Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Fragmentation secondaire'

Les propriétés physiques, chimiques, mécaniques et rhéologiques des matériaux pulvérulents dépendent de manière notable de leur état granulaire. Ceci justifie la multiplicité des techniques granulométriques. Du fait de leur conception et de leur technologie, la plupart de ces techniques requièrent une préparation ou un prélèvement qui peuvent altérer l'état granulaire de l'échantillon. Une sonde granulométrique utilisable in situ présente donc un intérêt majeur, autant pour caractériser et contrôler en continu un procédé que pour obtenir des informations sur un mécanisme. C'est dans ce but que nous avons développé une sonde turbidimétrique spectrale. En effet, les mesures de turbidité sont réalisables par un capteur de petites dimensions utilisable in situ et relié à un ensemble spectrophotométrie. La distribution granulométrique d'une poudre en suspension est théoriquement accessible par le calcul à partir de son spectre de turbidité. Différents algorithmes et leurs logiciels correspondants ont été conçus ou mis au point Les possibilités et les limites de la turbidimétrie comme méthode granulométrique sont définies à partir de spectres mesurés ou simulés. Le domaine de sensibilité maximale ainsi déterminé est de [0.1-10 µm] pour les diamètres et inférieur à 10^-3pour la fraction volumique. Ces contraintes destinent la méthode aux applications en milieu peu chargé. La deuxième partie de ce travail est consacrée à l'étude particulière d'un phénomène de fragmentation de cristaux de suIfate de potassium dans un cristallisoir agité. L'objectif visé est double : prouver la faisabilité de la méthode pour suivre un processus réel dans un réacteur de type industriel et caractériser in situ un phénomène essentiel en cristallisation puisqu'il est responsable de la formation de la plupart des germes. Une telle étude en ligne n'a jamais été réalisée jusqu'à présent. Les paramètres du système sont la vitesse de rotation de l'agitateur, la nature du milieu liquide, le nombre et le diamètre des grains introduits initialement (grain "parents"). L'augmentation de la turbidité constatée expérimentalement est due à la production de petits fragments dont la taille est calculée grâce au logiciel évoqué plus haut. Dans l'éthanol, ces fragments microniques restent libres alors que dans une solution aqueuse saturée ils s'agglomèrent. Les influences de la plupart des paramètres sont expliquées. Le capteur turbidimétrique conçu et validé dans ce travail a été également appliqué avec succès à l'étude d'autres processus intervenant en cristallisation et en particulier la germination primaire, la germination secondaire et I'agglomération.

Block cave mining is a widely employed mining method around the world due to its low operating cost. One of the key factors that affects block caving mine’s productivity is fragmentation; accordingly, significant efforts have been made and are currently being made to study fragmentation processes, including the use of numerical modelling and remote sensing techniques. It is desirable to develop fragmentation models that could be used to provide reliable estimates of the range and distribution of the sizes of the rock blocks expected to be induced by caving. In the context of block and panel cave mining, fragmentation processes are characterised as: i) In-situ (natural) Fragmentation: in-situ blocks that are naturally present within the rock mass before any mining activity takes place. They are defined by the pre-existing discontinuities. ii) Primary Fragmentation: blocks that separates from the cave back as the undercut is mined and caving is initiated. iii) Secondary Fragmentation: fragmentation that occurs as the blocks move down through the ore column to the drawpoints. The main goal of this thesis is to attempt to establish a relationship between in-situ fragmentation and secondary fragmentation. This is achieved by: i) Measuring secondary fragmentation observed at the drawpoints. Digital image processing is employed in this process, using WipFrag (WipWare, 2014) and PortaMetrics (MotionMetrics, 2015). ii) Using Discrete Fracture Networks (DFN) to generate in-situ fragmentation curves based on data mapped from boreholes and drifts. The code FracMan (Golder, 2014) is used to generate the DFN model and the fragmentation curves. Additionally, the height of draw data from code PCBC (Systems, 2015) is used to establish a relationship between modelled in-situ fragmentation and measured secondary fragmentation. iii) This research is considered to benefit the assessment of block caving fragmentation specifically the estimate of oversizes (hang-ups) at draw columns. Also as a part of the on-going project Cave-to-Mill (Nadolski, et al., 2015) conducted at UBC Mining, this research will feed into the further analysis of Cave - to - Mill study.
Applied Science, Faculty of
Mining Engineering, Keevil Institute of
Graduate

L'explosion de vapeur est l'un des phénomènes les plus critiques et complexes qui peuvent se produire lors d'un accident grave dans une centrale nucléaire. Le code MC3D est reconnu comme une référence pour l'évaluation de ce phénomène. Ce phénomène explosif est analogue à une détonation. L'explosion est due à la fragmentation du combustible fondu, au passage de l'onde de choc et à la libération très rapide de l'énergie associée. Cependant, les mécanismes précis du processus de pressurisation sont très incertains et ont fait l'objet de travaux réalisés dans le cadre du programme RSNR-ICE (2014-2023), qui ont permis de mieux comprendre la phénoménologie générale et de valider le principe général de MC3D, basé sur un principe d'ébullition directe autour de la surface des fragments de corium via un mécanisme d'ébullition en film. Or, il apparaît que les processus de fragmentation semblent, dans certaines conditions, se réaliser sans une dispersion significative des fragments dans l'eau, ce qui est contraire à ce que présuppose le modèle MC3D actuel. L'objectif de la thèse est de proposer une modélisation améliorée de l'explosion pour MC3D, combinant le principe actuel d'ébullition directe et d'interaction combustible-refroidissement localisée dans un petit volume autour des gouttes de corium et des fragments. Après une bibliographie extensive du phénomène d'explosion de vapeur, une analyse détaillée du comportement du modèle MC3D actuel est effectuée, en utilisant un cas-test simple et idéal. Malgré la simplicité de l'ensemble de données, l'analyse peut être directement appliquée aux expériences à géométrie unidimensionnelle telles que KROTOS. Le rôle crucial du vide initial et du vide créé est mis en évidence ; il suggère également les premiers contours d'un nouveau modèle. Le logiciel Basilisk a ensuite été utilisé pour effectuer des simulations DNS afin d'obtenir des détails sur les transferts thermiques de fragmentation et d'association. Une analyse complète des régimes de fragmentation, des statistiques incluant le diamètre moyen de Sauter et la fonction de densité de probabilité de la masse et de la surface des fragments, du nombre de Nusselt transitoire et du coefficient de traînée a été menée. Dans le même temps, les résultats du même cas d'essai utilisant MC3D sont comparés à ceux de Basilisk, ce qui met en évidence la nécessité de modifier le modèle MC3D. Enfin, les grandes lignes d'un nouveau modèle proposé sont présentées et discutées. Celles qui ont pu être validées directement à partir des résultats du DNS ont été implémentées dans la version actuelle de MC3D. Il s'agit en particulier de l'introduction d'une Micro-Interaction de Non-Equilibre (NEMI), Les autres propositions concernant le comportement du vide pourront être implémentées dans la future version (V4) du code
The steam explosion is one of the most critical and complex phenomena that may occur during severe accident in a Nuclear Power Plant. The MC3D computer code is recognized as reference for the evaluation of this phenomenon. This explosive phenomenon is analogous to a detonation. The explosion is due to the fragmentation of the molten fuel, the passage of the shock wave and the very fast release of the associated energy. However, the precise mechanisms of the process of pressurization are very uncertain and have been the subject of works carried out under the program RSNR-ICE (2014-2023), which led to an increased understanding of general phenomenology and validated the general principle of MC3D, based on a principle of direct boiling around the surface of the corium fragments via a film boiling mechanism. However, it appears that the fragmentation processes seem, under certain conditions, to be achieved without a significant dispersion of the fragments in the water, which is contrary to what presupposes the current MC3D model. The aim of the thesis is to propose an improved modeling of the explosion for MC3D, combining the current principle of direct boiling and fuel-coolant interaction localized in a small volume around the corium drops and fragments. Following an extensive bibliography of the steam explosion phenomenon, a detailed analysis of the behavior of the current MC3D model is performed, using a simple and ideal test-case. Despite the simplicity of the data set, the analysis can be directly applied to experiments with one-dimensional geometry such as KROTOS. The crucial role of initial and created void is highlighted; It also suggests the first outlines of a new model. The Basilisk software was then used to perform DNS simulations to get details of fragmentation and association heat transfers. Comprehensive analysis about fragmentation regimes, statistics including Sauter Mean Diameter and Probability Density Function of fragment mass/area, the transient Nusselt number and drag coefficient were conducted. At the same time, results for the same test-case using MC3D are compared with that of Basilisk, highlighting the need of modification of MC3D model. Finally, the main lines of a proposed new model are presented and discussed. Those that could be directly validated from the DNS results were implemented in the current MC3D version. This concerns in particular the introduction of a Non-Equilibrium Micro-Interaction (NEMI), The other proposals concerning the behavior of the void may be implemented in the future version (V4) of the code

Magíster en Minería
En minería es cada vez más recurrente el desarrollo de operaciones a mayores profundidades. En particular, en la minería subterránea masiva explotada por el método de Block/Panel caving esto genera como consecuencia grandes alturas de columna de material quebrado, desarrollando altos esfuerzos producto de la sobrecarga. Es así que surge la presente investigación, con el propósito de estudiar el impacto de mayores esfuerzos en la extracción y fragmentación del mineral El estudio se centra en dos áreas de interés: la fragmentación secundaria y los eventos de colgadura. Estos tópicos son analizados a través del modelamiento físico, para el cual es utilizado un modelo de flujo confinado ubicado en el Laboratorio de Block Caving de la Universidad de Chile. Este modelo emula la extracción desde una batea a través de un sistema LHD. Los experimentos desarrollados consideran mineral el cual fue previamente preparado para representar dos curvas de fragmentación primaria. Dentro de las variables estudiadas se encuentran: el tamaño de los fragmentos, la carga vertical y la humedad; para las cuales se considera la extracción desde un punto de extracción y desde ambos puntos de la batea. Al evaluar los eventos de colgaduras, los resultados experimentales muestran que una mayor relación entre la abertura de extracción y el tamaño medio de partícula mejora la capacidad de flujo del material, así como la extracción desde ambos puntos de extracción también favorece la aparición de una menor cantidad de eventos, disminuyendo los eventos de colgadura en entre un 20 y 30 porciento al compararlos con la extracción desde un solo punto de la batea. Mientras que al aumentar la carga vertical y la humedad, incrementa el número de colgaduras generadas. También se observa que la altura de las colgaduras incrementa con la carga vertical en mineral seco. A través de los resultados obtenidos, fue posible desarrollar un gráfico para estimar la frecuencia de colgaduras el cual es validado con datos de terreno de diversas operaciones mineras. Por otra parte, es presentado un modelo de conminución con base experimental, el cual permite estimar la fragmentación secundaria a diferentes alturas de columna extraída. A diferencia de otros modelos de predicción de fragmentación secundaria, este modelo considera el esfuerzo vertical asociado a la sobrecarga de material quebrado. Finalmente, el modelo propuesto es comparado con la fragmentación generada en operaciones de block caving mostrando la capacidad del modelo planteado para modelar las curvas de fragmentación. Los resultados obtenidos en cuanto a colgaduras y predicción de la fragmentación secundaria, tienen aplicación en el diseño y planificación en minería de caving, a través del gráfico de estimación de colgaduras y el modelo de conminución presentados.

Ce travail est consacré à l'étude de faisabilité d'une imagerie par reconstruction de vertex (IRV) pour le contrôle qualité en temps réel de la thérapie par faisceau d'ions carbone. La détection de vertex d'interactions nucléaires repose sur la détection de particules secondaires : grâce à un dispositif de détection spatiale des fragments chargés (tracker), on peut reconstruire les trajectoires des particules émergeant du patient et les extrapoler jusqu'à leur point d'origine (le vertex)... Dans le cadre de notre étude, la position du vertex est déterminée de deux manières différentes : soit en calculant l'intersection de la trajectoire d'un fragment émergent avec celle de l'ion incident (connue grâce à l'utilisation d'un hodoscope de faisceau placé en amont du patient), soit grâce à l'intersection de la trajectoire de deux fragments émergents détectés en coïncidence. Notre étude de faisabilité de la technique repose sur l'outil de simulation GEANT4. La première partie de l'étude a consisté à valider cet outil grâce à plusieurs expériences réalisées au GANIL (Caen) et au GSI (Darmstadt) avec des ions carbone de différentes énergies dans des cibles d'eau ou de PMMA Par la suite, la comparaison des deux modes de détection des particules secondaires a montré que la technique utilisant l'hodoscope est la plus performante. Enfin, après l'optimisation des principaux paramètres de cette technique, une simulation réaliste montre qu'il est possible de mesurer le parcours des ions avec une précision millimétrique à l'échelle d'une tranche en énergie voire à l'échelle d'un voxel unique
This work is devoted to the feasibility study of interaction vertex imaging (IVI) for real-time quality assurance in hadrontherapy treatments with carbon ion beams. Nuclear interaction vertex detection is based on secondary particle detection: a device allows us to spatially detect charged particles (tracker), thus we can reconstruct the trajectories of particles emerging from the patient and then extrapolate their emission point (vertex). In our study, the vertex position is determined by two ways: either by calculating the intersection of the trajectory of an emerging fragment with the trajectory of the incident ion (measured by means of a beam hodoscope upstream of the patient), or with the intersection of two emerging particles trajectories detected in coincidence. Our feasibility study of this technique relies on the GEANT4 simulation tool. The first part of the study aimed to validate this tool with experiments performed at GANIL (Caen) and GSI (Darmstadt) using carbon ion beams at various energies and in various targets (water or PMMA). Secondly, the comparison of two different technics for secondary particles detection showed that the technique using the hodoscope is the most efficient. Finally, after the parameters optimization of this technique, a realistic simulation shows that it is possible to measure ion paths within millimeter precision during each energy slices. A control of each beam spot may also be possible

Block cave mining is experiencing a global growth in importance as new large, lower grade and deeper ore bodies favouring underground mass mining methods are developed. With block caving, the rock mass fragmentation process is decisive in the design and success of the operation. The last stage of this fragmentation process known as secondary fragmentation, plays a major role in the design and success of a caving operation. Despite this, it is the least understood fragmentation stage due in part to the complex mechanisms and the numerous variables involved in this phenomenon. The broken ore density (BOD) and the inter-block friction angle (ϕ') are comprehensively investigated here. A conceptual framework describing the BOD distribution and a procedure to evaluate this parameter under both an isolated movement zone and interactive flow are proposed, and an approach to evaluate ϕ' under different broken ore properties and draw column conditions is developed to be applied to early stage feasibility studies and design. A comprehensive laboratory testing program was carried out using concrete cuboids, controlling their size, shape and compressive strength. These are used as a proxy for broken ore fragments. These results were used to develop empirical design charts for assessing secondary fragmentation and hang-ups potential. Several factors influencing the secondary fragmentation for feasibility and advanced engineering assessments have been investigated including: air gap thickness, BOD, segregation of large blocks due to draw column surface topology, broken ore strength heterogeneity, block strength damage and crushing under high confining stresses, water within draw columns, and cushioning by fines. This new knowledge will contribute to more accurate secondary fragmentation predictions at the drawpoints. Finally, a new empirical approach to predict secondary fragmentation and drawpoint block size distribution (BSD) directed at early-stage conceptual and feasibility engineering design studies is developed. This methodology, built with relevant data from related fields and supplemented by generated data, was tested against field data from the El Teniente mine, Chile, confirming satisfactory predictions for stronger rocks and mixtures of strong and weak broken ore materials. The results were not as reliable for predicting drawpoint BSD for weak rocks.
Science, Faculty of
Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of
Graduate

Human activities that lead to fragmentation and habitat loss are big problems in the world. Due to global climate change the negative effects of fragmented habitats can be catastrophic for many organisms. In the Amazon rainforest, that is most sensitive to human impact, stands a big risk to lose its species diversity. Fragmentation and climate change together seems to escalate the death rate of rainforest plants and that will change the whole ecosystem. Birds and insects are depending on the trees and the trees faces big challenges now. Many of the rainforest organisms have been noticed to emigrate further up to northern altitudes due to the warmer climate and maybe also because of deforestation. Many of the lowland forest birds are predicted to distribute from their origin habitats. The national reserve Allpahuayo Mishana in the Peruvian Amazon is known for its diversity of birds. It is a big challenge for the reserve to maintain the origin forest composition from climate change, which will lead to losses of species. The reserve allows the local community to utilize the land for small-scale uses inside the protected zone. Many of the birds are sensitive for external disturbance. Most human activities are resulting in that the forest becomes less dense, which can lead to that the territory for the birds decreases. This makes it important for the reserve to improve the human land use not to restrict the birds' habitat inside the reserve. This project will investigate if the small-scale land uses affects the understory birds’ diversity and habitat negative. The purpose is to see if the fragmented forests in the reserve, closest to the utilized land, can functioning as a secondary forest for the understory birds, or are the understory birds limited by the small-scale land use, in the national reserve Allpahuayo Mishana? Four sites with various human activities were chosen to investigate if the sites contain any understory birds. The result showed that the most disturbed sites had poor bird diversity compare to the sites with no human disturbance.

O mercado de capitais, e especialmente o mercado secundário, está entre os setores da economia que reagem mais prontamente às inovações tecnológicas. Nos últimos anos, o desenvolvimento tecnológico e das telecomunicações alterou dramaticamente a configuração do mercado secundário: os pregões viva-voz desapareceram, dando lugar aos sistemas eletrônicos de negociação que executam negócios a velocidades imperceptíveis ao ser humano. Concomitantemente, alterações regulatórias visando ao aumento da concorrência nos mercados secundários proporcionaram a criação de ambientes de negociação com e sem transparência, gerando a fragmentação da liquidez. No Brasil, embora o mercado seja altamente eletronificado e o processo de alteração regulatória também tenha ocorrido, não se verificou o aumento da concorrência no mercado secundário de ações. A partir de uma análise comparativa com mercados fragmentados, este trabalho propõe algumas reformas na regulação brasileira com vistas a melhoraria da qualidade do mercado por meio da introdução de concorrência.
Capital markets, and especially the secondary market, are among the sectors that react more quickly to technological innovations. In recent years, technological and telecommunication developments dramatically changed the structure of the secondary market: the open outcry sessions disappeared, giving way to electronic trading systems with execution speeds imperceptible to humans. At the same time, regulatory changes aimed at increasing competition in the secondary markets led to the creation of lit and dark trading venues, generating the fragmentation of liquidity. In Brazil, although the market is highly electronic and the regulatory change process has also occurred, there was no increased competition in the secondary stock market. From a comparative analysis with fragmented markets, this paper proposes some reforms in the Brazilian regulation in order to improve the quality of the market through the introduction of competition.

Ce travail est consacré à l'étude de faisabilité d'une imagerie par reconstruction de vertex (IRV) pour le contrôle qualité en temps réel de la thérapie par faisceau d'ions carbone. La détection de vertex d'interactions nucléaires repose sur la détection de particules secondaires : grâce à un dispositif de détection spatiale des fragments chargés (tracker), on peut reconstruire les trajectoires des particules émergeant du patient et les extrapoler jusqu'à leur point d'origine (le vertex)... Dans le cadre de notre étude, la position du vertex est déterminée de deux manières différentes : soit en calculant l'intersection de la trajectoire d'un fragment émergent avec celle de l'ion incident (connue grâce à l'utilisation d'un hodoscope de faisceau placé en amont du patient), soit grâce à l'intersection de la trajectoire de deux fragments émergents détectés en coïncidence. Notre étude de faisabilité de la technique repose sur l'outil de simulation GEANT4. La première partie de l'étude a consisté à valider cet outil grâce à plusieurs expériences réalisées au GANIL (Caen) et au GSI (Darmstadt) avec des ions carbone de différentes énergies dans des cibles d'eau ou de PMMA Par la suite, la comparaison des deux modes de détection des particules secondaires a montré que la technique utilisant l'hodoscope est la plus performante. Enfin, après l'optimisation des principaux paramètres de cette technique, une simulation réaliste montre qu'il est possible de mesurer le parcours des ions avec une précision millimétrique à l'échelle d'une tranche en énergie voire à l'échelle d'un voxel unique.

Submitted by Fabio Sobreira Campos da Costa (fabio.sobreira@ufpe.br) on 2016-04-13T14:28:14Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Versão definitiva dissertação.pdf: 2215795 bytes, checksum: 6ae1c11599069fa2b9b187adf1935e10 (MD5)
Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-13T14:28:15Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Versão definitiva dissertação.pdf: 2215795 bytes, checksum: 6ae1c11599069fa2b9b187adf1935e10 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-08-27
CNPq
A maioria dos remanescentes de floresta Atlântica no Brasil são pequenas florestas secundárias em regeneração, muitas ocorrendo em áreas urbanas. Espécies arbóreas de remanescentes florestais indicam nível de perturbação, estágio sucessional e mudanças durante a regeneração. O objetivo dessa dissertação é conhecer a composição florística e fitossociológica arbórea de um fragmento urbano de floresta Atlântica em regeneração e verificar sua similaridade com remanescentes urbanos. Testou-se a hipótese de que remanescentes seriam menos similares quanto mais distantes fossem e que fragmentos de tamanhos semelhantes seriam mais similares que os de diferentes tamanhos. No remanescente em regeneração instalou-se 18 parcelas de 10 x 10m para a fitossociologia e realizaram-se expedições quinzenais de setembro de 2013 a dezembro de 2014 para coleta de espécies em estádio reprodutivo. Nos demais fragmentos, o levantamento florístico ocorreu mediante publicações florísticas e fitossociológicas. Médias de diâmetros e alturas das arbóreas do remanescente em regeneração foram de 15±14 cm e 9,54±3,5m, respectivamente e assemelham-se àquelas de florestas em estágio sucessional inicial. A maior similaridade foi encontrada entre a Mata da Guabiraba e o Parque Estadual de Dois Irmãos (0,43), que são fragmentos próximos e semelhantes em área. Na composição das comunidades desses remanescentes Tapirira guianensis Aubl e Eschweilera ovata Cambess. sobressaíram-se entre as espécies mais abundantes e frequentes, sendo que a primeira também se destacou com maior valor de importância e densidade. Outro objetivo dessa dissertação foi obter a diversidade funcional desses remanescentes, pois ela indica interações que os sustentam, a partir de atributos florais das arbóreas. Compararam-se atributos florais, síndromes de polinização e diversidade funcional desses remanescentes florestais urbanos. Testou-se a hipótese de que remanescentes diferem quanto a frequência dos atributos florais, síndromes de polinização e diversidade funcional. Nos demais fragmentos utilizaram-se publicações fitossociológicas e os dados de atributos florais obtidos em herbários e na literatura. Nos remanescentes predominaram flores generalistas, melitófilas (41% e 58%) e formaram-se grupos de fragmentos por atributos florais e síndromes de polinização, o que corrobora parcialmente a hipótese. Os remanescentes estudados não diferiram quanto à diversidade funcional de atributos florais (p = 0,99). Estudos como esse trazem contribuições para a compreensão sobre a diversidade e a estrutura das comunidades vegetais em remanescentes urbanos que devido às suas particularidades, sobretudo pela paisagem na qual se inserem podem apresentar uma dinâmica distinta do que ditam as teorias ecológicas.
The Atlantic forest remnants in Brazil mostly are small secondary forests in regeneration, many occurring in urban areas. Tree species of forest remnants indicate level of disturbance, successional stage and changes during regeneration. The goal of this dissertation is to know the floristic composition and phytosociology of tree of an urban fragment of Atlantic forest regeneration and verify its similarity to other urban forest remnants. The hypothesis tested was that remaining would present smaller the further away they were similarity and similar size fragments would be more similar than different sizes, they were installed 18 plots of 10 x 10m for the study phytosociological and held fortnightly expedition between September 2013 and December 2014 to collect of species in stage reproductive. In the remaining fragments, of the floristic survey occurred through floristic studies and published phytosociological. Average diameters and heights of the remaining tree regeneration were 15 ± 14 cm and 9,54 ± 3,5 m, respectively, and resemble those of forests in early successional stage. Similarity highest was found between the Forest Guabiraba and Parque Estaadual Dois Irmão (0,43), which are fragments near and similar in area. In community composition of these remaining Tapirira guianensis Aubl. and Eschweilera ovata Cambess. stood out among the most abundant and frequent species, with the first also excelled with highest importance value and density. Another aim of this thesis was to obtain the functional diversity of these remnants, as it indicates interactions that maintain them from floral traits of the tree. Compared to floral traits, pollination syndromes and functional diversity of these urban forest remnants. We tested the hypothesis that remaining differ in the frequency of floral attributes, pollination syndromes and functional diversity. In the remaining fragments were used in phytosociological publications and floral attributes of data from herbarium and literature. In general predominant remaining flowers, mellittophilous (41% and 58%) and were formed by groups of fragments and floral attributes pollination syndromes, which partially supports the hypothesis. The remaining studies did not differ in the functional diversity of floral traits (p = 0,99). Such studies bring contributions to the understanding of the diversity and structure of plant communities in urban remnants that because of their specific particularly the landscape in which they operate may have a different dynamic than dictate the ecological theories.

This thesis investigates patterns of evolution in a group of native Australo-Papuan rodents. Past climatic change and associated sea level fluctuations, and fragmentation of wet forests in eastern Australia has facilitated rapid radiation, diversification and speciation in this group. This study adds to our understanding of the evolution of Australia’s rainforest fauna and describes the evolutionary relationships of a new genus of Australian rodent.

A qualitative description of the personal armour design system is elicited by comparing armour throughout the ages. Inputs that 'shape' designs are the materials technology, threat, wearer, task and environment. The emergent properties of protection, ergonomic effectiveness and financial cost form the basis of trade-offs to select final solutions. Work on the protection subsystem refines the key positive emergent property of personal armour. Existing quantifications of protection effectiveness are rejected in favour of a novel measure named the Usefulness Factor, UF. This is the first measure that accounts for the real benefit of armour. A five-stage model is proposed for the assessment of protection. Two feedback loops - due to making tasks as safe as possible and the ergonomic penalty of armour are evident. These must be considered in order to assess protection correctly. Casualty reduction analysis software (CASPER) is used to produce 'approach plots' and 'zones of usefulness' in order to make tasks safer and map the benefit of armour. This approach is demonstrated with the UK's Lightweight Combat EOD Suit against L2A2 and No. 36 Mills grenades, an HB876 area denial mine, a BL 755 sub-munition and a 105mm artillery shell. Assessment of secondary fragmentation from antipersonnel (AP) blast mines defines a threat input that is specific to Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD). Trials are carried out with explosive charges of 50g to 500g, buried under 5 or 10cm of stones and sand at a range of 1m. The threat is defined in terms of the probabilities of (a) being hit, (b) a hit perforating armour and (c) a hit incapacitating an unarmoured person. The chances of being hit close to the ground decrease to approximately 15% of the value when directly above the mine. Secondary fragmentation is not likely to perforate armour that protects against primary fragments. However, it is likely to incapacitate an unarmoured person. Protection is traded-off against proxies for ergonomic and financial cost effectiveness by using quantitative optimisation of personal armour. This introduces the concept of a 'protection optimisation envelope', which defines the bounds of possibility rather than a single solution. CASPER is adapted to produce weight and cost as well as incapacitation parameters. This provides a model that generates both benefits and constraints of armour. Hence, the foundations are laid for the world's first fully integrated personal armour design tools. The ergonomic effectiveness subsystem is the primary constraint of personal armour. Visor demisting for the UK's Mk 5 EOD Suit provides a simple example. Existing methods of assessment of the ergonomic penalty of armour are considered. A novel development of biomechanics computational models is proposed to predict both the mechanical and thermal burdens of armour.

A qualitative description of the personal armour design system is elicited by comparing armour throughout the ages. Inputs that 'shape' designs are the materials technology, threat, wearer, task and environment. The emergent properties of protection, ergonomic effectiveness and financial cost form the basis of trade-offs to select final solutions. Work on the protection subsystem refines the key positive emergent property of personal armour. Existing quantifications of protection effectiveness are rejected in favour of a novel measure named the Usefulness Factor, UF. This is the first measure that accounts for the real benefit of armour. A five-stage model is proposed for the assessment of protection. Two feedback loops - due to making tasks as safe as possible and the ergonomic penalty of armour are evident. These must be considered in order to assess protection correctly. Casualty reduction analysis software (CASPER) is used to produce 'approach plots' and 'zones of usefulness' in order to make tasks safer and map the benefit of armour. This approach is demonstrated with the UK's Lightweight Combat EOD Suit against L2A2 and No. 36 Mills grenades, an HB876 area denial mine, a BL 755 sub-munition and a 105mm artillery shell. Assessment of secondary fragmentation from antipersonnel (AP) blast mines defines a threat input that is specific to Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD). Trials are carried out with explosive charges of 50g to 500g, buried under 5 or 10cm of stones and sand at a range of 1m. The threat is defined in terms of the probabilities of (a) being hit, (b) a hit perforating armour and (c) a hit incapacitating an unarmoured person. The chances of being hit close to the ground decrease to approximately 15% of the value when directly above the mine. Secondary fragmentation is not likely to perforate armour that protects against primary fragments. However, it is likely to incapacitate an unarmoured person. Protection is traded-off against proxies for ergonomic and financial cost effectiveness by using quantitative optimisation of personal armour. This introduces the concept of a 'protection optimisation envelope', which defines the bounds of possibility rather than a single solution. CASPER is adapted to produce weight and cost as well as incapacitation parameters. This provides a model that generates both benefits and constraints of armour. Hence, the foundations are laid for the world's first fully integrated personal armour design tools. The ergonomic effectiveness subsystem is the primary constraint of personal armour. Visor demisting for the UK's Mk 5 EOD Suit provides a simple example. Existing methods of assessment of the ergonomic penalty of armour are considered. A novel development of biomechanics computational models is proposed to predict both the mechanical and thermal burdens of armour.

Global environmental change fundamentally affects plants and their interactions with other species, and this has profound impacts on communities and ultimately ecosystems. In order to understand the mechanisms involved, we need to elaborate on the combined effects of different global change drivers on multiple levels of plant organization, including the biochemical level (production of defence compounds), the whole organism, the population, and the plant-herbivore interaction level. This thesis investigates (1) the combined effects of factors related to climate change and habitat fragmentation on Brassica nigra and (2) the effects of Zn soil pollution on the heavy metal hyperaccumulator Noccaea caerulescens at these different levels. Common garden and greenhouse experiments with B. nigra applied drought stress and elevated CO₂ to examine climate change impacts, while crossing treatments (inbreeding and between-population outbreeding) were used to investigate habitat fragmentation effects. Heterosis was lost under drought stress, and there were several interactive effects of the experimental treatments that varied within and among populations. In a greenhouse experiment with N. caerulescens, plants were grown on soil with different amounts of zinc. Plants had greater herbivore resistance when grown on Zn-amended soil, and invested more in herbivore tolerance when grown on soil without added Zn. In general, the results indicate that factors related to global environmental change have complex and interactive effects on different levels of plant organization. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for ecology, evolution and conservation.

Fragmentation refers to the difficulties that students face when attempting to utilise substantive knowledge to make a useable big picture of the past. What possibilities are there to prevent fragmentation, within the framework of regular history teaching in school? In this thesis I tackle this question with interest in teaching methods proposed by history teachers. The research project is designed with the intention to provide the participating teachers with “reasonably good conditions” to be able to form an opinion about the problem of fragmentation. In the research project the participating teachers take part of litterature from the research field of history teaching, and processing the problem of fragmentation through discussion in focus groups and through planning of a history course. In this study I investigate how eight history teachers, given “reasonably good conditions”, imagine feasible teaching in order to prevent fragmentation within the frames of a History 1a1 course. Three research objects are being investigated. What are the teachers´ views regarding: 1) efficient teaching to prevent fragmentation? 2) the framework of teaching? 3) a History course that is including an action plan in order to prevent fragmentation? The study shows that the teachers experience limited possibilities to conduct efficient teaching to prevent fragmentation within the frames of a History 1a1-course. The teachers still, regardless of these limitations, find it possible to conduct strategically focused teaching to prevent fragmentation. The teaching strategies presented by the teachers can be more or less significant and the teachers are not necessarily prepared to allot time and resources to these strategies. Feasible teaching in order to prevent fragmentation is not necessarily associated with strategically aimed teaching.
Elevers svar på vad som har hänt i det förflutna består många gånger av lösryckt historisk stoffkunskap i form av årtal, anekdoter, händelser och historiska personer. Få elever kan använda historiska kunskaper för att konstruera stora och användbara bilder av det förflutna. I denna explorativa designstudie undersöks historielärares föreställningar om hur fragmentering kan motverkas i historieundervisningen.   Studien baseras på empiriskt material från "workshops" med åtta historielärare på gymnasiet. Lärarnas huvuduppgift bestod i att planera och presentera en planering av en Historia 1a1-kurs som innefattar en handlingsplan för att motverka fragmentering. Analysen visar bland annat att de medverkande lärarna upplever möjlighetsrummet att bedriva effektiv undervisning mot fragmentering inom ramarna för Historia 1a1-kursen som begränsat, dock inte obefintligt. Inom detta begränsade möjlighetsrum ser lärarna bland annat vissa möjligheter att bedriva strategiskt inriktad undervisning mot fragmentering.

L'imagerie par spectrométrie de masse est d’un grand intérêt pour aborder les questions biologiques en fournissant simultanément des informations chimiques et spatiales. En particulier, la spectrométrie de masse baptisée TOF-SIMS est bien reconnue par sa haute résolution spatiale (< 1 μm), qui est essentielle pour révéler l'information chimique dans une zone submicronique. L'emploi croissant de cette technique dans la caractérisation des échantillons biologiques a bénéficié du développement de nouvelles sources d'ions d’agrégats. Cependant, les processus d'ionisation/désorption des analytes sous les impacts d’agrégats lourds sont encore mal compris. D'un autre côté, techniquement, les instruments TOF-SIMS commerciaux actuels ne peuvent pas fournir une résolution en masse suffisante ni une précision sur la détermination de la masse pour l'identification moléculaire, ce qui rend les analyses de systèmes biologiques complexes très difficiles, et nécessite le recours à la fragmentation MS/MS. Cette thèse vise à mieux comprendre la production d'ions sous l’impact d’agrégats lourds et à explorer la capacité MS/MS du spectromètre de masse par temps de vol combiné à l’imagerie ionique en utilisant le spectromètre de masse PHI nanoTOF II. Ce dernier point a été réalisé en cartographiant en haute résolution spatiale des métabolites importants de bois. Pour comprendre la production d'ions sous les impacts d’agrégats d'argon massifs, l'énergie interne des ions secondaires a été mesurée en utilisant la mesure du taux de survie d'une série d'ions benzylpyridinium. L'étude de diverses conditions d'impact (énergie, vitesse, taille des agrégats) a montré que la vitesse joue le rôle majeur dans la distribution d'énergie interne et la fragmentation moléculaire dans le régime à faible énergie par atome (E/n < 10 eV).Les capacités de la fragmentation MS/MS et d'imagerie en parallèle du spectromètre PHI nanoTOF II nouvellement conçu ont été évalués par cartographie MS/MS in situ des métabolites bioactifs rubrynolide et rubrenolide dans les espèces amazoniennes de bois Sextonia rubra, ainsi qu’une identification in situ des métabolites précurseurs. L'imagerie TOF-SIMS 2D et 3D a permis de localiser les cellules où cette biosynthèse s’effectue. Les résultats ont conduit à la proposition d'une voie possible de biosynthèse des deux métabolites. Pour étendre l'application de l'imagerie TOF-SIMS dans l'analyse chimique du bois, la distribution radiale des extraits de bois dans le duramen du bois du mélèze européen a également été étudiée
Mass spectrometry imaging has been shown of great interest in addressing biological questions by providing simultaneously chemical and spatial information. Particularly, TOF-SIMS is well recognized for its high spatial resolution (< 1 µm) which is essential in disclosing chemical information within a submicron area. The increasing use of TOF-SIMS in characterizing biological samples has greatly benefited from the introduction of new cluster ion sources. However, the ionization/desorption of the analytes under impacts of large clusters is still poorly understood. On the other hand, technically, current commercial TOF-SIMS instruments generally cannot provide sufficient mass resolution or mass accuracy for molecular identification, making analyses of complex biological systems especially challenging when no MS/MS fragmentation is available. Thus this thesis is aimed to get a better understanding of ion production under cluster impacts, to explore the MS/MS capability of the parallel imaging MS/MS Spectrometer (PHI nanoTOF II), as well as to apply TOF-SIMS to map important wood metabolites with high spatial resolution.In order to understand ion production under impacts of massive argon clusters, internal energy distributions of secondary ions were measured using survival yield method which involves the analyses of a series of benzylpyridinium ions. Investigation of various impacting conditions (energy, velocity, cluster size) suggested that velocity of the clusters play a major role in internal energy distribution and molecular fragmentation in the low energy per atom regime (E/n < 10 eV). The MS/MS fragmentation and parallel imaging capabilities of the newly designed PHI nanoTOF II spectrometer were evaluated by in situ MS/MS mapping of bioactive metabolites rubrynolide and rubrenolide in Amazonia wood species Sextonia rubra. Then this parallel imaging MS/MS technique was applied to perform in situ identification of related precursor metabolites in the same tree species. 2D and 3D TOF-SIMS imaging were carried out to target the plant cells that biosynthesize rubrynolide and rubrenolide. The results led to the proposal of a possible biosynthesis pathway of these two metabolites. In addition, to expand the application of TOF-SIMS imaging in wood chemistry analysis, radial distribution of wood extractives in the heartwood of European larch was also investigated

Land use change and habitat fragmentation are among the most severe threats to biodiversity, especially in the tropics. In the Amazon, the abandonment of formerly deforested areas allowed the expansion of secondary regrowth, a type of habitat where bats are known to provide important ecosystem services. Amongst them, aerial insectivorous bats have been neglected in most Neotropical studies and remain poorly studied. However, the current upsurge in acoustic technology makes them easy targets to be monitored using ultrasound detectors. The aim of this thesis was to reveal the diversity of aerial insectivorous bats and quantify the effects of forest fragmentation on this ensemble within the Biological Dynamics Forest Fragments Project, a whole ecosystem experiment in the Amazon, currently composed of a mosaic of unflooded rainforest with continuous forest, and forest fragments embedded in a matrix of secondary regrowth. As part of this thesis, the first “Field Guide to the Bats of the Amazon” was published. A custom-built classifier was developed which was able to identify a large proportion of files to sonotype level (with > 90% accuracy), leaving the rest (<25%) to be manually classified. I also tested 20 different recording schemes and provided guidelines to optimize protocols for acoustic studies. In forest fragments and their adjoining secondary forests, taxonomic, phylogenetic and functional α diversity became gradually poorer with decreasing fragment size. In terms of β diversity, bat assemblage composition in secondary forests after ~30 years of recovery was still significantly different from that in continuous forest. However, forest edges harboured highly diverse bat assemblages due to the opening of cluttered areas, and the increase of less-sensitive species. Responses towards fragmentation were species-specific and strongly related to their functional traits. The results of this thesis highlight the irreplaceable value of tropical primary forests due to the long time required to recover fragmented ecosystems.
Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Amazonas [FAPEAM 062.01173 / 2015] (Paulo ED Bobrowiec)
Bolsa de estudos do CNPq [160049 / 2013-0] (Paulo ED Bobrowiec)

Summary (English) I. Human induced global change threatens biodiversity and trophic interactions. Fragmentation is considered as one of the major threats to biodiversity and can cause reduced species richness, population declines, loss of genetic diversity and disruption of trophic interactions such as predation and parasitism. However forest fragmentation effects can be eclectic due to species specific traits. Specialist species with narrower niches or at higher trophic levels may be in danger of extinction whereas generalist species with less specific habitat requirements may even profit from fragmentation. In the tropics, known as “the” terrestrial biodiversity hotspots, even biodiversity inventories are often lacking, especially in forest canopies. Ongoing deforestation and resulting fragmentation in tropical regions are expected to heavily affect ecosystem functions by changes in biodiversity, community compositions and disruption of trophic interactions. It is even less unknown in what extent different global change drivers for example climate change and fragmentation interact. It is unlikely that deforestation will end, so that small secondary forest fragments will be important habitat elements that must be investigated to optimize their potential contribution to biodiversity conservation. This dissertation aimed to disentangle the effects of forest fragmentation on trap-nesting bee and wasp communities in small secondary forest fragments addressing the following main questions: 1) Are there interactive effects between microclimate and fragmentation on the abundance of bees and wasps, their mortality - and parasitism rates (Chapter II)? 2) How does fragmentation affect bee biodiversity from canopy to the understory with considerations of single species patterns (Chapter III)? 3) How is fragmentation affecting diversity and community composition of different trophic levels between understory and canopy with emphasis on the host-antagonist relation? (Chapter IV). II. A variety of global change drivers affect biodiversity and trophic interactions. The combined effects of habitat fragmentation and climate change are poorly understood and with ongoing deforestation and agricultural intensification secondary rainforest fragments might contribute to biodiversity conservation and mitigation of climate warming. This chapter investigated the interactive effects of habitat fragmentation and microclimate on the abundance and biotic interactions of trap-nesting bees and wasps in secondary forest fragments in the Northeastern lowlands of Costa Rica. Habitat area did not affect hymenopteran abundance, parasitism and mortality rates, but tree location- from the forest border to the forest center- influenced all variables. Interactive effects were found such as in the higher mortality rates at interior locations in larger fragments. Mean temperature at edge and interior locations led to significant effects on all tested variables and interactive effects between temperature and tree locations were found. Abundances at interior locations were significantly higher with increasing temperatures. Mortality rates at interior location increased at lower mean temperatures, whereas higher temperatures at edges marginally increased mortality rates. Our results indicate, that edge effects, mediated by altered microclimatic conditions, significantly change biotic interactions of trap-nesting hymenopterans in small secondary fragments. III. This chapter focusses on the vertical distribution of bees, their parasitism and mortality rates as well as single species patterns in relation to fragment size and edge effects in secondary rainforest remnants. No size effects on bee abundance, bee diversity and on parasitism- and mortality rates were found. Bees were least abundant at the intermediate height and were most abundant in the understory; whereas the highest diversity was found in the canopy. Tree location had no effect on bee abundance, but on bee diversity since most species were found in the forest interior. The cuckoo bees Aglaomelissa duckei and Coelioxys sp. 1 only partly followed the patterns of their hosts, two Centris species. Edge effects greatly influenced the bee community, so that the amount of edge habitat in secondary forest fragments will influence the conservation value for bees. IV. In this section the effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity, on community structure of hosts and natural enemies as well as the relation of hosts and antagonists were investigated from the understory to the canopy. The results stress the importance to monitor biodiversity, community composition and trophic interactions from the understory to the canopy. The higher trophic level of the antagonists was found to be more sensitive to fragment size compared to their hosts. Again edge effects were found to be the dominant driver since both host and antagonist richness, as well as community compositions were strongly affected. Ongoing fragmentation and increased amount of edge habitat could favor few abundant disturbance-adapted species over the rare and more diverse forest-adapted species. A positive-density dependent parasitism rate was demonstrated, as well as an increase of the parasitism rate not only with antagonist abundance but also diversity. Small secondary forest fragments surely can contribute to the conservation of biodiversity and trophic interactions, but increase of edge habitat will have negative consequences on above-ground nesting Hymenoptera, so that important interactions such as pollination, predation and parasitism could be disrupted. Therefore small forest fragments could contribute to biodiversity conservation but will not be able to compensate for the loss of large areas of primary forests. V. This dissertation contributes to the understanding of habitat area - and edge effects as well as the interaction of those with microclimatic conditions in small secondary rainforest fragments. As study system trap nests inhabited by solitary above-ground nesting bees, wasps and their natural enemies were chosen because they allow to study trophic interactions along their whole vertical distribution from the understory to the canopy. The effect of fragment size was rather weak, however, larger sizes affected the diversity of natural enemies positively, proofing the hypothesis that higher trophic levels react more sensitive to habitat loss. Edge effects heavily affected the abundance, diversity and community composition of hosts and their natural enemies as well as parasitism and mortality rates. Increased edge conditions resulting from ongoing fragmentation and deforestation will therefore negatively affect bees, wasps and their trophic interactions with natural enemies. Those changes affect important processes such as pollination, predation and parasitism, which could result in changes of ecosystem functioning. This study showed the importance to include all strata in biodiversity monitoring since height did matter for the trap-nesting communities. Diversity was shown to be higher in the canopy and community composition did change significantly. To conclude we could show that secondary forest fragments can sustain a trap-nesting bee and wasp community, but the amount of interior habitat is highly important for the conservation of forest-adapted species. Probably the conservation of large primary forest in combination with a high habitat connectivity, for example with small secondary forest fragments, will help to sustain biodiversity and ecosystem functioning better than the mere presence of small forest fragments
Zusammenfassung (German) I. Die weltweite Umweltveränderung, die durch den Menschen verursacht wird, gefährdet die Artenvielfalt und die trophischen Wechselbeziehungen zwischen Organismen. Fragmentierung gilt als eine der Hauptbedrohungen für die Biodiversität und kann weitreichende Konsequenzen haben wie zum Beispiel verminderte Artenvielfalt, Rückgang von Populationen, Verlust von genetischer Diversität und auch die Unterbrechung von trophischen Interaktionen, z.B. Prädation und Parasitierung. In Waldökosystemen können Fragmentierungsauswirkungen vielfältig sein. Spezialisierte Arten mit engen natürlichen Nischen, die zum Beispiel in höheren trophischen Ebenen zu finden sind, könnten vom Aussterben bedroht sein, während generalisierte Arten mit weniger spezifischen Habitatansprüchen sogar profitieren könnten. In den Tropen, „den“ terrestrischen Biodiversitäts-Hotspots, fehlen oft sogar grundlegende Bestandsaufnahmen von Flora und Fauna, insbesondere für die Kronen der Regenwälder. Die fortschreitende Abholzung in tropischen Regionen und die dadurch verursachte Fragmentierung wird die Funktion des Ökosystems durch Veränderung der Artenvielfalt, der Zusammensetzung von Artengemeinschaften und der Unterbrechung von trophischen Interaktionen in hohem Maße beeinflussen. Besonders das Zusammenwirken von verschiedenen Facetten des globalen Umweltwandels, z. B. Klimawandel und Fragmentierung, ist nahezu unbekannt. Da es unwahrscheinlich ist, dass die Abholzung von Regenwäldern eingestellt wird, ist es äußerst wichtig den Wert von kleinen Sekundärwaldfragmenten für den Schutz der Artenvielfalt zu untersuchen. Diese Dissertation trägt dazu bei verschiedene Aspekte der Fragmentierung auf die Artengemeinschaft von nisthilfenbewohnenden Hymenopteren in kleinen Sekundärwaldfragmenten zu untersuchen und behandelt dabei die folgenden zentralen Fragen: 1) Wirken Fragmentierung und mikroklimatische Bedingungen interaktiv auf die Abundanz von Bienen und Wespen sowie deren Mortalitäts- und Parasitierungsraten (2. Kapitel)? 2) Wie beeinflusst Fragmentierung die Artenvielfalt von Bienen vom Unterholz bis zur Krone und wie reagieren einzelne Arten darauf (3. Kapitel)? 3) Wie beeinflusst Fragmentierung die Biodiversität und die Artengemeinschaften verschiedener trophischer Ebenen vom Unterholz bis zum Kronendach unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Wirts-Antagonist-Beziehung (4. Kapitel)? II. Eine Reihe von Faktoren des weltweiten Umweltwandels beeinflusst die Artenvielfalt und trophische Interaktionen. Die Auswirkungen von Fragmentierung und Klimawandel, die sich gegenseitig beeinflussen könnten, sind nahezu unverstanden. Außerdem könnten Sekundärwaldfragmente zum Erhalt der Artenvielfalt und der Abschwächung der Auswirkungen des Klimawandels sowie der anhaltenden Abholzung und der Intensivierung der Landwirtschaft dienen. Dieser Abschnitt untersucht mögliche Wechselwirkungen zwischen Fragmentierung und Temperatur auf die Abundanz und trophische Interaktionen von nisthilfenbewohnenden Bienen und Wespen in kleinen Sekundärwaldfragmenten im Nordosten Costa Ricas. Die Fragmentgröße hatte keinen Einfluss auf die Abundanz, die Parasitierungs- und Mortalitätsraten der Hymenopteren, während der Baumstandort- vom Waldrand zur Waldmitte immensen Einfluss auf alle untersuchten Variablen hatte. In größeren Fragmenten war die Mortalitätsrate innerhalb des Waldes verglichen mit kleineren Fragmenten höher. Die mittlere Temperatur beeinflusste alle untersuchten Variablen und hatte je nach Standort des Baumes unterschiedliche Auswirkungen. Die Abundanzen im Waldinneren stiegen signifikant mit höheren Temperaturen an. Die Mortalitätsraten im Waldinneren nahmen mit niedrigeren Temperaturen zu, während höhere Temperaturen am Waldrand zu höheren Mortalitätsraten führten. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Randeffekte, die auch durch Temperaturunterschiede zustande kommen, biotische Interaktionen von nisthilfenbewohnenden Bienen und Wespen in kleinen Sekundärwaldfragmenten ändern. III. Dieses Kapitel konzentriert sich auf den Einfluss der Fragmentgröße und der Randeffekte auf Bienen und deren Parasitierungs- und Mortalitätsraten vom Unterholz bis zu den Kronendächern in kleinen Sekundärwaldfragmenten. Dabei wurden auch die Muster von einzelnen Arten näher untersucht. Die Fragmentgröße hatte keinen Einfluss auf die Bienenabundanz, die Artenvielfalt oder die Parasitierungs- und Mortalitätsraten. Die höchste Bienenabundanz wies das Unterholz auf, während die höchste Diversität im Kronendach gefunden wurde. Der Gradient vom Waldrand bis zur Waldmitte hatte keinen Einfluss auf die Bienenabundanz, wohingegen die Diversität zum Waldinnern hin anstieg. Die Kuckucksbienen Aglaomelissa duckei und Coelioxys sp. 1 folgten nur zum Teil den Mustern ihrer Wirte, zwei Centris Arten. Randeffekte hatten großen Einfluss auf die Bienengemeinschaften, so dass der Anteil von Waldrändern bzw. die Form der Sekundärwaldfragmente über den Nutzen für die Erhaltung der Bienenvielfalt bestimmt. IV. In diesem Kapitel wurden die Fragmentierungsauswirkungen auf die Biodiversität, die Gemeinschaftszusammensetzung von Wirten und ihrer natürlichen Feinde als auch die Beziehung zwischen den Wirten und ihren natürlichen Feinden vom Unterholz bis zum Kronendach untersucht. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass es äußerst wichtig ist die Biodiversität, die Zusammensetzung der Artengemeinschaft als auch die trophischen Interaktionen in den verschiedenen Straten des Regenwaldes zu untersuchen. Die natürlichen Feinde, die auf einer höheren trophischen Ebene stehen, reagierten empfindlicher auf die Größe der Fragmente. Randeffekte waren der einflussreichste Faktor, weil die Diversität der Wirte und der natürlichen Feinde, sowie deren Artengemeinschaften stark beeinflusst wurden. Fortschreitende Fragmentierung und der damit einhergehende erhöhte Flächenanteil des Randhabitats könnte daher wenige häufige Arten bevorzugen, die gestörtes Habitat tolerieren können, wohingegen die seltenere aber artenreichere Gemeinschaft, die das Waldinnere bevorzugt, benachteiligt wird. Es konnte außerdem eine positiv-dichteabhängige Parasitierungsrate sowie ein positiver Zusammenhang zwischen der Abundanz und Diversität von natürlichen Feinden und der Parasitierungsrate gezeigt werden. Kleine Sekundärwaldfragmente können sicherlich helfen die Artenvielfalt und die trophischen Interaktionen zu erhalten, aber die Erhöhung des Anteils von Randhabitat wird nachteilige Folgen für solitäre Hymenopteren haben. Dies kann zur Unterbrechung von wichtigen Interaktionen wie Bestäubung, Prädation und Parasitierung führen. Kleine Sekundärwaldfragmente können daher zwar hilfreich zur Erhaltung der Biodiversität sein, aber niemals große Primärwaldflächen, die von unschätzbarem Wert sind, ersetzen. V. Die vorliegende Doktorarbeit trägt zum Verständnis der Auswirkungen der Habitatgröße und von Randeffekten als auch deren Wechselwirkungen mit mikroklimatischen Bedingungen in kleinen Sekundärwaldfragmenten bei. Benutzt wurden Nisthilfen, die von solitären Bienen, Wespen und ihren natürlichen Feinden besiedelt werden, da hierdurch auch trophische Interaktionen vom Unterholz bis zum Kronendach aufgenommen werden können. Die Fragmentgröße hatte keine weitreichenden Auswirkungen. Größere Fragmente wiesen allerdings eine höhere Vielfalt von natürlichen Feinden auf, was die Hypothese der höheren Empfindlichkeit von höheren trophischen Ebenen bestätigt. Randeffekte hingegen haben sowohl die Bienen und Wespen als Wirte als auch deren natürliche Feinde in ihrer Häufigkeit, Artenvielfalt und Artenzusammensetzung in hohem Maße beeinflusst. Eine Erhöhung des Anteils von Randhabitaten, die mit fortschreitender Abholzung und Fragmentierung einhergeht, wird daher einen negativen Einfluss auf diese Hymenopteren haben, was sogar die Funktion des Ökosystems beeinflussen könnte, da dadurch auch wichtige Interaktionen, zum Beispiel Bestäubung, Prädation und Parasitierung beeinträchtigt werden. Außerdem konnte diese Doktorarbeit zeigen, dass es unbedingt notwendig ist die Fauna des gesamten Regenwaldes unter Berücksichtigung aller Straten aufzunehmen. Die Artenvielfalt in der Kronenschicht war höher und auch die Zusammensetzung der Artengemeinschaften war signifikant verschieden zwischen dem Unterholz und den Kronendächern. Diese Doktorarbeit zeigt, dass kleine Sekundärwaldfragmente zwar Lebensraum und Ressourcen für eine Gemeinschaft von solitären Bienen, Wespen und deren natürlichen Gegenspielern bieten kann, dass jedoch die Form und damit der Anteil von Innenhabitat ausschlaggebend für den Erhalt von spezialisierten Waldarten ist. Der Erhalt von großen Flächen von Primärwald ist daher unabdingbar, jedoch könnten Sekundärwaldfragmente zur Erhöhung der Vernetzung beitragen, um so ein stabiles, artenreiches und einzigartiges Waldökosystem zu erhalten, was allein durch kleine Sekundärwaldfragmente nicht möglich sein wird