure on governments (and to a lesser extent non-government entities), and through constructive engagement with both government and non-government actors. The literature gives recommendations for how each of these approaches can be effectively applied. This review is largely based on grey (and some academic) literature as well as recent media reports. The evidence base was limited by the fact that so few countries have shown FoRB improvements, but there was wider literature on the role that external actors can play. The available literature was often gender blind (typically only referring to women and girls in relation to FoRB violations) and made negligible reference to persons with disabilities.
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Van Dyke, Melvin R. China: Freedom of Religion in a Most Favored Nation. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, April 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada343400.

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Combs, J. C. Freedom of Religion and Conscience in the Military: Clarifying Policy. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, April 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada592763.

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Blancarte, Roberto. Populism, Religion, and Secularity in Latin America and Europe. Leipzig: Leipzig University, August 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.36730/2020.1.msbwbm.27.

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Frejka, Tomas, and Charles F. Westoff. Religion, religiousness and fertility in the U.S. and in Europe. Rostock: Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, May 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.4054/mpidr-wp-2006-013.

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Gajić, Nikola. The Position of the Serbian Orthodox Church and the Serbian State Regarding the Montenegrin Law on Religious Freedom. Külügyi és Külgazdasági Intézet, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.47683/kkielemzesek.ke-2021.73.

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This study analyzes the role of religion in Orthodox countries, where religion plays an important role when it comes to national identity, focusing on Serbia and Montenegro. Apart from analyzing this specific connection, the paper addresses the politicization of religion by both the state and religious institutions during the turbulent events in Montenegro between 2019 and 2020. Critical discourse analysis and the Discourse-Historical Approach is used to analyze the potential but significant shift in the ethnoreligious and nationalist discourse of Serbian Orthodox Church officials. These methodological tools are used to observe the phenomenon of politicization of religion and frame the discourse of the two actors of this process, the Serbian state and the Serbian Orthodox Church. The paper concludes that the Serbian state has to “defend” the influential position of the Serbian Church due to their historical connection. By protecting the Church, the state is showing its dedication to the preservation of the Serbian national identity.
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Gedi,, Zeri Khairy. “Freedom Belongs to Everyone”: The Experiences of Yazidi Women in Bashiqa and Bahzani. Institute of Development Studies, December 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.19088/creid.2022.009.

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This CREID Policy Briefing provides recommendations to address the marginalisation, discrimination and exclusion faced by Yazidi women in Bashiqa and Bahzani. Yazidi women in Bashiqa and Bahzani today are still living through the trauma and consequences of the genocide committed by the Islamic State (ISIS). In addition, they face a range of further challenges as marginalised women from a minority religion. While more Yazidi girls and young women are progressing in education, harmful social norms, customs and practices – originating from both wider Iraqi society and the Yazidi community itself – create barriers for Yazidi women who want or need to work outside of the home, access healthcare or engage in public life. Widows and divorced women face specific challenges as they are seen as without male protection. Yazidi women also face the stigma that comes from being a former captive of ISIS, and the discrimination that comes from being judged an “infidel” due to their religion.
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Marshall, Katherine. Towards Enriching Understandings and Assessments of Freedom of Religion or Belief: Politics, Debates, Methodologies, and Practices. Institute of Development Studies, January 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.19088/creid.2021.001.

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Promoting the right to freedom of religion or belief (FoRB) is a foreign policy priority for several countries, their concerns accentuated by considerable evidence of rising levels of violations of this right worldwide. This puts a premium on solid evidence and on clear assessment criteria to serve as objective guides for policy. This paper reviews the complex landscape of approaches to assessing and measuring both the status of FoRB and the degree to which this human right is being violated or protected. It introduces and describes various transnational methodologies, both qualitative and quantitative, which focus, in differing ways, on violations. Several are widely cited and have express policy applications, while others have more indirect application to FoRB. The analysis highlights the diversity of approaches, which both reflect and contribute to a tendency to politicise FoRB issues. Challenges include differing understandings of the nature and relative significance of violations and their comparability. Country analysis is crucial because the specific context has vital importance for a granular appreciation for causes and impact of FoRB violations. This granularity, however, is poorly reflected in broader quantitative transnational and time series indices that highlight trends and comparative impact. The review highlights the limited degree to which FoRB issues, specifically violations and religiously related discrimination, are integrated in the policies and practice of development approaches (including social change and progress towards wellbeing) internationally and nationally. Effective approaches to addressing violations are few and far between, especially at the international level. The review notes strengths and weaknesses of specific approaches to assessment and reflects on possible improvements focused on development challenges and better integration among aspects of human rights.
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9

Thompson, Stephen, Brigitte Rohwerder, and Clement Arockiasamy. Freedom of Religious Belief and People with Disabilities: Evidence from India. Institute of Development Studies (IDS), June 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.19088/creid.2021.004.

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Around the world, people with disabilities can be the most marginalised in society. Having a disability and being a member of a religious minority or an excluded social group can compound the reasons why some people find themselves on the outskirts of social systems which normally provide financial and moral support and a sense of identity and belonging. A recent study from India found that identity markers such as religion, caste and gender can exacerbate the exclusion already experienced by people with disabilities. Taking deliberate steps to strengthen the social inclusion of people with disabilities who also come from minority religious groups and socioeconomically marginalised backgrounds can help them fulfil their potential to fully and effectively participle in society on an equal basis with others, and strengthen community ties, making the society in which they live more inclusive.
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10

Editors, Intersections. Bridging Voices to Deepen Religious Engagement. Intersections, Social Science Research Council, April 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.35650/int.4063.d.2024.

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This article describes the efforts of the British Council to build networks connecting scholars and policymakers from the US, UK, and Europe with a shared interest in religion and international affairs.
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