Academic literature on the topic 'France – Foreign relations – 1969-1981'

The paper is devoted to the analysis of the life and professional path of the outstanding French politician of the twentieth century, the creator of the Socialist Party F. Mitterrand. Special attention is paid to the study of France's domestic and foreign policy after his election as president in 1981. The specifics of his approach to international affairs were expressed in a combination of messianism and pragmatism. In relations with the United States, France adhered to the principle of “friend, ally, but not vassal”. In general, it is concluded that F. Mitterrand’s life and professional path reflects both the inner wealth and the complex and extremely contradictory nature of the French political tradition.

The first part of the article shows that in the mid-1960s some Soviet researchers of the European integration problems concluded that integration did not correspond to the Leninist-Stalinist theory of the general crisis of capitalism. On the contrary, it corresponded to some Western concepts of the custom union, the common market, and economic integration. A new approach to the European integration studies was offered by the Institute of World Economy and International Relation (IMEMO), established in 1956. For many decades IMEMO was serving as the focal point for the European integration studies, and was providing the Soviet leadership with analytical information. The number of inquiries from authorities increased significantly. Firstly, it can be explained by the achievements of integration. Secondly, it was due to the growth of economic cooperation between the USSR and the EEC. Thirdly, Moscow defined new foreign policy priorities towards Western countries including Europe. There were two turning-points of bilateral relations: with France – in 1966, and with Germany – in 1969. The Organization for security and cooperation in Europe (OSCE) was established during final session of the top-level Conference of European States in Helsinki in August 1975. Fourthly, experience of the EEC was relevant for the COMECON

The article reveals the international cooperation of Taras Shevchenko Kyiv State University with scientific and educational institutions of Western countries in 1944–1975. It was noted that at the end of the Second World War (1944–1945), Kyiv University couldn’t establish ties with educational and scientific institutions of Western countries due to the reconstruction of the city and the university itself. During the period of post-war reconstruction (1946–1950), the Soviet-Western confrontation was added to the mentioned problems, which then turned into the Cold War. However, the liberal social and political changes in the USSR associated with de-Stalinization (1953–1956) and the Khrushchev «Thaw» (1956–1964) had a positive impact on the international activities of the Soviet higher school and KSU named T. G. Shevchenko. It is indicated that since the mid-1950s, delegations and individual scientists from France, Austria, Belgium, and Sweden began to visit Kyiv University. Since the second half of the 1950s, teachers and scientists from Finland and Great Britain, as well as Communist Party leaders, and representatives of student and trade union organizations from Western countries visited Kyiv University to give lectures and deliver scientific reports. However, in 1959–1960, plans for the teaching work of Taras Shevchenko Kyiv State University ​in the Great Britain universities remained unrealized. Nevertheless, since then, teachers and scientists of Kyiv University have actively participated in international scientific events held in Western countries (Madrid, Paris, London, Vienna, and Stockholm). Some teachers completed internships at universities in Italy, France, and Great Britain. Students also did internships in these countries. Mostly, these were senior-year students of the Faculty of Philology who were studying foreign languages. It is noted that the scientific works and teachers of Taras Shevchenko Kyiv State University were published abroad. Among them were Professor Mytropolskyi Yu. (in Great Britain and Sweden), Professor Vsekhsvyatskyi S. (in Great Britain and Belgium), Professor Bileckyi A. (in Greece), Professor Marynych O. (in Great Britain and Sweden) works. Scientists of Kyiv University worked with colleagues from universities and scientific institutions of the West on common scientific themes. The international book exchange of Kyiv State University, as of July 1, 1965, was held with such universities as the Taylor Institute at the University of Oxford, the University of Oslo, the Mathematical Institute at the University of Bonn, Liège (Belgium), Besanson and Cannes (France) universities, and also by the academies of sciences of Denmark and Ireland. The emergence of an international détente in the relations between the West and the USSR at the end of the 1960s had a positive effect on the ties of Taras Shevchenko Kyiv State University with the countries of the West. The number of their youth at Kyiv University continued to grow. Thus, if in 1969 one representative of a Belgian and a Frenchman studied at the university, then as of January 1, 1975, 60 students from the «capitalist countries» studied at the university. In turn, the cooperation of Taras Shevchenko Kyiv State University with educational and scientific institutions of Western countries in 1975–1991 remains understudied. However, this is the subject of the next scientific research.

President Richard Nixon and his chief foreign policy adviser, Henry Kissinger, sought to build a close relationship with the new French President Georges Pompidou, who had replaced the testy Charles de Gaulle in mid-1969. Initially, Pompidou and his ministers warmly welcomed the new U.S. policy. But by the end of the Nixon-Pompidou period in 1974, U.S.-French relations were in a tailspin. This article explores what went wrong, showing that numerous issues helped to produce a rift in bilateral ties: the new international monetary framework after the demise of the Bretton Woods system, the U.S.-French nuclear weapons relationship in the early 1970s, the “Year of Europe” affair, and U.S.-European tensions after the outbreak of war in the Middle East in October 1973. This period may have been a lost opportunity for lasting improvements in Franco-American relations.

L’objectif du Groupe des Dix, créé en 1969, était d’intensifier les relations entre science et politique. Des chercheurs et des hommes politiques ont participé, entre 1969 et 1976, à des rencontres qui avaient pour but d’aider les politiques à prendre des décisions de façon plus rationnelle. L’influence du Groupe des Dix peut s’évaluer à travers l’impact des différents ouvrages rédigés par chacun de ses membres, mais aussi par la création du Centre d’études des systèmes et des technologies avancées (Cesta) sur proposition de Jacques Attali, conseiller du président de la République de 1981 à 1991. Le Cesta est à l’origine de la mise en place d’un projet de coopération technologique européenne. Il participa également, dans le cadre de la promotion des nouvelles technologies, au développement des sciences cognitives en France, en organisant, en 1985, le premier colloque rapprochant informatique, psychologie et neurobiologie.

The Soviet war in Afghanistan lasted for over nine years, from December 1979 to February 1989. The Afghan conflict became the largest military campaign of the Cold War. The continuing war in Afghanistan actually began to threaten peace and stability not only in Central Asia but in the whole world. It became a dead end for the occupiers, too. The international community perceived Soviet aggression as a significant threat to international peace and security. In the early 1980s the search for a diplomatic settlement to the situation around Afghanistan began. The purpose of the article is to investigate the ways of diplomatic settlement of the “Afghan issue” in 1980—1981 (before the Geneva Peace Talks) on the basis of official documents of the United Nations and the US National Security Archive. At the core of the research methodology there are typological, comparative аnd problem-chronological methods. In 1980–1981 a number of countries and international organizations initiated projects for a diplomatic settlement of the Afghan conflict. These countries were the following: the United States, Great Britain, France, Pakistan and others. The United Kingdom proposed a two-stage international conference to discuss the ending of foreign interference in Afghanistan and withdrawing foreign troops. According to the plan proposed by Pakistan, Soviet troops were to leave the DRA and be replaced by “international peacekeepers”. Valéry Giscard d’Estaing (the President of France) proposed to convene an international conference with the participation of countries suspected of interfering in the internal affairs of the DRA in order to develop commitments on non-interference and refusal to supply weapons to Afghanistan. These projects were rejected by the USSR and the DRA. They argued that the official government of Afghanistan had not been invited to the proposed international conferences. The world community did not recognize the official government of Afghanistan. The authority of the USSR in the international arena fell significantly. Thus, the main reason for the delay in the negotiation process was the Soviet leadership’s adherence to the force line of conduct in relation to Afghanistan and the transfer of all responsibility for the Afghan crisis to its ideological opponents in the Cold War.

e3890004This paper discusses the memory and forgetfulness temporal modulations in self-care and ethical parrhesia field, using Seneca's Moral Letters to Lucilius as a historical-philosophical contribution to provide a psychagogical ethic education. At first, philosophical and psychological theoretical bases on memory and forgetfulness are presented aiming to balance the axiological asymmetries between both occurring in society and at school institutions. The forgetfulness claiming as an educational strategy involves the overcoming of epistemological models centered on mnemonic processes for acquisition and accumulation of objective and impersonal knowledge with strictly performative purposes. Seneca, master of Lucilius, is considered one of the leading philosophers of ancient times linked to introspection as a philosophical exercise, fertile ground for the exploration of proficient relations between memory and forgetfulness. The Seneca's Letters, with profound reflections on time and its existential declinations, are filled with pedagogical desire, emotions and experiences appreciation, moral truth, and combined and unremitting pursuit of happiness that meets the moral goodness. Such elements emerge as qualities required by Education in a troubled world, which denies the loss of the present through the strenuous and unrestricted adhesion to the immediacy. A world devoid, moreover, of codified moral rigidity, in which educational individuals have to be built on relationships with themselves in the present time, using the sources of memory and forgetfulness in the spiritual experimentation of themselves through the care of others.ResumoO presente artigo discute as modulações temporais da memória e do esquecimento no âmbito do cuidado de si e da parrésia ética, utilizando as Cartas a Lucílio, de Sêneca, como contributo histórico-filosófico para prover a Educação de uma eticidade psicagógica. Em um primeiro momento, são apresentadas bases teóricas filosóficas e psicológicas sobre a memória e o esquecimento, a fim de equilibrar as assimetrias axiológicas entre ambos, ocorrentes na sociedade e nas instituições escolares. A reivindicação do esquecimento como estratégia educativa implica a superação de modelos epistemológicos centrados em processos mnemônicos para a aquisição e a acumulação de conhecimentos objetivos, impessoais e com finalidades estritamente performativas. Sêneca, educador de Lucílio, é considerado um dos principais filósofos da antiguidade ligados à introspecção como exercício filosófico, seara fértil para a exploração das profícuas relações entre memória e esquecimento. As epístolas senequianas, com profundas reflexões sobre o tempo e suas declinações existenciais, são repletas de volição pedagógica, de valorização das emoções e das experiências, de verdade moral e de busca conjunta e incessante da felicidade que coincide com o bem moral. Tais elementos despontam como qualidades requeridas pela Educação em um mundo problemático, que nega a perda do presente pela adesão sôfrega e irrestrita à imediatidade. Mundo desprovido, ademais, de uma rigidez moral codificada, no qual os sujeitos educativos têm de se construir nas relações consigo próprios, no tempo presente, servindo-se das fontes da memória e do esquecimento na experimentação espiritual de si pelo cuidado do outro.Palavras-chave: Filosofia da educação, Pedagogia e Educação, Função pedagógica, Relações pedagógicas.Keywords: Pedagogical function, Pedagogical relations, Pedagogy and Education, Philosophy of education.ReferencesANDRADE, Carlos Drummond de. Sentimento do mundo. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras. 2012, 88 p.BORGES, Jorge Luis. Ficções. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2007, 176 p.BRANDÃO, Junito de Souza. Dicionário mítico-etimológico da mitologia grega. Vol. II. J-Z. 2 ed. Petrópolis: Vozes, 1997, 419 p.CANDAU, Joël. La mémoire, la perte et le doute. In: FERREIRA, Maria Letícia Mazzucchi; MICHELON, Francisca Ferreira (orgs.). Memória e esquecimento. Pelotas: Ed. da Universidade Federal de Pelotas, 2012. p. 14-34. E-book. Disponível em: https://wp.ufpel.edu.br/ppgmp/publicacoes/. Acesso em: 16 dez. 2019.CANDIOTTO, César. Foucault: ética e governo. In: SGANZERLA, Anor; FALABRETTI, Ericson Sávio; BOCCA, Francisco Verardi (orgs.). Ética em movimento: contribuições dos grandes mestres da filosofia. São Paulo: Paulus, 2009. p. 219-230.EDWARDS, Catharine. Self-scrutiny and self-transformation in Seneca’s letters. Greece Rome, v. XLIV, n. 1, p. 23-38, abr. 1997. Acesso em: https://www.jstor.org/stable/643144?seq=1. Disponível em: 16 dez. 2019.EYSENCK, Michael W.; KEANE, Mark T. Manual de psicologia cognitiva. 7 ed. Porto Alegre: Artmed, 2017, 866 p.FABRE, Michel. Éduquer pour un monde problématique: la carte et la boussole. Paris: PUF, 2011, 224 p.FELDMAN, Robert S. Introdução à Psicologia. 10 ed. Porto Alegre: AMGH, 2015, 704 p.FOUCAULT, Michel. La parrêsia. Anabases. Traditions et réceptions de l’Antiquité, n. 16, p. 157-188, 2012. Disponível em: https://journals.openedition.org/anabases/3959. Acesso em: 16 dez. 2019.FOUCAULT, Michel. O governo de si e dos outros: curso no Collège de France (1982-1983). São Paulo: WMF Martins Fontes, 2010a, 384 p.FOUCAULT, Michel. A hermenêutica do sujeito: curso dado no Collège de France (1981-1982). 3 ed. São Paulo: WMF Martins Fontes, 2010b, 528 p.FOUCAULT, Michel. A ética do cuidado de si como prática da liberdade. In: FOUCAULT, Michel. Ética, sexualidade, política. 2 ed. Rio de Janeiro: Forense Universitária, 2006a. p. 264-287.FOUCAULT, Michel. A escrita de si. In: FOUCAULT, Michel. Ética, sexualidade, política. 2 ed. Rio de Janeiro: Forense Universitária, 2006b. p. 144-162.FREITAS, Alexandre Simão de. A parresía pedagógica de Foucault e o êthos da educação como psicagogia. Revista Brasileira de Educação, v. 18, n. 53, p. 325-338, abr.-jun. 2013. Disponível em: http://www.scielo.br/pdf/rbedu/v18n53/05.pdf. Acesso em: 16 dez. 2019.FUHRER, Therese. Sêneca. Sobre a discrepância entre ideal e realidade. In: ERLER, Michael; GRAESER, Andreas (orgs.). Filósofos da antiguidade II: do helenismo à antiguidade tardia. São Leopoldo: Editora Unisinos, 2005 p. 128-149.GRIMAL, Pierre. Diccionario de mitologia griega y romana. Barcelona: Ediciones Paidos, 1991. 339 p.GRIMAL, Pierre. Place et rôle du temps dans la philosophie de Sénèque. Revue des Études Anciennes, v. 70, nº 1-2, p. 92-109, 1968. Disponível em: https://www.persee.fr/doc/rea_0035-2004_1968_num_70_1_3810. Acesso em: 16 dez. 2019.GROS, Frédéric. Foucault. In: PRADEAU, J.F. (org.). História da filosofia. 2 ed. Petrópolis: Vozes; Rio de Janeiro: PUC-Rio, 2012, p. 490-497.JONES, Madeleine. Seneca’s Letters to Lucilius: hypocrisy as a way of life. In: WILDBERGER, Jula; COLISH, Marcia L. (eds.). Seneca Philosophus. Berlim/Boston: De Gruyter, 2014. p. 393-429. E-book.LONG, Anthony Arthur . From Epicurus to Epictetus: studies in hellenistic and roman philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. 439 p.MOREAU, Joseph. Sénèque et le prix du temps. Bulletin de l'Association Guillaume Budé, n° 1, p. 119-124, 1969. Disponível em: https://www.persee.fr/doc/bude_0004-5527_1969_num_1_1_3041. Acesso em: 16 dez. 2019.NIETZSCHE, Friedrich Wilhelm. Segunda consideração intempestiva: da utilidade e desvantagem da história para a vida. Rio de Janeiro: Relume Dumará, 2003. 74 p.NIETZSCHE, Friedrich Wilhelm. Genealogia da moral: uma polêmica. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1998. 179 p.NIETZSCHE, TOUTE ACTION EXIGE L’OUBLI. Patrick Wotling. Disponível em: https://www.franceculture.fr/emissions/les-chemins-de-la-philosophie/loubli-14-nietzsche-toute-action-exige-loubli. Acesso em: 06 nov. 2019.OLIVEIRA, Flávio Ribeiro de. Electra em Auschwitz: ensaio sobre a memória afetiva do herói trágico. Letras clássicas, n. 12, p. 223-236, 2008. Disponível em: http://www.revistas.usp.br/letrasclassicas/article/view/73909. Acesso em: 16 dez. 2019.PAGNI, Pedro Angelo. Filosofia como modo de vida e a face psicagógica da educação filosófica: alguns contrapontos à tradição filosófica na qual se tem fundado o ensino de Filosofia. In: MATOS, Junot Cornélio; COSTA, Marcos Roberto Nunes (orgs.). Filosofia: caminhos do ensinar e aprender. Recife: Editora Universitária UFPE, 2013, p. 69-87.PAGNI, Pedro Angelo. O cuidado de si em Foucault e as suas possibilidades na educação: algumas considerações. In: SOUZA, Luís Antônio Francisco de; SABATINE, Thiago Teixeira; MAGALHÃES, Bóris Ribeiro de (orgs.). Michel Foucault: sexualidade, corpo e direito. Marília: Oficina Universitária; São Paulo: Cultura Acadêmica, 2011. p. 19-45.PARDONNER, EST-CE OUBLIER? Olivier Abel. Disponível em: https://www.franceculture.fr/emissions/les-chemins-de-la-philosophie/loubli-34-pardonner-est-ce-oublier. Acesso em: 01 nov. 2019.PASQUET, Guy-Nöel. L’oubli en éducation. Une condition à l’assimilation. Paris: L’Harmattan, 2009. E-book.PERGHER, Giovanni Kuckartz; STEIN, Lilian Milnitsky. Compreendendo o esquecimento: teorias clássicas e seus fundamentos experimentais. Psicologia USP, v. 14, n. 1, p. 129-155, 2003. Disponível em: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttextpid=S0103-65642003000100008lng=ennrm=isotlng=pt. Acesso em: 16 dez. 2019.PORTOCARRERO, Vera. A questão da parrhesia no pensamento de Michel Foucault, Pierre Hadot e Martha Nussbaum. Rev. Filos., Aurora, v. 23, n. 32, p. 81-98, jan./jun. 2011. Disponível em: https://periodicos.pucpr.br/index.php/aurora/issue/view/97. Acesso em: 16 dez. 2019.PROMETEUS. FILOSOFIA EM REVISTA. 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Sobre a tranquilidade da alma. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2014, 304 p.SÊNECA, Lúcio Aneu. Cartas a Lucílio. 2 ed. Lisboa: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 2004, 713 p.SILVA, Sérgio Pereira da. Pedagogia do ressentimento: o otimismo nas concepções e nas práticas de ensino. Revista brasileira de estudos pedagógicos, v. 92, n. 230, p. 107-125, jan./ abr. 2011. Disponível em: http://rbep.inep.gov.br/ojs3/index.php/rbep/article/view/2923/2658. Acesso em: 16 dez. 2019.WEINRICH, Harald. Lete. Arte e crítica do esquecimento. Rio de janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2001.WEITEN, Wayne. Introdução à psicologia: temas e variações. 3 ed. São Paulo: Cengage Learning, 2016, 700 p.WILCOX, Amanda. The gift of correspondence in classical Rome: friendship in Cicero’s Ad Familiares and Seneca’s Moral Epistles. London: The University of Wisconsin Press, 2012. E-book.YERUSHALMI, Yosef Hayim. Réflexions sur l’oubli. In: YERUSHALMI et al (eds.). Usages de l’oubli. Paris: Le Seuil, 1988. p. 7-22. 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IntroductionThere are two types of Africa. The first is a place where people and cultures live. The second is the image of Africa that has been invented through colonial knowledge and power. The colonial image of Africa, as the Other of Europe, a land “enveloped in the dark mantle of night” was supported by western states as it justified their colonial practices (Hegel 91). Any evidence that challenged the myth of the Dark Continent was destroyed, removed or ignored. While the looting of African natural resources has been studied, the looting of African knowledges hasn’t received as much attention, partly based on the assumption that Africans did not produce knowledge that could be stolen. This article invalidates this myth by examining the legacy of Ethiopia’s indigenous Ge’ez literature, and its looting and abduction by powerful western agents. The article argues that this has resulted in epistemic violence, where students of the Ethiopian indigenous education system do not have access to their books, while European orientalists use them to interpret Ethiopian history and philosophy using a foreign lens. The analysis is based on interviews with teachers and students of ten Ge’ez schools in Ethiopia, and trips to the Ethiopian manuscript collections in The British Library, The Princeton Library, the Institute of Ethiopian Studies and The National Archives in Addis Ababa.The Context of Ethiopian Indigenous KnowledgesGe’ez is one of the ancient languages of Africa. According to Professor Ephraim Isaac, “about 10,000 years ago, one single nation or community of a single linguistic group existed in Ethiopia, Eritrea, and the Horn of Africa” (The Habesha). The language of this group is known as Proto-Afroasiatic or Afrasian languages. It is the ancestor of the Semitic, Cushitic, Nilotic, Omotic and other languages that are currently spoken in Ethiopia by its 80 ethnic groups, and the neighbouring countries (Diakonoff). Ethiopians developed the Ge’ez language as their lingua franca with its own writing system some 2000 years ago. Currently, Ge’ez is the language of academic scholarship, studied through the traditional education system (Isaac, The Ethiopian). Since the fourth century, an estimated 1 million Ge’ez manuscripts have been written, covering religious, historical, mathematical, medicinal, and philosophical texts.One of the most famous Ge’ez manuscripts is the Kebra Nagast, a foundational text that embodied the indigenous conception of nationhood in Ethiopia. The philosophical, political and religious themes in this book, which craft Ethiopia as God’s country and the home of the Ark of the Covenant, contributed to the country’s success in defending itself from European colonialism. The production of books like the Kebra Nagast went hand in hand with a robust indigenous education system that trained poets, scribes, judges, artists, administrators and priests. Achieving the highest stages of learning requires about 30 years after which the scholar would be given the rare title Arat-Ayina, which means “four eyed”, a person with the ability to see the past as well as the future. Today, there are around 50,000 Ge’ez schools across the country, most of which are in rural villages and churches.Ge’ez manuscripts are important textbooks and reference materials for students. They are carefully prepared from vellum “to make them last forever” (interview, 3 Oct. 2019). Some of the religious books are regarded as “holy persons who breathe wisdom that gives light and food to the human soul”. Other manuscripts, often prepared as scrolls are used for medicinal purposes. Each manuscript is uniquely prepared reflecting inherited wisdom on contemporary lives using the method called Tirguamme, the act of giving meaning to sacred texts. Preparation of books is costly. Smaller manuscript require the skins of 50-70 goats/sheep and large manuscript needed 100-120 goats/sheep (Tefera).The Loss of Ethiopian ManuscriptsSince the 18th century, a large quantity of these manuscripts have been stolen, looted, or smuggled out of the country by travellers who came to the country as explorers, diplomats and scientists. The total number of Ethiopian manuscripts taken is still unknown. Amsalu Tefera counted 6928 Ethiopian manuscripts currently held in foreign libraries and museums. This figure does not include privately held or unofficial collections (41).Looting and smuggling were sponsored by western governments, institutions, and notable individuals. For example, in 1868, The British Museum Acting Director Richard Holms joined the British army which was sent to ‘rescue’ British hostages at Maqdala, the capital of Emperor Tewodros. Holms’ mission was to bring treasures for the Museum. Before the battle, Tewodros had established the Medhanialem library with more than 1000 manuscripts as part of Ethiopia’s “industrial revolution”. When Tewodros lost the war and committed suicide, British soldiers looted the capital, including the treasury and the library. They needed 200 mules and 15 elephants to transport the loot and “set fire to all buildings so that no trace was left of the edifices which once housed the manuscripts” (Rita Pankhurst 224). Richard Holmes collected 356 manuscripts for the Museum. A wealthy British woman called Lady Meux acquired some of the most illuminated manuscripts. In her will, she bequeathed them to be returned to Ethiopia. However, her will was reversed by court due to a campaign from the British press (Richard Pankhurst). In 2018, the V&A Museum in London displayed some of the treasures by incorporating Maqdala into the imperial narrative of Britain (Woldeyes, Reflections).Britain is by no means the only country to seek Ethiopian manuscripts for their collections. Smuggling occurred in the name of science, an act of collecting manuscripts for study. Looting involved local collaborators and powerful foreign sponsors from places like France, Germany and the Vatican. Like Maqdala, this was often sponsored by governments or powerful financers. For example, the French government sponsored the Dakar-Djibouti Mission led by Marcel Griaule, which “brought back about 350 manuscripts and scrolls from Gondar” (Wion 2). It was often claimed that these manuscripts were purchased, rather than looted. Johannes Flemming of Germany was said to have purchased 70 manuscripts and ten scrolls for the Royal Library of Berlin in 1905. However, there was no local market for buying manuscripts. Ge’ez manuscripts were, and still are, written to serve spiritual and secular life in Ethiopia, not for buying and selling. There are countless other examples, but space limits how many can be provided in this article. What is important to note is that museums and libraries have accrued impressive collections without emphasising how those collections were first obtained. The loss of the intellectual heritage of Ethiopians to western collectors has had an enormous impact on the country.Knowledge Grabbing: The Denial of Access to KnowledgeWith so many manuscripts lost, European collectors became the narrators of Ethiopian knowledge and history. Edward Ullendorff, a known orientalist in Ethiopian studies, refers to James Bruce as “the explorer of Abyssinia” (114). Ullendorff commented on the significance of Bruce’s travel to Ethiopia asperhaps the most important aspect of Bruce’s travels was the collection of Ethiopic manuscripts… . They opened up entirely new vistas for the study of Ethiopian languages and placed this branch of Oriental scholarship on a much more secure basis. It is not known how many MSS. reached Europe through his endeavours, but the present writer is aware of at least twenty-seven, all of which are exquisite examples of Ethiopian manuscript art. (133)This quote encompasses three major ways in which epistemic violence occurs: denial of access to knowledge, Eurocentric interpretation of Ethiopian manuscripts, and the handling of Ge’ez manuscripts as artefacts from the past. These will be discussed below.Western ‘travellers’, such as Bruce, did not fully disclose how many manuscripts they took or how they acquired them. The abundance of Ethiopian manuscripts in western institutions can be compared to the scarcity of such materials among traditional schools in Ethiopia. In this research, I have visited ten indigenous schools in Wollo (Lalibela, Neakutoleab, Asheten, Wadla), in Gondar (Bahita, Kuskwam, Menbere Mengist), and Gojam (Bahirdar, Selam Argiew Maryam, Giorgis). In all of the schools, there is lack of Ge’ez manuscripts. Students often come from rural villages and do not receive any government support. The scarcity of Ge’ez manuscripts, and the lack of funding which might allow for the purchasing of books, means the students depend mainly on memorising Ge’ez texts told to them from the mouth of their teacher. Although this method of learning is not new, it currently is the only way for passing indigenous knowledges across generations.The absence of manuscripts is most strongly felt in the advanced schools. For instance, in the school of Qene, poetic literature is created through an in-depth study of the vocabulary and grammar of Ge’ez. A Qene student is required to develop a deep knowledge of Ge’ez in order to understand ancient and medieval Ge’ez texts which are used to produce poetry with multiple meanings. Without Ge’ez manuscripts, students cannot draw their creative works from the broad intellectual tradition of their ancestors. When asked how students gain access to textbooks, one student commented:we don’t have access to Birana books (Ge’ez manuscripts written on vellum). We cannot learn the ancient wisdom of painting, writing, and computing developed by our ancestors. We simply buy paper books such as Dawit (Psalms), Sewasew (grammar) or Degwa (book of songs with notations) and depend on our teachers to teach us the rest. We also lend these books to each other as many students cannot afford to buy them. Without textbooks, we expect to spend double the amount of time it would take if we had textbooks. (Interview, 3 Sep. 2019)Many students interrupt their studies and work as labourers to save up and buy paper textbooks, but they still don’t have access to the finest works taken to Europe. Most Ge’ez manuscripts remaining in Ethiopia are locked away in monasteries, church stores or other places to prevent further looting. The manuscripts in Addis Ababa University and the National Archives are available for researchers but not to the students of the indigenous system, creating a condition of internal knowledge grabbing.While the absence of Ge’ez manuscripts denied, and continues to deny, Ethiopians the chance to enrich their indigenous education, it benefited western orientalists to garner intellectual authority on the field of Ethiopian studies. In 1981, British Museum Director John Wilson said, “our Abyssinian holdings are more important than our Indian collection” (Bell 231). In reaction, Richard Pankhurst, the Director of Ethiopian Studies in Addis Ababa, responded that the collection was acquired through plunder. Defending the retaining of Maqdala manuscripts in Europe, Ullendorff wrote:neither Dr. Pankhurst nor the Ethiopian and western scholars who have worked on this collection (and indeed on others in Europe) could have contributed so significantly to the elucidation of Ethiopian history without the rich resources available in this country. Had they remained insitu, none of this would have been possible. (Qtd. in Bell 234)The manuscripts are therefore valued based on their contribution to western scholarship only. This is a continuation of epistemic violence whereby local knowledges are used as raw materials to produce Eurocentric knowledge, which in turn is used to teach Africans as though they had no prior knowledge. Scholars are defined as those western educated persons who can speak European languages and can travel to modern institutions to access the manuscripts. Knowledge grabbing regards previous owners as inexistent or irrelevant for the use of the grabbed knowledges.Knowledge grabbing also means indigenous scholars are deprived of critical resources to produce new knowledge based on their intellectual heritage. A Qene teacher commented: our students could not devote their time and energy to produce new knowledges in the same way our ancestors did. We have the tradition of Madeladel, Kimera, Kuteta, Mielad, Qene and tirguamme where students develop their own system of remembering, reinterpreting, practicing, and rewriting previous manuscripts and current ones. Without access to older manuscripts, we increasingly depend on preserving what is being taught orally by elders. (Interview, 4 Sep. 2019)This point is important as it relates to the common myth that indigenous knowledges are artefacts belonging to the past, not the present. There are millions of people who still use these knowledges, but the conditions necessary for their reproduction and improvement is denied through knowledge grabbing. The view of Ge’ez manuscripts as artefacts dismisses the Ethiopian view that Birana manuscripts are living persons. As a scholar told me in Gondar, “they are creations of Egziabher (God), like all of us. Keeping them in institutions is like keeping living bodies in graveyards” (interview, 5 Oct. 2019).Recently, the collection of Ethiopian manuscripts by western institutions has also been conducted digitally. Thousands of manuscripts have been microfilmed or digitised. For example, the EU funded Ethio-SPaRe project resulted in the digital collection of 2000 Ethiopian manuscripts (Nosnitsin). While digitisation promises better access for people who may not be able to visit institutions to see physical copies, online manuscripts are not accessible to indigenous school students in Ethiopia. They simply do not have computer or internet access and the manuscripts are catalogued in European languages. Both physical and digital knowledge grabbing results in the robbing of Ethiopian intellectual heritage, and denies the possibility of such manuscripts being used to inform local scholarship. Epistemic Violence: The European as ExpertWhen considered in relation to stolen or appropriated manuscripts, epistemic violence is the way in which local knowledge is interpreted using a foreign epistemology and gained dominance over indigenous worldviews. European scholars have monopolised the field of Ethiopian Studies by producing books, encyclopaedias and digital archives based on Ethiopian manuscripts, almost exclusively in European languages. The contributions of their work for western scholarship is undeniable. However, Kebede argues that one of the detrimental effects of this orientalist literature is the thesis of Semiticisation, the designation of the origin of Ethiopian civilisation to the arrival of Middle Eastern colonisers rather than indigenous sources.The thesis is invented to make the history of Ethiopia consistent with the Hegelian western view that Africa is a Dark Continent devoid of a civilisation of its own. “In light of the dominant belief that black peoples are incapable of great achievements, the existence of an early and highly advanced civilization constitutes a serious anomaly in the Eurocentric construction of the world” (Kebede 4). To address this anomaly, orientalists like Ludolph attributed the origin of Ethiopia’s writing system, agriculture, literature, and civilisation to the arrival of South Arabian settlers. For example, in his translation of the Kebra Nagast, Budge wrote: “the SEMITES found them [indigenous Ethiopians] negro savages, and taught them civilization and culture and the whole scriptures on which their whole literature is based” (x).In line with the above thesis, Dillman wrote that “the Abyssinians borrowed their Numerical Signs from the Greeks” (33). The views of these orientalist scholars have been challenged. For instance, leading scholar of Semitic languages Professor Ephraim Isaac considers the thesis of the Arabian origin of Ethiopian civilization “a Hegelian Eurocentric philosophical perspective of history” (2). Isaac shows that there is historical, archaeological, and linguistic evidence that suggest Ethiopia to be more advanced than South Arabia from pre-historic times. Various Ethiopian sources including the Kebra Nagast, the works of historian Asres Yenesew, and Ethiopian linguist Girma Demeke provide evidence for the indigenous origin of Ethiopian civilisation and languages.The epistemic violence of the Semeticisation thesis lies in how this Eurocentric ideological construction is the dominant narrative in the field of Ethiopian history and the education system. Unlike the indigenous view, the orientalist view is backed by strong institutional power both in Ethiopia and abroad. The orientalists control the field of Ethiopian studies and have access to Ge’ez manuscripts. Their publications are the only references for Ethiopian students. Due to Native Colonialism, a system of power run by native elites through the use of colonial ideas and practices (Woldeyes), the education system is the imitation of western curricula, including English as a medium of instruction from high school onwards. Students study the west more than Ethiopia. Indigenous sources are generally excluded as unscientific. Only the Eurocentric interpretation of Ethiopian manuscripts is regarded as scientific and objective.ConclusionEthiopia is the only African country never to be colonised. In its history it produced a large quantity of manuscripts in the Ge’ez language through an indigenous education system that involves the study of these manuscripts. Since the 19th century, there has been an ongoing loss of these manuscripts. European travellers who came to Ethiopia as discoverers, missionaries and scholars took a large number of manuscripts. The Battle of Maqdala involved the looting of the intellectual products of Ethiopia that were collected at the capital. With the introduction of western education and use of English as a medium of instruction, the state disregarded indigenous schools whose students have little access to the manuscripts. This article brings the issue of knowledge grapping, a situation whereby European institutions and scholars accumulate Ethiopia manuscripts without providing the students in Ethiopia to have access to those collections.Items such as manuscripts that are held in western institutions are not dead artefacts of the past to be preserved for prosperity. They are living sources of knowledge that should be put to use in their intended contexts. Local Ethiopian scholars cannot study ancient and medieval Ethiopia without travelling and gaining access to western institutions. This lack of access and resources has made European Ethiopianists almost the sole producers of knowledge about Ethiopian history and culture. For example, indigenous sources and critical research that challenge the Semeticisation thesis are rarely available to Ethiopian students. Here we see epistemic violence in action. Western control over knowledge production has the detrimental effect of inventing new identities, subjectivities and histories that translate into material effects in the lives of African people. In this way, Ethiopians and people all over Africa internalise western understandings of themselves and their history as primitive and in need of development or outside intervention. African’s intellectual and cultural heritage, these living bodies locked away in graveyards, must be put back into the hands of Africans.AcknowledgementThe author acknowledges the support of the Australian Academy of the Humanities' 2019 Humanities Travelling Fellowship Award in conducting this research.ReferencesBell, Stephen. “Cultural Treasures Looted from Maqdala: A Summary of Correspondence in British National Newspapers since 1981.” Kasa and Kasa. Eds. Tadesse Beyene, Richard Pankhurst, and Shifereraw Bekele. Addis Ababa: Ababa University Book Centre, 1990. 231-246.Budge, Wallis. A History of Ethiopia, Nubia and Abyssinia. London: Methuen and Co, 1982.Demeke, Girma Awgichew. The Origin of Amharic. Trenton: Red Sea Press, 2013.Diakonoff, Igor M. Afrasian Languages. Moscow: Nauka, 1988.Dillmann, August. Ethiopic Grammar. Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 2005.Hegel, Georg W.F. The Philosophy of History. New York: Dover, 1956.Isaac, Ephraim. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church. New Jersey: Red Sea Press, 2013.———. “An Open Letter to an Inquisitive Ethiopian Sister.” The Habesha, 2013. 1 Feb. 2020 <http://www.zehabesha.com/an-open-letter-to-an-inquisitive-young-ethiopian-sister-ethiopian-history-is-not-three-thousand-years/>.Kebra Nagast. "The Queen of Sheba and Her Only Son Menyelik I." Trans. Wallis Budge. London: Oxford UP, 1932.Pankhurst, Richard. "The Napier Expedition and the Loot Form Maqdala." Presence Africaine 133-4 (1985): 233-40.Pankhurst, Rita. "The Maqdala Library of Tewodros." Kasa and Kasa. Eds. Tadesse Beyene, Richard Pankhurst, and Shifereraw Bekele. Addis Ababa: Ababa University Book Centre, 1990. 223-230.Tefera, Amsalu. ነቅዐ መጻህፍት ከ መቶ በላይ በግዕዝ የተጻፉ የእኢትዮጵያ መጻህፍት ዝርዝር ከማብራሪያ ጋር።. Addis Ababa: Jajaw, 2019.Nosnitsin, Denis. "Ethio-Spare Cultural Heritage of Christian Ethiopia: Salvation, Preservation and Research." 2010. 5 Jan. 2019 <https://www.aai.uni-hamburg.de/en/ethiostudies/research/ethiospare/missions/pdf/report2010-1.pdf>. Ullendorff, Edward. "James Bruce of Kinnaird." The Scottish Historical Review 32.114, part 2 (1953): 128-43.Wion, Anaïs. "Collecting Manuscripts and Scrolls in Ethiopia: The Missions of Johannes Flemming (1905) and Enno Littmann (1906)." 2012. 5 Jan. 2019 <https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00524382/document>. Woldeyes, Yirga Gelaw. Native Colonialism: Education and the Economy of Violence against Traditions in Ethiopia. Trenton: Red Sea Press, 2017.———. “Reflections on Ethiopia’s Stolen Treasures on Display in a London Museum.” The Conversation. 2018. 5 June 2018 <https://theconversation.com/reflections-on-ethiopias-stolen-treasures-on-display-in-a-london-museum-97346>.Yenesew, Asres. ትቤ፡አክሱም፡መኑ፡ አንተ? Addis Ababa: Nigid Printing House, 1959 [1951 EC].

Après avoir été peint et décrit avec des traits plus pittoresques qu’objectifs par les premiers voyageurs et chercheurs qui traversaient les Alpes, mus tantôt par l’idée d’un primitivisme dont la difformité et la misère étaient l’expression la plus évidente, tantôt par la nostalgie du paradis perdu, le monde alpin a attiré le regard curieux des folkloristes à la recherche des survivances du passé, des anciennes coutumes, des proverbes et des objets disparus dans nombre de régions d’Europe. Au début du XXe siècle, Karl Felix Wolff (1913) s’inspire de la tradition des frères Grimm et collecte un nombre consistant de légendes ladines, avec l’objectif de redonner une nouvelle vie à un patrimoine voué à l’oubli. Tout comme les botanistes et les zoologues, les folkloristes voient le monde alpin comme un « merveilleux conservatoire » (Hertz 1913 : 177). Un des élèves les plus brillants de Durkheim, Robert Hertz, analyse finement ces « formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse » en étudiant le pèlerinage de Saint Besse, qui rassemble chaque année les populations de Cogne (Vallée d’Aoste) et du Val Soana (Piémont) dans un sanctuaire à la montagne situé à plus de 2000 mètres d’altitude. Après avoir observé et questionné la population locale s’adonnant à ce culte populaire, dont il complète l’analyse par des recherches bibliographiques, il rédige un article exemplaire (Hertz 1913) qui ouvre la voie à l’anthropologie alpine. Entre 1910 et 1920, Eugénie Goldstern mène ses enquêtes dans différentes régions de l’arc alpin à cheval entre la France, la Suisse et l’Italie : ses riches données de terrain lui permettent de réaliser le travail comparatif le plus complet qui ait été réalisé dans la région (Goldstern 2007). Une partie de sa recherche a été effectuée avec la supervision de l’un des fondateurs de l’anthropologie française et l’un des plus grands experts de folklore en Europe, Arnold Van Gennep. Pour ce dernier, le monde alpin constitue un espace de prédilection, mais aussi un terrain d’expérimentation et de validation de certaines hypothèses scientifiques. « Dans tous les pays de montagne, qui ont été bien étudiés du point de vue folklorique […] on constate que les hautes altitudes ne constituent pas un obstacle à la diffusion des coutumes. En Savoie, le report sur cartes des plus typiques d’entre elles montre une répartition nord-sud passant par-dessus les montagnes et les rivières et non pas conditionnée par elles » (Van Gennep 1990 : 30-31). L’objectif de Van Gennep est de comprendre de l’intérieur la « psychologie populaire », à savoir la complexité des faits sociaux et leur variation. Sa méthode consiste à « parler en égal avec un berger » (Van Gennep 1938 : 158), c’est-à-dire non pas tellement parler sa langue au sens propre, mais s’inscrire dans une logique d’échange actif pour accéder aux représentations de son interlocuteur. Quant aux nombreuses langues non officielles présentes sur le territoire, quand elles n’auraient pas une fonction de langue véhiculaire dans le cadre de l’enquête, elles ont été étudiées par les dialectologues, qui complétaient parfois leurs analyses des structures linguistiques avec des informations d’ordre ethnologique : les enseignements de Karl Jaberg et de Jakob Jud (1928) visaient à associer la langue à la civilisation (Wörter und Sachen). Dans le domaine des études sur les walsers, Paul Zinsli nous a légué une synthèse monumentale depuis la Suisse au Voralberg en passant par l’Italie du nord et le Liechtenstein (Zinsli 1976). Comme Van Gennep, Charles Joisten (1955, 1978, 1980) travaille sur les traditions populaires en réalisant la plus grande collecte de récits de croyance pour le monde alpin, entre les Hautes-Alpes et la Savoie. En 1973, il fonde la revue Le monde alpin et rhodanien (qui paraîtra de 1973 à 2006 en tant que revue, avant de devenir la collection thématique du Musée Dauphinois de Grenoble). Si dans l’après-guerre le monde alpin est encore toujours perçu d’une manière valorisante comme le reliquaire d’anciens us et coutumes, il est aussi soumis à la pensée évolutionniste qui le définit comme un monde arriéré parce que marginalisé. C’est dans cette contradiction que se situe l’intérêt que les anthropologues découvrent au sein du monde alpin : il est un observatoire privilégié à la fois du passé de l’humanité dont il ne reste aucune trace ailleurs en Europe et de la transition de la société traditionnelle à la société modernisée. En effet, au début des années 1960, pour de nombreux anthropologues britanniques partant à la découverte des vallées alpines le constat est flagrant : les mœurs ont changé rapidement, suite à la deuxième guerre mondiale. Cette mutation catalyse l’attention des chercheurs, notamment l’analyse des relations entre milieu physique et organisation sociale. Même les pionniers, s’ils s’intéressent aux survivances culturelles, ils se situent dans un axe dynamique : Honigmann (1964, 1970) entend démentir la théorie de la marginalité géographique et du conservatisme des populations alpines. Burns (1961, 1963) se propose d’illustrer la relation existant entre l’évolution socioculturelle d’une communauté et l’environnement. Le monde alpin est alors étudié à travers le prisme de l’écologie culturelle qui a pour but de déterminer dans quelle mesure les caractéristiques du milieu peuvent modeler les modes de subsistance et plus généralement les formes d’organisation sociale. Un changement important a lieu avec l’introduction du concept d’écosystème qui s’impose à partir des années 1960 auprès des anthropologues penchés sur les questions écologiques. C’est ainsi que le village alpin est analysé comme un écosystème, à savoir l’ensemble complexe et organisé, compréhensif d’une communauté biotique et du milieu dans lequel celle-ci évolue. Tel était l’objectif de départ de l’étude de John Friedl sur Kippel (1974), un village situé dans l’une des vallées des Alpes suisses que la communauté scientifique considérait parmi les plus traditionnelles. Mais à son arrivée, il découvre une réalité en pleine transformation qui l’oblige à recentrer son étude sur la mutation sociale et économique. Si le cas de Kippel est représentatif des changements des dernières décennies, les différences peuvent varier considérablement selon les régions ou selon les localités. Les recherches d’Arnold Niederer (1980) vont dans ce sens : il analyse les Alpes sous l’angle des mutations culturelles, par le biais d’une approche interculturelle et comparative de la Suisse à la France, à l’Italie, à l’Autriche et à la Slovénie. John Cole et Eric Wolf (1974) mettent l’accent sur la notion de communauté travaillée par des forces externes, en analysant, les deux communautés voisines de St. Felix et Tret, l’une de culture germanique, l’autre de culture romane, séparées par une frontière ethnique qui fait des deux villages deux modèles culturels distincts. Forts de leur bagage d’expériences accumulées dans les enquêtes de terrain auprès des sociétés primitives, les anthropologues de cette période savent analyser le fonctionnement social de ces petites communautés, mais leurs conclusions trop tributaires de leur terrain d’enquête exotique ne sont pas toujours à l’abri des généralisations. En outre, en abordant les communautés alpines, une réflexion sur l’anthropologie native ou de proximité se développe : le recours à la méthode ethnographique et au comparatisme permettent le rétablissement de la distance nécessaire entre l’observateur et l’observé, ainsi qu’une mise en perspective des phénomènes étudiés. Avec d’autres anthropologues comme Daniela Weinberg (1975) et Adriana Destro (1984), qui tout en étudiant des sociétés en pleine transformation en soulignent les éléments de continuité, nous nous dirigeons vers une remise en cause de la relation entre mutation démographique et mutation structurale de la communauté. Robert Netting (1976) crée le paradigme du village alpin, en menant une étude exemplaire sur le village de Törbel, qui correspondait à l’image canonique de la communauté de montagne qu’avait construite l’anthropologie alpine. Pier Paolo Viazzo (1989) critique ce modèle de la communauté alpine en insistant sur l’existence de cas emblématiques pouvant démontrer que d’autres villages étaient beaucoup moins isolés et marginaux que Törbel. Néanmoins, l’étude de Netting joue un rôle important dans le panorama de l’anthropologie alpine, car elle propose un nouvel éclairage sur les stratégies démographiques locales, considérées jusque-là primitives. En outre, sur le plan méthodologique, Netting désenclave l’anthropologie alpine en associant l’ethnographie aux recherches d’archives et à la démographie historique (Netting 1981) pour compléter les données de terrain. La description des interactions écologiques est devenue plus sophistiquée et la variable démographique devient cruciale, notamment la relation entre la capacité de réguler la consistance numérique d’une communauté et la stabilité des ressources locales. Berthoud (1967, 1972) identifie l’unité de l’aire alpine dans la spécificité du processus historique et des différentes trajectoires du développement culturel, tout en reconnaissant l’importance de l’environnement. C’est-à-dire qu’il démontre que le mode de production « traditionnel » observé dans les Alpes n’est pas déterminé par les contraintes du milieu, mais il dérive de la combinaison d’éléments institutionnels compatibles avec les conditions naturelles (1972 : 119-120). Berthoud et Kilani (1984) analysent l’équilibre entre tradition et modernité dans l’agriculture de montagne dans un contexte fortement influencé par le tourisme d’hiver. Dans une reconstruction et analyse des représentations de la montagne alpine depuis la moitié du XVIIIe siècle à nos jours, Kilani (1984) illustre comment la vision du monde alpin se dégrade entre 1850 et 1950, au fur et à mesure de son insertion dans la société globale dans la dégradation des conditions de vie : il explique ainsi la naissance dans l’imaginaire collectif d’une population primitive arriérée au cœur de l’Europe. Cependant, à une analyse comparative de l’habitat (Weiss 1959 : 274-296 ; Wolf 1962 ; Cole & Wolf 1974), de la dévolution patrimoniale (Bailey 1971 ; Lichtenberger 1975) ou de l’organisation des alpages (Arbos 1922 ; Parain 1969), le monde alpin se caractérise par une surprenante variation, difficilement modélisable. Les situations de contact sont multiples, ce qui est très évident sur le plan linguistique avec des frontières très fragmentées, mais de nombreuses autres frontières culturelles européennes traversent les Alpes, en faisant du monde alpin une entité plurielle, un réseau plus ou moins interconnecté de « upland communities » (Viazzo 1989), où les éléments culturels priment sur les contraintes liées à l’environnement. Aux alentours de 1990, la réflexion des anthropologues autour des traditions alpines, sous l’impulsion de la notion d’invention de la tradition, commence à s’orienter vers l’étude des phénomènes de revitalisation (Boissevain 1992), voire de relance de pratiques ayant subi une transformation ou une rupture dans la transmission. Cette thèse qui a alimenté un riche filon de recherches a pourtant été contestée par Jeremy MacClancy (1997) qui met en avant les éléments de continuité dans le culte de Saint Besse, presqu’un siècle après l’enquête de Robert Hertz. La question de la revitalisation et de la continuité reste donc ouverte et le débat se poursuit dans le cadre des discussions qui accompagnent l’inscription des traditions vivantes dans les listes du patrimoine culturel immatériel de l’humanité.

Principalement représentée par les partis communistes italien et français, quoiqu'à des degrés divers, la mouvance eurocommuniste entendait mettre en œuvre un socialisme compatible avec le système politique occidental. Cette volonté se traduisait par un engagement en faveur des libertés et du pluralisme politique, par une prise de distance avec le modèle soviétique et par la volonté de former des alliances. En 1972, en France, socialistes et communistes scellent l’Union de la gauche tandis qu’en Italie, en 1973, le PC appelle à un compromis historique avec la Démocratie chrétienne. Quoique différente à maints égards, la situation dans les deux pays fait renaître outre-Atlantique une crainte qu’on croyait écartée : l’arrivée au pouvoir de PC en Europe de l’Ouest. Cette étude s’attache à examiner l’attitude des États-Unis – notamment l’exécutif et son appareil diplomatique – face à cette menace. La période à l’étude (1974-81) couvre l’émergence, l’apogée et le déclin de l’eurocommunisme et correspond aux présidences Ford (1974-77) et Carter (1977-81). Cette thèse se fonde principalement sur l’examen des archives américaines (présidence, département d’État et CIA) ainsi que sur de nombreux entretiens. L’administration Ford, et Henry Kissinger en particulier, se montra plus inquiète que l’administration Carter. Par ailleurs, quels que furent les dirigeants au pouvoir, la situation italienne suscita plus de craintes que la situation française, à tel point que, sous Carter, le Parti socialiste jouit d’un capital de sympathie élevé au sein de l’administration. Cette étude souligne aussi des différences significatives d’appréciations entre l’exécutif, d’un côté, et les ambassades, les différents services d’analyse et de renseignement américains de l’autre. Pour ces derniers, la participation de ministres communistes dans des gouvernements d’Europe occidentale eût certes causé de réelles difficultés, mais des difficultés surmontables
Eurocommunism refers to a trend among West European communist parties that aimed at promoting a communism compatible with Western-style democracy. It entailed embracing democratic "bourgeois" values, criticizing the Soviet model and fostering political coalitions with long-despised parties. French communists and socialists thus formed the Union of the Left in 1972 while the Italian CP called for a "historic compromise" with the Christian Democrats one year later. The period under study (1974-81) spans the birth, climax and decline of that trend but also the presidencies of Gerald Ford (1974-77) and Jimmy Carter (1977-81).Though different in many respects, the political situation in both countries – however sincere, or not, those CPs were in Washington’s view – exacerbated one long-gone fear: the coming to power of communists in Western Europe. This dissertation examines how the US – mainly the White House and its diplomatic and intelligence bureaucracy – regarded that threat. It draws substantially from American archival material (White House, State Department and CIA) and from numerous interviews with former actors and witnesses of that period. This dissertation argues that the Ford administration, whose diplomacy was led by Henry Kissinger, was more concerned about Eurocommunism than the Carter administration. It also argues that the Italian situation caused more concern than the French situation, so much so that members of the Carter team had sympathies for the French socialists. Finally, this study reveals significant differences in judgment – between, on the one hand, the executive branch, and, on the other hand, the embassies and the analytical and intelligence services – as to how threatening Eurocommunism was to American and Western interests. Throughout the decade, overall, the latter proved more relaxed than American leaders about the possible consequences of the CPs’ coming to power

Les rapports entre les deux pays sont l’une des plus longues relations diplomatiques de l’histoire française. C’est avec René Massigli, un personnage diplomatique, que ces relations ont été réanimées. Son court séjour entre 1939-1940, juste avant la Deuxième Guerre mondiale, témoigne d’une période charnière. Il a été nommé ambassadeur à Ankara, la nouvelle capitale de la Turquie moderne tout juste fondée par Atatürk. La visite officielle de de Gaulle en 1968 représente également une date importante dans les relations des deux pays.Peut-on parler d’un rapprochement stratégique des deux pays pendant la période gaullienne ? Quels étaient les divers facteurs et limites de ce rapprochement ? Peut-on parler de la montée de l’anti-américanisme, à partir du milieu des années 1960, dans les deux pays comme un de ces facteurs de leur rapprochement ? Est-ce que les Etats-Unis avaient un rôle catalyseur dans les relations bilatérales franco-turques ? Que pensait de Gaulle de la Turquie d’Atatürk? Est-ce que les situations respectives de la France et de la Turquie leurs offraient les meilleurs raisons de rapprocher leurs politiques au cours de la période de 1958 à 1969 ? Comment de Gaulle, qui jugeait que le système des blocs hégémonies divisant l’Europe et s’étendant sur l’Orient devait faire place à la détente, l’entente et la coopération internationale, considérait-il la Turquie par rapport à l’Europe ? À travers ces questions, notre problématique se cristallise par : comment la vision gaullienne a-t-elle influencé les rapports franco-turcs ?Le prolongement de cette vision gaullienne jusqu’à nos jours est une des plus importantes conséquences de cette période. « La saison de la Turquie » de 2011 en France à l’initiative du président Chirac, qualifié de vrai gaullien, dont l’objectif était de permettre à la Turquie d’être mieux connue par les Français à travers des événements culturels, économiques et intellectuels sur l’ensemble du pays, témoigne d’un certain effet de cet héritage gaullien dont la vision vis-à-vis de la Turquie était de la rapprocher de l’Europe. Que signifient les autres conséquences de cette vision sur la politique extérieure française et plus spécifiquement sur les relations franco-turques ?
The relationship between France and Turkey are one of the longest diplomatic relations of French and Turkish history. By a diplomatic character, René Massigli, these relationships were revived. His short stay in Ankara between 1939-1940, during the first two years of Second World War, constitutes a transition period. He was appointed ambassador to Ankara, which is the capital of the newly created modern Turkey by Atatürk. Also, the official visit of De Gaulle to Turkey in 1968, is a milestone in the relations between two countries.Can we speak of a rapprochement between the two countries in the de Gaulle era? What is the opinion of De Gaulle on Atatürk's Turkey? Did their respective situations provide them an opportunity to converge their foreign policies in the 1940-1968 period? How did De Gaulle in whose opinion international blocks formed around hegemonies divided Europe and spanned towards the East should give way to détente, understanding and international cooperation see Turkey?The most important issue in this context is that the consequences of this Gaullist vision still survives today. The Season of Turkey in France in 2011, initiated by a decision of President Chirac who has regarded as a true Gaullist, is one of the most tangible results. What other consequences of this vision on the French foreign policy, and especially on the Franco-Turkish relations can be seen today?
Türkiye-Fransa diplomatik ilişkileri, Fransız tarihinin en uzun ilişkileridir. İki ülke arasındaki bu ilişkiler, Diplomatik bir karakter olan René Massigli sayesinde canlanmıştır. Hemen İkinci Dünya Savaşı öncesindeki kısa sureli kalışı bu önemli dönemin dönüm noktası olmuştur. Atatürk tarafından kurulan modern Türkiye’nin yeni başkenti Ankara’ya Büyükelçi olarak atanmıştır. Buna benzer şekilde, 1968 yılında General de Gaulle tarafından Türkiye’ye gerçekleştirilen resmi ziyaret de bu ilke ilişkileri açısından bir başka önemli donum noktasıdır.Charles de Gaulle döneminde iki ülkenin stratejik yakınlaşmasından bahsedebilir miyiz? Bu yakınlaşmanın çeşitleri faktörleri ve sınırları nelerdir? 1960li yılların ortasından itibaren her iki ülkede de yükselişe geçen Amerikan karşıtlığı bu stratejik yakınlaşmada bir faktör olabilir mi? Avrupa’yı ikiye bölen ve Doğu’ya da uzanan iki kutuplu dünyanın yerini yumuşama, anlaşma ve uluslararası işbirliğine bırakması gerektiğini düşünen General de Gaulle, Türkiye’nin Avrupalılığı hakkında ne düşünüyordu? Bu sorular ışığında sorunsalımız şu şekilde somutlaşıyor: General de Gaulle’ün dünya görüşü Türkiye-Fransa ilişkilerini nasıl etkiledi?Bu görüşün sonuçlarının günümüze kadar uzanması, General de Gaulle döneminin ve vizyonunun Türkiye Fransa ilişkileri açısından en önemli sonuçlarından birisidir. 2011 yılında, gerçek bir gaullist olarak nitelendirilen Fransa Cumhurbaşkanı Chirac öncülüğünde gerçekleştirilen, gerçek amacının Türkiye’nin Fransızlar tarafından kültürel ve ekonomik faaliyetler aracılığı ile daha iyi tanınması olan “Türkiye sezonu”, General de Gaulle’ün günümüze kadar uzanan mirasıdır. Bu vizyonun, Fransız dış politikası ve özellikle Fransa-Türkiye ilişkileri üzerindeki diğer sonuçları ne ifade etmektedir?

La présente étude est consacrée au développement spécifique du secteur ouest-allemand de la communication d'État à l'étranger, dans le contexte des initiatives menées en France entre 1958 et 1969. L'élaboration d'une doctrine de l'information conforme à la doxa démocratique de la République fédérale d'Allemagne constitue le point de référence d'une analyse où affleurent les analogies avec la République de Weimar et les continuités dans le domaine du personnel et de l'appareil institutionnel. L'accession de la communication politique à l'étranger, domaine distinct de la diplomatie culturelle, au rang d'instrument indispensable de la politique extérieure est préalablement examinée à l'aune des efforts accomplis par le chancelier Konrad Adenauer pour conquérir une marge de manoeuvre internationale dans les premières années d'existence de la République fédérale ; l'ultimatum soviétique sur Berlin, en novembre 1958, est mis en évidence comme l'élément déclencheur de l'assentiment donné par le Parlement fédéral à la mise en oeuvre de mesures renforcées dans le domaine de l'information politique à l'étranger. La concurrence avec la RDA et l'importance de la distanciation avec la notion de propagande s'établissent comme deux critères d'analyse de l'action menée en France par la diplomatie ouest-allemande en coordination avec l'Office de presse et d'information du gouvernement fédéral. À rebours de la thèse de la « retenue », souvent utilisée pour désigner l'attitude officielle ouest-allemande à l'étranger, les procédés révèlent plutôt une action tenace, le plus souvent attentive à rester discrète, et dont les présupposés contredisent les tentatives de faire table rase du passé
This dissertation explores the specific way in which West German governments have developed strategies in international public relations and it discusses more particularly their implementation in France between 1958 and 1969. A cornerstone of this study is the creation by the Federal Republic of Germany of an official information doctrine that was intended to reflect the democratic orthodoxy of the newly created state. Its analysis not only reveals the many continuities between the Weimar Republic and post-war West Germany, but it also points out the permanence of political staff and institutional structures. The rise of international public relations as an essential tool in the country’s foreign policy is first examined in the light of Chancellor Konrad Adenauer’s efforts to make the FRG regain international leeway in its early first few years. Secondly, this study demonstrates that the Soviets’ Berlin ultimatum in November 1958 led the West German Parliament to agree with the reinforcement of the country’s international public relations policy. Competition with the German Democratic Republic as well as the West German governments’ need to stay well away from propaganda are the two criteria which inform the analysis of the action carried out in France by West German diplomatic services in cooperation with the Federal Press and Information Office. Whereas West Germany’s official attitude overseas has frequently been described as “non-assertive”, this dissertation contends that it should more justly be reassessed as a form of relentless, albeit it carefully discreet, action. The way it operated went against the official claim that West Germany was doing away with its past

La France, durant la détente, mena une politique étrangère qui mit à profit les déviations internes de la Hongrie et internationales de la Roumanie par rapport à l'URSS. La politique française poursuivit des objectifs à la fois bilatéraux et multilatéraux : elle inscrivit son action dans un cadre hérité du passé, mais aussi dans un processus mouvant, celui d'Helsinki. Cette époque s'avéra une transition d'un point de vue aussi bien international que national : de la crise tchécoslovaque en 1968 au regain de tensions dans la seconde moitié des années 1970, les vecteurs d'influence de la France dans l'ancienne Europe centrale et oriental évoluèrent et s'enrichirent. Un partenariat difficile fut mis en place avec la Roumanie, qui avait entretenu de liens politiques étroits avec la France avant sa satellisation par l'URSS. Quant à la Hongrie, un dialogue naquit avec elle. Les limites des relations culturelles et militaires furent à l'inverse patentes. Ces deux démocraties populaires furent en effet perçues en France à travers tout un spectre de représentations, qui allait de l'adversaire militaire et idéologique au partenaire diplomatique pouvant converger avec l'Ouest. A contrario, les rapports économiques acquirent une signification croissante et furent encadrés par l'État. Ils répondirent à la volonté politique de développer les industries de haute-technologie en France, de s'opposer l'hégémonie des États-Unis en la matière, et de mettre à profit l'asymétrie de développement entre l'Est et l'Ouest pour saper la domination de l'URSS sur son glacis. En dépit de divergences au sein de l'État l'ouverture française fut ainsi menée de manière globalement cohérente
France, during the "détente", led a foreign policy which took advantage of Hungary's and Romania' peculiarities compared to the USSR, Bucharest as for the international and Budapest as for the domestic policies. The French aims were both bilateral and multilateral. The French policy was developed in framework inherited from the past, but in a more fast-changing framework too, the Helsinki process. The period appeared to be a transition from the international and national points of view: from the Czechoslovak crisis in 1968 to the new tensions du ring the second half of the 1970s, the French way to influence former Central European countries changed and was enhanced. A difficult partnership was set up with Romania which country France had politically influenced before 1945, and a dialog created with Hungary. However concerning cultural and military relations, limitations were obvious. Indeed, these two people's democracies were seen in France through a whole spectrum of representations, from a military and ideological adversary to a diplomatic partner which was maybe able to converge with the West. On the contrary, economic relation became more and more important and were strongly supported by the government. Those relations were linked to a political determination to develop high-technology industries in France, to resist the United State hegemony in those fields and to undermine the Soviet rule on its empire by taking advantage of the asymmetrical level of development between the East and the West. Therefore, in spite of differences am on the state's administrations, the way the French relations were opened up to the East proved to be mostly consistent

Defence date: 23 February 1989
Examining board: Prof. Dr. Alfred Grosser, Paris ; Prof. Dr. Peter Hertner, Florenz (supervisor) ; Prof. Henri Ménudier, Paris ; Prof. Dr. Roger Morgan, Florenz ; Prof. Dr. Eberhard Schulz, Bonn
PDF of thesis uploaded from the Library digitised archive of EUI PhD theses completed between 2013 and 2017

This chapter discusses relations between France and the United States under the Nixon administration. When Nixon took office as president in early 1969, he and his national security advisor Henry Kissinger wanted to put America's relationship with France on an entirely new footing. Relations between the two countries in the 1960s, and especially from early 1963 on, had been far from ideal. Nixon and Kissinger tried to develop a close relationship with the Pompidou government and in the early Nixon–Pompidou period the two governments were on very good terms. Both governments were also interested in developing a certain relationship in the nuclear area. However, by 1973 relations between the two countries took a sharp turn for the worse. The chapter considers what went wrong and why the attempt to develop a close relationship failed.