Academic literature on the topic 'Foster children – Great Britain'

The article talks about Kindertransports – the major rescue action organized by British-Jewish organizations, and run from the territory of Great Britain between 1938 and 1939. The Kindertransports aimed at gathering and sending to Great Britain Jewish children under the age of seventeen, in order to prevent them from witnessing, or being victims of the acts of violence in Nazi controlled Europe. Once in Great Britain, the children were supposed to spend several weeks with British families willing to give them shelter and support. Those for whom foster parents would not be found, were to be sent to boarding schools or temporary shelters. In the action’s planning phase the institutions involved considered the Kindertransports to be a temporary solution. As the situation of the Jewish population in Nazi controlled Europe worsened, it became clear that the character of the action needed to be revised, and the families were expected to guest the children for a longer and unspecified time. In the end approximately 10.000 Jewish children, who travelled to the Isles, were allowed to stay throughout the times of war. In 1945 it became clear that vast majority of them had no place or family to get back to. They stayed in Great Britain becoming an important and vital part of the British society, with British citizenships granted shortly after the end of the war. The article discusses the organization of the Kindertransport and talks about other solutions taken under consideration both by the program organizers, and the British government. It elaborates on the experiences the children shared, that is being separated from their families, feeling homesick, or finding oneself in the new environment. It explains the question of the lost identity of the participants of the program and speaks on how the subjects dealt with it. It also shows how the British legislature and laws connected to the Enemy Alien status together with the Defence Regulation 18B influenced lives of the underage survivors. The article ends with an attempt of estimation of what happened to the Kindertransport children after the war. How many of them remained in Great Britain and considered themselves British, how many shown high level of mobility and spend their lives changing their place of residence. In the end how many of them kept their self-identification as Jews, and how many converted.

The article “Foster care system in Great Britain and Polish foster families” is devoted to the British system of foster care, which allows to create a foster family by Polish citizens. The article discusses the main principles on which the foster care and its forms are based. National standards and requirements for candidates to foster families were presented as well as issues related to the implementation of foster care, including these regarding support for foster parents and housing or financial requirements.

Private fostering has a long history but few studies have been made of it. Bob Holman traces the development of private fostering in the last 50 years and then analyses what is known about it at present. He shows that, contrary to popular conception, far from being confined to West African children in Britain, private fostering now includes a number of different groupings. The evidence suggests that some private foster carers provide satisfactory care, but there is little doubt that numbers of private foster children are vulnerable to abuse. Black children are usually placed with white foster carers and their cultural and racial needs may not be met. Local authorities already possess considerable duties and powers concerning private fostering but few fully apply them. Proposals are made as to how private foster children can be properly safeguarded.

Background: Foster children often experience school problems and perform less well than average. This may result in failed school careers and compromised future career paths. Nonetheless, few studies have focused on the perspective of foster children regarding education. Method: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 27 foster children (M = 14 years, range = 12–18 years) placed in long-term family foster care about their experiences regarding “school.” Results: A thematic analysis distinguished four main themes: (1) the importance of school for foster children; (2) the impact of the foster care placement on the school performance (3) support foster children receive with regard to their functioning and performance at school; and (4) the fear of stigmatization. Discussion: Foster children attach a great importance to school and receive support from different persons. Yet, many foster children are confronted with school difficulties, such as bullying, hindered concentration, and negative reactions to being placed in foster care. Interventions should be developed to support this group and improve their performances. Furthermore, actors who get in touch with foster children should be better acquainted with foster care.

Although the foster care systems in North America are set up with good intentions for best practices for foster children, in reality these systems are failing youth in care. Many foster children experience more psychological, social, educational, behavioural, and emotional problems as compared to children who are not in foster care, and this can continue into adulthood. Attachment theory can help to explain why some children experience these problems. Professionals who work with this population need to have a good understanding of foster children’s unique experiences in order to help them as much as possible. Literature has addressed the problems that foster children have faced for decades, but there seems to be little change that happens to address and prevent these problems. There is no doubt that there is a great need for change in the current foster care systems in North America because current outcomes for many foster children are negative. This paper reviews the literature on foster care and explains the issues that foster children experience. It also addresses why the foster care system is failing youth, and gives practical suggestions for solutions.

A major goal of infectious disease epidemiology is to understand and predict the spread of infections within human populations, with the intention of better informing decisions regarding control and intervention. However, the development of fully mechanistic models of transmission requires a quantitative understanding of social interactions and collective properties of social networks. We performed a cross-sectional study of the social contacts on given days for more than 5000 respondents in England, Scotland and Wales, through postal and online survey methods. The survey was designed to elicit detailed and previously unreported measures of the immediate social network of participants relevant to infection spread. Here, we describe individual-level contact patterns, focusing on the range of heterogeneity observed and discuss the correlations between contact patterns and other socio-demographic factors. We find that the distribution of the number of contacts approximates a power-law distribution, but postulate that total contact time (which has a shorter-tailed distribution) is more epidemiologically relevant. We observe that children, public-sector and healthcare workers have the highest number of total contact hours and are therefore most likely to catch and transmit infectious disease. Our study also quantifies the transitive connections made between an individual's contacts (or clustering); this is a key structural characteristic of social networks with important implications for disease transmission and control efficacy. Respondents' networks exhibit high levels of clustering, which varies across social settings and increases with duration, frequency of contact and distance from home. Finally, we discuss the implications of these findings for the transmission and control of pathogens spread through close contact.

The number of Muslim foster children coming into care in the UK is increasing; however, the number of Muslim foster carers is not. Should care workers attempt to place Muslim children in Muslim homes? Or – as some have suggested – could this be deleterious to them, or be simply irrelevant? While many Muslim children are in foster care in the UK, there is often insufficient cultural training among workers, and some unfortunate situations have resulted in the suffering or even suicide of Muslim children in care. At the same time, it is not always apparent why there is a lack of Muslim foster carers – is it a religious concern, or due to some other reason? In response to these pressing concerns, this article examines the legal and practical implications of fostering and adoption law and policy in Britain. It includes an examination of the barriers preventing Muslim carers from coming into fostering and adoption, as well as the sensitive issue of caring for maḥram and non-maḥram children. It also reviews Islamic principles of adoption to determine how religious concerns intersect with the concerns of the state. Ultimately it aims to determine if British law, policies, or social work practices should be revised.

This thesis is concerned with the education of children in care. Its analytic focus is on ways in which children in public care are and have been constructed by knowledge and policies that are embedded in the discourses that surround them. A literature review of empirical research conducted in the UK concludes that the dominant research strands and epistemologic studies in this area have failed to allow foregrounding and exploration of children's own accounts of their experiences at school as children in care. Other literature concerning policy and historical contexts is considered within subsequent analytic chapters where a Foucauldian approach is adopted. The empirical work reported is of the content of interviews conducted in schools with 27 children and young people who were in foster care. A Foucauldian perspective allows consideration of the fashion whereby practices of surveillance and "the gaze" construct children by adults. The children's accounts are foregrounded in the data chapters where, firstly, their experiences of adults are explicated in terms of the three mechanisms of surveillance that Foucault identified. Adults' writings about the children, particularly within Records of Needs that had been opened to delineate the special educational needs of some of the children, are described and the fashions whereby these too construct the children, often negatively, are exposed. A sometimes overpowering sense of public intrusion into the children's private lives permeated their accounts but the final data chapter considers the ways they utilised their own agency sometimes as a struggle to resist the markers of difference experienced. Here again their own stories are given prominence. The implications of these accounts lead to suggestions about how changes to adults' practices in their dealings with children in care could be introduced in a range of settings including schools, the meetings held about children and educational psychologists' activities where, fundamentally, a need for adults to display more genuine respect to children and young people is required.

This study explores the education of children living on the home front in England, and to a lesser extent Wales, during the Second World War. It uses oral histories, written memories and contemporary material, such as classroom work and children’s diaries, alongside archival documents. This multi-faceted approach allows us to ask what young people thought about school and in what ways their lives in the classroom adhered to or differed from the plans of political and educational authorities. In doing so, this thesis contributes to a growing literature which sets out to incorporate the child’s perspective into histories of education. Each chapter considers education from an increasingly broad perspective. It begins in the formal classroom familiar to children during the inter-war years but gradually expands to look at other sites of education – the outdoor environment of the countryside, the purpose-built camp schools, the wireless, and finally the streets and bomb-sites where children found themselves during long periods of school closures. Modes of learning beyond the traditional schoolroom reveal a more complete picture of children’s educational lives. Primarily, this research challenges the historiographical assumption that education was a ‘casualty’ of the Second World War. While acknowledging the disruptions facing the school system, it reveals the many ways in which individual institutions adapted to the circumstances of the conflict and took the opportunity to introduce a more child-centred curriculum suited to children dealing with difficulties elsewhere in their lives. This research also brings to light two models of citizenship underpinning state attitudes towards the education of children: the informed citizen and the participatory citizen. The authorities wanted to create a generation of active and educated young people and this took on a particular urgency during wartime. It is also possible to determine children’s reactions to this rhetoric. Some took great interest in the events of the conflict and joined local war efforts, but others rejected adult demands by becoming truants or recording discontent in their diaries. Although in many ways confined by adult structures, we see that children were able to negotiate agency over their learning lives within the context of these constraints.

This thesis critically examines how informal child-care, performed for money, was subject to sustained scrutiny between 1867-1908. This period saw women who took children into their home in exchange for payment being subject to judicial sanction,press comment and legislative intervention. The passage of the 1908 Children Act marked the point at which all women who took in children for money were subjected to legislation for the first time. Existing scholarship on this topic has largely been confined to a small and unrepresentative sample of women who were convicted of murdering children they were paid to look after and concentrated on exploring the manner in which these women were demonised and labelled with the pejorative term 'baby-farmer.' Thisthesis makes a contribution to scholarship by demonstrating the need to study a wider range of women who took in children for money. It also shows that the template of the criminal 'baby-farmer' was only one possible representation of such women who took in children for payment. To this end, the study utilises a selection of under-analysed case files, court records and campaigning literature. The thesis has found that the term 'baby-farmer' has limited analytical value. A range of social actors told different stories, in different contexts for different purposes. As the period covered by this study drew to a close, narratives were increasingly likely to emphasise functional aspects of childcare performed for money; a shift informed by and informing changing ideas around, female employment, the role of the state, parental authority and the value of the child.

This thesis examines the lives of poor children living in Shropshire between 1834 and 1870. They lived in three different environments: in the workhouse, as part of a labourer’s family, or as part of a family in receipt of out-relief. The standard of living of the families of agricultural workers, the predominant form of employment in most of Shropshire, was very low, with wages too low to provide adequate levels of nutrition. Families in receipt of out-relief had an even lower standard of living than those of agricultural labourers, because levels of out-relief were lower than labourers’ wages. This thesis also examines the life that children led if they were inmates of the workhouse. Children in the workhouse received an education, the quality of which varied across the county, but was very good at the Bridgnorth workhouse school, latterly known as South East Shropshire District School. Poor children living at home would have had limited opportunity for education because of the cost. Medical care was organised by the Poor Law Union for indoor and outdoor paupers, and provided free. It was not provided for independent families. Apprenticeships were satisfactorily organised by the Shropshire Unions, though some apprentices were inappropriately placed in mines. Amounts of out-relief differed across Unions with those Unions committed to the use of the workhouse ungenerous in their payments when compared to Unions taking a positive view of out-relief. For poor children, life in the workhouse, despite its disadvantages, provided greater material benefits than a childhood spent in a poor labourer’s family or in a family on out-relief.

This research was embedded in the Effective Early Learning (EEL) Project (Pascal et al., 1995), a national evaluatory and development programme looking at the quality of learning experiences for 3 and 4 year olds in the varied range of settings which typify United Kingdom provision. It was, however, a separate and discrete study focused on the effectiveness of the adult, whatever her level of training, as an educator. It was a 'real world', inclusionary, interpretive, research enquiry using qualitative and quantitative paradigms. The purpose of this study was to develop and implement a methodology to assess and improve the quality of educators working in a range of settings. A conceptual framework for assessing quality was developed. Also an observation schedule, 'the Adult Engagement Scale', focusing on three aspects of educative interaction: 'Sensitivity', 'Stimulation' and 'Autonomy' was created. Evidence was gathered using this scale and triangulated with other data, including participant interview, professional biography questionnaire and focused observation. The cohort consisted of 169 practitioners in 115 settings who worked with the researcher to collect the data. The practitioners had varied roles and backgrounds and were trained by the researcher in the methdology. They mainly worked in settings broadly representational of the four most frequent types of UK centre based provision; Reception Classes in Primary Schools, Nursery Schools, Nursery Classes and Pre-school Learning Alliance Playgroups. The data generated by this strategy was analysed to consider the characteristics of an effective early childhood educator. The 'Adult Engagement Scale' was shown to be an effective means of assessment, development and improvement. The data revealed that an adult's ability to be an effective 'engager' was linked to her 'educative disposition', which included her 'professional self image and emotional well being'. The analysis showed that the educative categories of 'Sensitivity', 'Stimulation' and 'Autonomy' were hierarchical and progressively less well addressed. All settings scored relatively highly on Sensitivity. Those settings which were better at Stimulation generally had more qualified staff. Autonomy was least well addressed by all settings, yet appears to be the category most closely linked to adult effectiveness. Most early childhood educaors are emotionally committed to their work yet feel undervalued. Universally practitioners in this study displayed a poor profesisonal self image, and this was clearly linked to their ability to be effective as an 'engaging' educator of young children.

The recommendations of the Warnock Committee <1978) and the 1981 Education Act stated that the goals of education were the same for all pupils and they set the scene for all children, irrespective of handicap, to be educated in ordinary schools. The principle of equal opportunities for all pupils, whether or not they have statements of special educational needs, finally achieved statutory recognition in the 1988 Education Reform Act. All pupils now share the same right to a broad, balanced and differentiated curriculum relevant to their needs. However, in spite of the fact that numerous HMI reports state that special schools offer narrow and restricted curricula which may hinder the prospect of reintegration into mainstream schools for their pupils, there is evidence indicating that teachers continue to refer 'maladjusted' or 'difficult to teach' children for assessment with a view to special school placement. This study provides a critical analysis of the processes associated with referral and integration for two groups of children. When the research began, the referred children in mainstream school were likely to be transferred to special school, and the children in special school were already integrating into mainstream.

Two competing forms of sex education and the groups supporting them came to head in the 1970s and 1980s. Traditional sex education retained an emphasis on maintaining Christian-based morality through marriage and parenthood preparation that sex education originally held since the beginning of the twentieth century. Liberal sex education developed to openly discuss issues that reflected recent legal and social changes. This form reviewed controversial subjects including abortion, contraception and homosexuality. Though liberal sex education found support from national family planning organizations and Labour politicians, traditional sex education found a more vocal and powerful ally in the New Right. This thesis explores the political emergence of the New Right in Great Britain during the 1970s and 1980s and how the group utilized sex education. The New Right, composed of moral pressure groups and Conservative politicians, focused on the supposed absence of traditional morality from the emergent liberal sex education. Labour (and liberal organizations) held little power in the 1980s due to internal party struggles and an insignificant parliamentary presence. This allowed the New Right to successfully pass multiple national reforms. The New Right latched onto liberal sex education as demonstrative of the moral decline of Britain and utilized its emergence of a prime example of the need to reform education and local government.

AbstractGender equality is an increasingly topical issue, but it has deep historical roots. The principle of gender equality found its legitimacy, even if limited to salary, in the 1957 Treaty of Rome, establishing the European Economic Community (EEC). This treaty, in Article 119, sanctioned the principle of equal pay between male and female workers. The EEC continued to protect women’s rights in the 1970s through equal opportunity policies. These policies referred, first, to the principle of equal treatment between men and women regarding education, access to work, professional promotion, and working conditions (Directive 75/117/EEC); second, to the principle of equal pay for male and female workers (Directive 76/207/EEC); and finally, enshrined the principle of equal treatment between men and women in matters of social security (Directive 79/7/EEC). Since the 1980s, several positive action programmes have been developed to support the role of women in European society. Between 1982 and 2000, four multiyear action programmes were implemented for equal opportunities. The first action programme (1982–1985) called on the Member States, through recommendations and resolutions by the Commission, to disseminate greater knowledge of the types of careers available to women, encourage the presence of women in decision-making areas, and take measures to reconcile family and working life. The second action programme (1986–1990) proposed interventions related to the employment of women in activities related to new technologies and interventions in favour of the equal distribution of professional, family, and social responsibilities (Sarcina, 2010). The third action programme (1991–1995) provided an improvement in the condition of women in society by raising public awareness of gender equality, the image of women in mass media, and the participation of women in the decision-making process at all levels in all areas of society. The fourth action programme (1996–2000) strengthened the existing regulatory framework and focused on the principle of gender mainstreaming, a strategy that involves bringing the gender dimension into all community policies, which requires all actors in the political process to adopt a gender perspective. The strategy of gender mainstreaming has several benefits: it places women and men at the heart of policies, involves both sexes in the policymaking process, leads to better governance, makes gender equality issues visible in mainstream society, and, finally, considers the diversity among women and men. Among the relevant interventions of the 1990s, it is necessary to recall the Treaty of Maastricht (1992) which guaranteed the protection of women in the Agreement on Social Policy signed by all Member States (except for Great Britain), and the Treaty of Amsterdam (1997), which formally recognised gender mainstreaming. The Treaty of Amsterdam includes gender equality among the objectives of the European Union (Article 2) and equal opportunity policies among the activities of the European Commission (Article 3). Article 13 introduces the principle of non-discrimination based on gender, race, ethnicity, religion, or handicaps. Finally, Article 141 amends Article 119 of the EEC on equal treatment between men and women in the workplace. The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the Nice Union of 2000 reaffirms the prohibition of ‘any discrimination based on any ground such as sex’ (Art. 21.1). The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union also recognises, in Article 23, the principle of equality between women and men in all areas, including employment, work, and pay. Another important intervention of the 2000s is the Lisbon strategy, also known as the Lisbon Agenda or Lisbon Process. It is a reform programme approved in Lisbon by the heads of state and governments of the member countries of the EU. The goal of the Lisbon strategy was to make the EU the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy by 2010. To achieve this goal, the strategy defines fields in which action is needed, including equal opportunities for female work. Another treaty that must be mentioned is that of Lisbon in 2009, thanks to which previous treaties, specifically the Treaty of Maastricht and the Treaty of Rome, were amended and brought together in a single document: the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). Thanks to the Lisbon Treaty, the Charter of Fundamental Rights has assumed a legally binding character (Article 6, paragraph 1 of the TEU) both for European institutions and for Member States when implementing EU law. The Treaty of Lisbon affirms the principle of equality between men and women several times in the text and places it among the values and objectives of the union (Articles 2 and 3 of the TEU). Furthermore, the Treaty, in Art. 8 of the TFEU, states that the Union’s actions are aimed at eliminating inequalities, as well as promoting equality between men and women, while Article 10 of the TFEU provides that the Union aims to ‘combat discrimination based on sex, racial or ethnic origin, religion or belief, disability, age, or sexual orientation’. Concerning the principle of gender equality in the workplace, the Treaty, in Article 153 of the TFEU, asserts that the Union pursues the objective of equality between men and women regarding labour market opportunities and treatment at work. On the other hand, Article 157 of the TFEU confirms the principle of equal pay for male and female workers ‘for equal work or work of equal value’. On these issues, through ordinary procedures, the European Parliament and the Council may adopt appropriate measures aimed at defending the principle of equal opportunities and equal treatment for men and women. The Lisbon Treaty also includes provisions relating to the fight against trafficking in human beings, particularly women and children (Article 79 of the TFEU), the problem of domestic violence against women (Article 8 of the TFEU), and the right to paid maternity leave (Article 33). Among the important documents concerning gender equality is the Roadmap (2006–2010). In 2006, the European Commission proposed the Roadmap for equality between women and men, in addition to the priorities on the agenda, the objectives, and tools necessary to achieve full gender equality. The Roadmap defines six priority areas, each of which is associated with a set of objectives and actions that makes it easier to achieve them. The priorities include equal economic independence for women and men, reconciliation of private and professional life, equal representation in the decision-making process, eradication of all forms of gender-based violence, elimination of stereotypes related to gender, and promotion of gender equality in external and development policies. The Commission took charge of the commitments included in the Roadmap, which were indirectly implemented by the Member States through the principle of subsidiarity and the competencies provided for in the Treaties (Gottardi, 2013). The 2006–2010 strategy of the European Commission is based on a dual approach: on the one hand, the integration of the gender dimension in all community policies and actions (gender mainstreaming), and on the other, the implementation of specific measures in favour of women aimed at eliminating inequalities. In 2006, the European Council approved the European Pact for Gender Equality which originated from the Roadmap. The European Pact for Gender Equality identified three macro areas of intervention: measures to close gender gaps and combat gender stereotypes in the labour market, measures to promote a better work–life balance for both women and men, and measures to strengthen governance through the integration of the gender perspective into all policies. In 2006, Directive 2006/54/EC of the European Parliament and Council regulated equal opportunities and equal treatment between male and female workers. Specifically, the Directive aims to implement the principle of equal treatment related to access to employment, professional training, and promotion; working conditions, including pay; and occupational social security approaches. On 21 September 2010, the European Commission adopted a new strategy to ensure equality between women and men (2010–2015). This new strategy is based on the experience of Roadmap (2006–2010) and resumes the priority areas identified by the Women’s Charter: equal economic independence, equal pay, equality in decision-making, the eradication of all forms of violence against women, and the promotion of gender equality and women’s empowerment beyond the union. The 2010–2015 Strategic Plan aims to improve the position of women in the labour market, but also in society, both within the EU and beyond its borders. The new strategy affirms the principle that gender equality is essential to supporting the economic growth and sustainable development of each country. In 2010, the validity of the Lisbon Strategy ended, the objectives of which were only partially achieved due to the economic crisis. To overcome this crisis, the Commission proposed a new strategy called Europe 2020, in March 2010. The main aim of this strategy is to ensure that the EU’s economic recovery is accompanied by a series of reforms that will increase growth and job creation by 2020. Specifically, Europe’s 2020 strategy must support smart, sustainable, and inclusive growth. To this end, the EU has established five goals to be achieved by 2020 and has articulated the different types of growth (smart, sustainable, and inclusive) in seven flagship initiatives. Among the latter, the initiative ‘an agenda for new skills and jobs’, in the context of inclusive growth, is the one most closely linked to gender policies and equal opportunities; in fact, it substantially aims to increase employment rates for women, young, and elderly people. The strategic plan for 2010–2015 was followed by a strategic commitment in favour of gender equality 2016–2019, which again emphasises the five priority areas defined by the previous plan. Strategic commitment, which contributes to the European Pact for Gender Equality (2011–2020), identifies the key actions necessary to achieve objectives for each priority area. In March 2020, the Commission presented a new strategic plan for equality between women and men for 2020–2025. This strategy defines a series of political objectives and key actions aimed at achieving a ‘union of equality’ by 2025. The main objectives are to put an end to gender-based violence and combat sexist stereotypes, ensure equal opportunities in the labour market and equal participation in all sectors of the economy and political life, solve the problem of the pay and pension gap, and achieve gender equality in decision-making and politics. From the summary of the regulatory framework presented, for the European Economic Community first, then for the European Community, and finally for the European Union, gender equality has always been a fundamental value. Interest in the issues of the condition of women and equal opportunities has grown over time and during the process of European integration, moving from a perspective aimed at improving the working conditions of women to a new dimension to improve the life of the woman as a person, trying to protect her not only professionally but also socially, and in general in all those areas in which gender inequality may occur. The approach is extensive and based on legislation, the integration of the gender dimension into all policies, and specific measures in favour of women. From the non-exhaustive list of the various legislative interventions, it is possible to note a continuous repetition of the same thematic priorities which highlights, on the one hand, the poor results achieved by the implementation of the policies, but, on the other hand, the Commission’s willingness to pursue the path initially taken. Among the achievements in the field of gender equality obtained by the EU, there is certainly an increase in the number of women in the labour market and the acquisition of better education and training. Despite progress, gender inequalities have persisted. Even though women surpass men in terms of educational attainment, gender gaps still exist in employment, entrepreneurship, and public life (OECD, 2017). For example, in the labour market, women continue to be overrepresented in the lowest-paid sectors and underrepresented in top positions (according to the data released in the main companies of the European Union, women represent only 8% of CEOs).

Residential care for the young is an elusive object of study. Provided in the past by establishments as diverse as workhouses, orphanages, and reformatories, it has no clear definition marking its boundaries with foster care or boarding education; at the same time it variously aims to shelter, classify, control, and reform and it has no agreed theory or body of values. The need for residential care, and the difficulties of providing it, vary with time and place; the issues it raises are quite different in Romania than they are in California, or were in Victorian England. Given this diversity, any discussion of residential care needs to outline the context within which it was written. In the case of this chapter the context is provided by current British social policy. Although the focus is on residential care provided to young people by Children's Services in England for social reasons, the conclusions drawn are applicable to the rest of the United Kingdom. The issues raised by this provision have similarities in other parts of the developed world, in virtually all of which the use of residential care is declining. This chapter is written against the background of this decline. Its aims are as follows: ♦ to describe the current characteristics of residential child care in England, and by extension in Great Britain ♦ to outline the problems that have led to its numerical decline ♦ to identify practices that should overcome or reduce these problems ♦ to discuss the role that residential care might play in future.

This chapter addresses the significance of the New Deal to the development of publicly funded foster care and its relationship to the nascent welfare state. The chapter includes many first-hand accounts of parents turning to foster care because they could not provide both economic support and nurturing care to their children. The chapter argues that the onset of the Great Depression marked a setback for the delivery of child welfare services. However, the promise of a more rational system of federal welfare provision through passage of the Social Security Act and other New Deal programs raised hopes that economic insecurity for families could be so drastically reduced as to eliminate (or at least diminish) the role of poverty in separating children from their families. In addition, Title V of the Social Security Act also provided funds to develop state-level public child welfare services, which helped spur the creation of a child welfare infrastructure.

Abstract When the Allies set up the body that became the International Tracing Service, they did not expect to have to deal with children in anything other than small numbers. When the scale of the problem of ‘unaccompanied children’ became clear, they established a separate Child Search Branch. In the first years of its existence, the CSB searched for children ‘in the field’, e.g. in orphanages and foster homes, and, after 1950, conducted tracing on the basis of the documentary evidence it held. At the same time, ITS was involved in helping unaccompanied children to be reunited with their families or, where this was not possible, to be repatriated to their country of origin or resettled in a third country. The chapter discloses the emotionally fraught nature of this work, analyses the enormously controversial question of who had the right to decide on children’s futures, and reveals the great lengths to which the dedicated staff at the CSB went in order to help children, often in the face of political and bureaucratic obstacles.

This chapter reviews the transition in children’s literature after the 1960s from colonialist to postcolonialist content as a framework for understanding contemporary Anglophone Caribbean children’s literature. Local voices integrated folklore into curricular material beginning in the 1930s, with far more expansive output after 1960. Writers offer historical and realistic fiction that countered colonialist paradigms. Waves of immigration to the US, Canada, and Great Britain (with its Caribbean Arts Movement) contributed to the rise of such literature, proliferating into children’s poetry, folklore, and rhyming books that integrating tastes of the region’s linguistic Creole-informed cadences. In the past two decades, festival awards, non-profit organizations, and local publishing houses have fostered the development of young adult literature that now treats problems common to the genre—emerging sexuality, mental health, sports, romance, and issues of identity. Writers address contemporary problems such as poverty, global warming, and political corruption through multiple genres popular among the age group including dystopian fiction, romance, mystery, and new realism, often laced with bits of Caribbean mythology.

Children today live longer, healthier lives and suffer less disease than children at any previous time in history. A child born this year in the United States, Canada, Great Britain, Germany, France, Australia, Italy, or Japan can expect to live for 80 years and more—nearly...

Статья посвящена миграции несовершеннолетних детей из Англии в Канаду, Австралию, Южную Африку. Анализируются причины, указаны основные этапы детской миграции, рассмотрены цели и задачи, которые преследовали организаторы программ переселения, миссии, которые возлагались на юных британцев вне метрополии. Автор приходит к выводу, что выезд был обусловлен потребностями детей и потребностями Великобритании, как метрополии, так и ее заокеанских владений. Начиная с XVII века, несовершеннолетних отправляли в колонии в качестве работников. Депортация из Англии являлась также альтернативой тюремному заключению. В XIX веке прекращается организованный ввоз преступников в колонии. Миграция позволяла сэкономить социальные расходы британского правительства. Филантропы разрабатывали планы массового переселения детей за океан с целью их спасения от голода и преступлений, на которые они были обречены в нищих кварталах британских городов. Доминионы предоставляли большие возможности для повышения социального статуса детей бедняков. Со второй половины XIX века в юных мигрантах начинают видеть большой имперский потенциал. Они рассматривались строителями империи «Великая Британия». Несовершеннолетние работники помогали фермерам осваивать земли. Миграция увеличивала «белое» население колоний и доминионов. Дети укрепляли политические связи между отдельными странами, распространяли политические и культурные ценности европейцев. На них возлагались задачи создания глобальной британской нации, физического и нравственного оздоровления британцев. Потомки британских «домашних детей» составляют значительный процент населения современной Канады и Австралии. The article is devoted to the migration of minors from England to Canada, Australia, South Africa. The reasons are analyzed, the main stages of child migration are indicated, the goals and objectives pursued by the organizers of resettlement programs, the missions assigned to young Britons outside the metropolis are considered. The author comes to the conclusion that the departure reasons were the needs of children and the needs of Great Britain, both the metropolis and its overseas possessions. Since the XVIIth century, minors were sent to colonies as workers. Deportation from England was also an alternative to imprisonment. In the XIX-th century, the organized deportation of criminals into the colonies stopped. Migration allowed saving the social expenses of the British government. Philanthropists developed plans for the mass relocation of children overseas in order to save them from hunger and crimes to which they were doomed in the impoverished quarters of British cities. The dominions provided great opportunities to improve the social status of the children of the poor. Since the second half of the XIXth century, young migrants began to see great imperial potential. They were considered as the builders of the empire "Great Britain". Underage workers helped farmers develop land. Migration increased the "white" population of colonies and dominions. Children strengthened political ties between countries, spread European political and cultural values. They were entrusted with the task of creating a global British nation, physical and moral recovery of the British. Descendants of British "home children" make up a significant percentage of the population of modern Canada and Australia.

The objective of this paper is to explore the factors that stimulate trade among EU countries and pinpoint areas that require improvement to foster a further increase in trade intensity within the region. The focus is on the effect of aggregate trade restrictions, which are based on the nov­el indicator Measure of Aggregate Trade Restrictions (MATR), developed by the IMF. The empirical analysis consists of the estimation of a gravity panel model for the 28 EU member countries (including Great Britain) for the peri­od from 1999-2020, by implementing both Ordinary least squares (OLS) and Poisson Pseudo Maximum Likelihood (PPML) estimators. The results show that the Eurozone membership has positive effects on increasing intra-EU trade, whereas the MATR indicator has significant negative effects, suggest­ing that the elimination of the remaining trade restrictions could lead to a further boost of intra-EU trade.

"Throughout the second half of the seventeen and the eighteenth centuries, tea remained an expensive exotic drink for Britain that “preserved” its overseas nature. It was only in the Victorian era (1837-1903) that tea became the English national drink. The process attracts the attention of academics from various humanities. Despite an impressive amount of research in the UK, in Russia for a long time (in the Soviet years) the English tradition of tea drinking was considered a philistine curiosity unworthy of academic analysis. Accordingly, the English tea party in Russia has become a leader in the number of stereotypes. The issue became important for academics only at the turn of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Currently, we can observe significant growth of interest in this area in Russia and an expansion of research into tea drinking with regard to the history of society, philosophy and culture. Despite this fact, there are still serious lacunas in the research of English tea parties in the Victorian era. One of them is related to the analysis of visualization of this practice in Victorian painting. It is a proven fact that tea parties are one of the most popular topics in English arts of the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries. No other art school in the world referred to the topic so frequently: painting formed the visual image of the English tea party, consolidated, propagandized and spread ideas of the national tea tradition. However, this aspect has been reflected neither in British nor Russian studies. Being descriptive and analytical, the present research refers to the principles of historicism, academic reliability and objectivity, helping to determine the principal trends and social and cultural features and models in Britain during the period. The present research is based on the analysis of more than one hundred genre paintings by British artists of the period. The paintings reflect the process of creating a special “truly English” material and visual context of tea drinking, which displaced all “oriental allusions” from this ceremony, to create a specific entourage and etiquette of tea consumption, and set nationally determined patterns of behavior at the tea table. The analysis shows the presence of English traditions of tea drinking visualization. The canvases of British artists, unlike the Russian ones, never reflect social problems: tea parties take place against the background of either well-furnished interiors or beautiful landscapes, being a visual embodiment of Great Britain as a “paradise of the prosperous bourgeoisie”, manifesting the bourgeois virtues. Special attention is paid to the role of the women in this ritual, the theme of the relationship between mothers and children. A unique English painting theme, which has not been manifested in any other art school in the world, is a children’s tea party. Victorian paintings reflect the processes of democratization of society: representatives of the lower classes appear on canvases. Paintings do not only reflect the norms and ideals that existed in the society, but also provide the set patterns for it."

Parkour is a discipline of movement and the skill of efficient movement from one place to another, in which a person chooses his own path. During movement in the most varied conditions traceur encounters natural or urban obstacles that he overcomes as quickly and efficiently as possible using his own body. The movie Yamakasi was the inspiration for many to train this skill around the world. Bogdan Cvetković is considered the founder of parkour in Serbia. In 2004, he founded a parkour forum through which "traceurs" from cities all over Serbia communicated. In the same year, the first gathering was held in Čačak. The first workshop of this kind in Serbia was held in 2006 in Kraljevo. The officially legally established parkour association was formed in 2007 in Kraljevo under the name Parkour 4 all. The turning point in the further development of parkour in Serbia was in 2008, when the founder of world parkour, David Bell, visited Serbia. International cooperation began in 2008, first with Germany, then France, Great Britain, Switzerland, and Italy, and cooperation expanded even to Qatar and Taiwan. Since 2009, regular outdoor and indoor trainings have been organized in the hall of the Faculty of Sports and Physical Education, University of Belgrade. It continues with courses, camps for adults and children, birthdays and team building. The first appearance in media in Serbia was recorded in the year 2003. The filming of commercials with the theme of parkour began in 2008 (ParkourSrbija, 2008), while the reportage about this activity in the program "Sasvim prirodno" (RTS Sasvim prirodno - Zvanični kanal, 2017) had the greatest impact. Although terrain movements have been performed since the appearance of the subject of the outdoor activities, from 2021, in the field teaching of the subject, parkour begins to be studied under its original name. Today, there are about 150 active traceurs in Serbia.