Journal articles on the topic 'FOSS Ecosystem'

This paper describes the functionality, scalability, and cost of implementing and maintaining a suite of open source technologies, which have supported hundreds of thousands of learners in the past year, on an information technology infrastructure budget of less than US$10,000 per year. In addition, it reviews pedagogical opportunities offered by a fully open digital learning ecosystem, as well as benefits for learners and educators alike. The Open Education Resource universitas (OERu) is an international consortium made up of 36 publicly funded institutions and the OER Foundation. The OERu currently offers first-year postsecondary courses through OER-based micro-courses with pathways to gain stackable micro-credentials, convertible to academic credit toward recognised university qualifications. The OERu, adhering to open principles (Wiley, 2014b), has created an open source Next Generation Digital Learning Ecosystem (NGDLE) to meet the needs of learners, consortium partners, and OERu collaborators. The NGDLE—a distributed, loosely coupled component model, consisting entirely of free and open source software (FOSS)—is a global computing infrastructure created to reach learners wherever they are. All OERu services are hosted on commodity FOSS infrastructure, conferring significant advantages and creating opportunities for institutions adopting any of these services to enhance education opportunities at minimal cost. The NGDLE can also increase technological autonomy and resilience while providing exceptional learning opportunities and agency for learners and educators alike.

<p><strong>Abstract.</strong> Trentino is an Italian alpine region (about 6200&amp;thinsp;km²) with a forest coverage exceeding 60% of its whole surface. In the past, forest landscape has changed dramatically, especially in periods of forest over-exploitation.</p><p>Previous studies in some Trentino sub-regions (Val di Fassa, Paneveggio) have identified these changes and the current trend of forest growth at the expenses of open areas, such as pastures and grasslands, due to the abandonment of rural areas. This phenomenon leads to the rapid Alpine landscape change and profoundly affects the ecological features of mountain ecosystems. To be able to monitor and to take future actions about this trend it is fundamental to know in detail the historical situation of the progressive changes on the land use that occurred over Trentino.</p><p>The work aims to comprehensively reconstruct the forest cover of whole Trentino at high resolution (5&amp;thinsp;m&amp;thinsp;&amp;times;&amp;thinsp;5&amp;thinsp;m pixels) using a series of maps spanning a long period, consisting in historical maps, aerial images, remote sensed information and historical archives. The datasets were archived, processed and analyzed using the Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) GIS GRASS and QGIS. Historical maps include Atlas Tyrolensis (dated 1770), Theresianischer Kataster (dated 1859) and Italian Kingdom Forest Map (IKFM) of 1936. The aerial imagery dataset includes aerial images taken in 1954, which have been orthorectified during this research, and orthophotos available for years 1973, 1994, 2000, 2006, 2010 and 2016. Remote sensed information includes Landsat and recent Lidar data, while historical archives consist mostly in Forest Management Plans available since around 1950.</p><p>The versatility of the wide variety of modules supplied from the FOSS GRASS and QGIS enabled to perform a diverse set of analysis and pre-processing (e.g.:orthorectification) on a heterogeneous dataset of input images. We will focus on the different strategies and methodologies implemented in the FOSS GIS used to process the various types of geographic data, challenges for the future of the research and the fundamental role of the FOSS systems in this process.</p><p>Quantifying forest change in the time-span of our dataset can be used to perform further analysis on ecosystem services, such as protection from soil erosion, and on modification of biome diversity and to create future change scenarios.</p>

<p><strong>Abstract.</strong> Heritage maps represent fundamental information for the study of the evolution of a region, especially in terms of landscape and ecologic features. Historical maps present two kinds of hurdle before they can be used in a modern GIS: they must be geometrically corrected to correspond to the datum in use and they must be classified to exploit the information they contain. This study deals the latter problem: the Historical Cadaster Map, created between 1851 and 1861, for the Trentino region in the North of Italy is available as a collection of maps in the ETRS89/UTM 32N datum. The map is a high resolution scan (230 DPI, 24 bit) of the original map and has been used in several ecological studies, since it provides detailed information not only about land property but also about land use. In the past the cadaster map has been manually digitized and for each area a set of attributes has been recorded. Since this approach is time consuming and prone to errors, automatic and semi-automatic procedures have been tested. Traditional image classification techniques, such as maximum likelihood classification, supervised or un-supervised, pixelwise and contextual, do not provide satisfactory results for many reasons: map colors are very variable within the same area, symbols and characters are used to identify cadaster parcels and locations, lines, drawn by hand on the original map, have variable thickness and colors. The availability of FOSS tools for the Object-based Image Analysis (OBIA) has made possible the application of this technique to the cadaster map. This paper describes the use of GRASS GIS and R for the implementation of the OBIA approach for the supervised classification of the historic cadaster map. It describes the determination of the optimal segments, the choice of their attributes and relevant statistics, and their classification. The result has been evaluated with respect to a manually digitized map using Cohens Kappa and the analysis of the confusion matrix. The result of the OBIA classification has also been compared to the classification of the same map using maximum likelihood classification, un-supervised and supervised, both pixelwise and contextual. The OBIA approach has provided very satisfactory results with the ability to automatically remove the background and symbols and characters, creating a ready to be used classified map. This study highlights the effectiveness of the OBIA processing chain available in the FOSS4G ecosystem, and in particular the added value of the interoperability between GRASS GIS and R.</p>

Résumé La terminologie diachronique reste encore un domaine relativement peu exploré par les ouvrages consacrés entièrement à la terminologie. Pourtant, l'angle de réflexion qu'elle procure est à la fois original et riche. Elle apporte en effet un point de vue différent sur les concepts, le point de vue historique, qui peut être très utile aux traducteurs. L'évolution diachronique des concepts ÉCOSYSTÈME et ECOSYSTEM, à la fois en français et en anglais, montre en effet que l'identité conceptuelle ne peut pas être décrétée à priori en terminologie. De la même façon, des concepts qui paraissent "anodins" ou simples d'accès à première vue (c'est le cas des concepts COMMUNITY et COMMUNAUTÉ) peuvent se révéler en fait relativement complexes. Cette rapide étude de la langue de l'écologie au moyen d'un concept clé, montre donc que la terminologie diachronique peut devenir l'outil de travail indispensable du traducteur car elle intervient à différents niveaux de réflexion.

The Australian Society for Microbiology does not have a strong representation of non-medical mycologists within its membership, although mycology has always been well represented in the clinical arena. Mycologists interested in plant pathology are more likely to be active in the Australasian Plant Pathology Society, those whose interests lie in natural ecosystems are members of the Australasian Mycological Society, and those interested in the compounds produced by fungi may belong to the Royal Australian Chemical Institute. There is, perhaps, scope for greater interaction between ASM and some of these other organisations.

Until about two decades ago, the standard method of studying a microbe was to isolate it, grow it in culture, stain it, and examine it under a microscope. Today, new genomic tools are helping expand our view of the microbial world. Instead of viewing them as “germs” to be eliminated, we are beginning to perceive our microbes as an extension of ourselves – an important organ with unique functions essential to our well-being. Scientists even came up with a new term, “microbiome,” to define our microbes’ genes as an important counterpart to our human genome. With new information about the human microbiome comes the challenge of shifting biology students’ focus from casting microbes as pathogens toward appreciating microbes as symbionts. “The Human Microbiome,” a curriculum supplement produced by the Genetic Science Learning Center, emphasizes that microbes living in and on our bodies perform neutral and beneficial functions, that human microbiota form thriving ecosystems, and that disruptions to our microbial ecosystems may have consequences. In this article, we describe the curriculum materials, provide strategies for incorporating this cutting-edge topic into biology classrooms, list connections to the Next Generation Science Standards, and report on recent research testing the curriculum supplement's effectiveness for student learning.

Parrotfishes (family Labridae: Scarini) are regarded to have important roles for maintaining the ecosystem balance in coral reefs due to their removal of organic matter and calcic substrates by grazing. The purpose of the present study was to clarify the interspecific differences in grazing ability of five parrotfish species (Chlorurus sordidus,C. bowersi,Scarus rivulatus,S. nigerandS. forsteni) in relation to interspecific differences in jaw-lever mechanics and the relative weight of the adductor mandibulae (muscles operating jaw closing). The grazing ability was calculated by using stomach contents (CaCO3weight/organic matter weight) defined as the grazing ability index (GAI). There were significant interspecific differences in GAI (C. sordidus=C. bowersi>S. rivulatus>S. niger=S. forsteni). Teeth ofC. sordidusandC. bowersiwere protrusive-shape whereas teeth ofS. rivulatus,S. nigerandS. forsteniwere flat-shape.C. sordidusandC. bowersihave jaw-lever mechanics producing a greater biting force and have a larger weight of adductor mandibulae.S. rivulatushas jaw-lever mechanics producing a greater biting force but a smaller weight of adductor mandibulae that produce an intermediate biting force. In contrast,S. nigerandS. forstenihave jaw-lever mechanics producing a lesser biting force and have a smaller weight of adductor mandibulae. Feeding rates and foray size ofS. rivulatus,S. nigerandS. forsteniwere greater thanC. sordidusandC. bowersi. The degree in bioerosion (GAI × feeding rate) was the largest forS. rivulatusand the smallest forS. forsteni. The degree in bioerosion forC. sordiduswas larger thanS. nigerwhereas relatively equal betweenC. bowersiandS. niger. These results suggest that interspecific difference in GAI was explained by interspecific differences in teeth shape, jaw-lever mechanics and relative weight of adductor mandibulae. The interspecific difference in the degree of bioerosion suggests the importance of various size of parrotfishes with diverse feeding modes to maintain healthy coral reef ecosystems.

AbstractLawrence, J. E. 2008. Furtive foes: algal viruses as potential invaders. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 65: 716–722. Viruses are abundant in the world's oceans, existing through parasitic relationships with their various hosts. Algal viruses infect representatives of all major algal taxa, influencing phytoplankton population dynamics, marine foodweb interactions, and global biogeochemical cycling. Although the transportation, spread, and persistence of specific viruses remain to be explored fully, the potential for algal virus introductions and invasions is clearly evident. An estimated 3 × 1022 viruses are transported globally in ballast water alone, destined for ports where few physiological or physical barriers inhibit their invasive success. This fact, coupled with recent findings that viruses are not homogeneously distributed throughout the world's oceans, suggests that virus invasions pose a potential threat to marine ecosystems.

While coral reef ecosystems hold immense biological, ecological, and economic value, frequent anthropogenic and environmental disturbances have caused these ecosystems to decline globally. Current coral reef monitoring methods include in situ surveys and analyzing remotely sensed data from satellites. However, in situ methods are often expensive and inconsistent in terms of time and space. High-resolution satellite imagery can also be expensive to acquire and subject to environmental conditions that conceal target features. High-resolution imagery gathered from remotely piloted aircraft systems (RPAS or drones) is an inexpensive alternative; however, processing drone imagery for analysis is time-consuming and complex. This study presents the first semi-automatic workflow for drone image processing with Google Earth Engine (GEE) and free and open source software (FOSS). With this workflow, we processed 230 drone images of Heron Reef, Australia and classified coral, sand, and rock/dead coral substrates with the Random Forest classifier. Our classification achieved an overall accuracy of 86% and mapped live coral cover with 92% accuracy. The presented methods enable efficient processing of drone imagery of any environment and can be useful when processing drone imagery for calibrating and validating satellite imagery.

Abstract Childhood ependymoma is a cancer of the central nervous system with a chronic relapsing pattern. In children, 90% of ependymal tumors occur intracranially where prognosis is grim. Standard care for this disease includes surgical resection followed by radiation. Despite several clinical trials, adjuvant chemotherapies have yet to extend patient survival, highlighting a need for more effective treatment options. Ependymal tumors have been stratified into nine molecular subgroups based on their DNA methylation profile. The most prevalent and aggressive pediatric subgroup is known as posterior fossa ependymoma type A (PFA) which represents approximately 60% of pediatric cases and has a 5-year progression free survival rate of 30%. Whole genome sequencing studies have revealed that PFA tumors rarely harbor recurrent mutations. To inform the potential development of new treatment options for this disease, we sought to decipher the specific mechanisms leading to the tumorigenesis, progression, and metastasis of PFA tumors. By means of single-nuclei RNA-seq and an array of computational methods, we show that the expression profile of PFA tumor cells recapitulate the developmental lineages of radial glia in neurogenic niches, and is consistent with an origin in LGR+ stem cells and a pro-inflammatory environment. In addition, our analysis reveals the abundance of a mesenchymal cell population expressing TGF-β signaling, reactive gliosis, and hypoxia-related genes in distal metastases from PFA tumors. Taken together, our results uncover the cell ecosystem of pediatric posterior fossa ependymoma and identify WNT/β-catenin and TGF-β signaling as candidate drivers of tumorigenesis for this cancer.

Sponges, an important part of the reef ecosystem, are of commercial value for public aquaria, pharmacology and chemistry. With the growing demand for sponges, natural resources are at risk of being overexploited. Growing of sponges in artificial or semi natural farms is an alternative. In this study different farming methods were tested on two Indo-Pacific sponge species,Neopetrosiasp. andStylissa massa. Survival, growth and attachment ability were observed with different substrates (suspended ropes, coral boulders and artificial substrate), two types of aquaria with different water volume and two different field sites in Indonesia. The two species responded differently to their individual locations and environmental stresses. Survival, growth and attachment rates ofNeopetrosiasp. at the field site are depending on the cultivation method, we found highest volume increment (27–35%) for a horizontal line in the field. Whereas the volume increase forS. massadid not show any differences for the different transplantation methods,Neopetrosiasp. generally showed higher rates thanS. massa. Further aquaria experiments, for example, on nutrient supply, should be tested to receive more detailed data about sponges, particularly because almost all fragments of both species showed a decline or steady state in mean length.

RÉSUMÉ. Analyse de la biodiversité floristique des zones humides du Maroc: flore rare, menacée et halophile. La flore des zones humides du Maroc montre une grande richesse floristique de ces écosystèmes, estimée à plus de 670 espèces et sous-espèces (83 familles) auxquelles s’ajoutent au moins 272 autres considérées plutôt comme terrestres, mais qui peuvent coloniser périodiquement ces milieux. Le taux d’endémisme se rapproche de 6,5 %, mais le fait le plus marquant est la grande proportion des taxons rares ou menacés, évaluée à 34 %. La flore halophile fait l’objet d’un commentaire particulier vu la prédominance de milieux salés au Maroc à la fois par le nombre et par l’étendue des sites. Elle compte environ 115 espèces et sous-espèces réparties entre 20 familles.Mots clés. Biodiversité, zones humides, flore rare, flore menacée, flore halophile, Maroc.Abstract. Analysis of the moroccan wetlands floristical diversity: rare, threatened and halophilous flora. The moroccan wetlands flora shows a great floristical richness of these ecosystems, estimated at more than 670 species and subspecies (83 families) which can be supplemented by at least 272 others taxa considered rather as terrestrials but can colonize periodically these biotopes. This flora shows a rate of endemism close to 6,5 %, but the most fact is the great proportion of rare or threatened taxa (estimated at 34%). The halophilous flora was a subjet of particular comment considering the prevalence of the salt biotopes in Morocco, either by the number or the extent of the sites. It counts 115 species and subspecies distributed among 20 families.Key words. Biodiversity, wetlands flora, rare flora, threatened flora, halophilous flora, Morocco.

Antimicrobial resistance has been described in all ecosystems, including wildlife. Here we investigated the presence of methicillin-resistant and susceptible staphylococci in both colony-born and wild vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus sabaeus). Through selective isolation, PCR, MALDI-TOF, and whole-genome sequencing, methicillin-resistant and susceptible Staphylococcus spp. isolated from vervet monkeys were characterized. We obtained putatively methicillin-resistant staphylococci from 29 of the 34 nasal samples collected. Strains were identified by MALDI-TOF analysis. Staphylococcus cohnii (n = 15) was the most commonly isolated species, while nine other species were isolated one or two times. PCR analysis indicated that eight [28%] strains were mecA positive. The whole-genome sequencing [WGS] included eight methicillin-resistant strains (S. epidermidis (n = 2), S. cohnii (n = 3), S. arlettae (n = 2) and S. hominis (n = 1)), nine additional S. cohnii strains and two strains that could not be identified by MALDI-TOF, but genetically characterized as one S. cohnii and one S. warneri. Different resistance genes carried by different mobile genetic elements, mainly blaZ (n = 10) and tet(K) (n = 5) were found, while msr(A), cat, fosB, dfrG, erm(C), mph(C) and str were identified in one to three strains. Phylogenetic analysis of the S. cohnii strains based on SNPs indicated four clusters associated with colony born or wild. In addition, one singleton S. cohnii isolated did not form a separate group and clustered within other S. cohnii strains submitted to the NCBI. In this study, we demonstrated the presence of AMR and mobile genetic elements to both colony-born and wild vervet monkeys. We also identified a previously undescribed prevalence of S. cohnii in the nasal flora of these monkeys, which merits further investigation.

ABSTRACT The Enbridge Line 6B pipeline release of diluted bitumen into the Kalamazoo River downstream of Marshall, MI in July 2010 is one of the largest freshwater oil spills in North American history. The unprecedented scale of impact and massive quantity of oil released required the development and implementation of new approaches for detection and recovery. At the onset of cleanup, conventional recovery techniques were employed for the initially floating oil and were successful. However, volatilization of the lighter diluent, along with mixing of the oil with sediment during flooded, turbulent river conditions caused the oil to sink and collect in natural deposition areas in the river. For more than three years after the spill, recovery of submerged oil has remained the predominant operational focus of the response. The recovery complexities for submerged oil mixed with sediment in depositional areas and long-term oil sheening along approximately 38 miles of the Kalamazoo River led to the development of a multiple-lines-of-evidence approach comprising six major components: geomorphic mapping, field assessments of submerged oil (poling), systematic tracking and mapping of oil sheen, hydrodynamic and sediment transport modeling, forensic oil chemistry, and net environmental benefit analysis. The Federal On-Scene Coordinator (FOSC) considered this information in determining the appropriate course of action for each impacted segment of the river. New sources of heavy crude oils like diluted bitumen and increasing transportation of those oils require changes in the way emergency personnel respond to oil spills in the Great Lakes and other freshwater ecosystems. Strategies to recover heavy oils must consider that the oils may suspend or sink in the water column, mix with fine-grained sediment, and accumulate in depositional areas. Early understanding of the potential fate and behavior of diluted bitumen spills when combined with timely, strong conventional recovery methods can significantly influence response success.

Abstract Fog precipitation has long been assumed as an additional water source in the relic laurel ecosystems of the Canary Islands, located at 500–1400 m MSL. However, to what extent fog water can contribute to the laurel forest water balance is not yet clear. Combining data from artificial fog catchers and a physically based impaction model, the authors evaluated the potential contribution of fog water captured by needle-leafed Erica arborea L. trees in a selected watershed of the Garajonay National Park (La Gomera Island) for a 2-yr period (February 2003–January 2005). Fog water collection was measured with artificial catchers at four micrometeorological stations placed at 1145, 1185, 1230, and 1270 m MSL. Average fog water collection was only significant at the highest measurement site (one order of magnitude greater than at lower altitudes), totaling 496 L m−2 yr−1 during the 2-yr period. The average fog water yield in the first and second annual periods ranged between 0.2–5.0 and 0.1–2.1 L m−2 day−1, respectively. Rainfall exhibited seasonality, distinguishing between rainy and dry seasons, while fog water collection was distributed more evenly throughout the year. Regarding fog water captured by the vegetation, the impaction model predicted a significant amount of fog water potentially collected by a single E. arborea tree, on the order of 1810–2090 L yr−1. Taking tree population density into account, the yearly average water contribution to the soil surface by wind-driven fogs was 251–281 mm, whereas annual rainfall was 635 and 1088 mm, respectively. The hourly course of micrometeorological variables shows a 58% reduction in global radiation under foggy conditions and a concomitant 3°–6°C mean temperature decrease compared to fog-free periods. Thus, limiting evapotranspiration may also be a relevant effect of fog in this subtropical elfin cloud forest.

The livestock system is one of the most important characteristics of agrarian economy; livestock sector provides sustainability and stability to the national economy by contributing to farm energy and food security. Climate change is seen as a major threat to the survival of many species, ecosystems and the sustainability of livestock production systems in many parts of the world. Green house gases (GHG) are released in the atmosphere both by natural sources and anthropogenic (human related) activities. The impact of climate change can heighten the vulnerability of livestock systems and exacerbate existing stresses upon them, such as drought. Parasites and diseases are among the most severe factors that impact livestock production and reproduction, impact on livestock health, impact on feed and fodder availability, reduction in livestock population and impact of climate change on livestock genetics resource. However, the climate change especially global warming may highly influence production performance of farm animals throughout the world, this results in decreased animal production and productivity. Le système de bétail est l'une des caractéristiques les plus importantes de l'économie agraire; Le secteur de l'élevage assure la durabilité et la stabilité de l'économie nationale en contribuant à l'énergie agricole et à la sécurité alimentaire. Le changement climatique est considéré comme une menace majeure pour la survie de nombreuses espèces, écosystèmes et la durabilité des systèmes de production animale dans de nombreuses régions du monde. Les gaz à effet de serre (GES) sont rejetés dans l'atmosphère à la fois par des sources naturelles et par des activités anthropiques (liées à l'homme). L'impact du changement climatique peut accroître la vulnérabilité des systèmes de bétail et exacerber les tensions existantes sur eux, telles que la sécheresse. Les parasites et les maladies sont parmi les facteurs les plus graves qui ont un impact sur la production et la reproduction du bétail, un impact sur la santé du bétail, un impact sur les aliments et la disponibilité du fourrage, la réduction du cheptel et l'impact du changement climatique sur les ressources génétiques du bétail. Cependant, le changement climatique, en particulier le réchauffement climatique, peut fortement influencer les performances de production des animaux d'élevage à travers le monde, ce qui entraîne une baisse de la production et de la productivité animales.

As variações nos ecossistemas naturais exigem uma atenção da sociedade para a água, pois o risco de desabastecimento não é um problema localizado, é uma questão nacional. Avaliou-se o efeito da sazonalidade na qualidade da água no furo do Muriá, Curuçá, Pará. As coletas de água foram realizadas em 21 pontos distribuídos ao longo do Furo, nos meses de fevereiro, março, outubro e novembro de 2015, durante as marés vazante e enchente. As variáveis abióticas foram determinadas in situ com utilização de sonda. As análises de OD foram determinadas pelo método de Winkler (Strickland e Parsons, 1972), taxa de saturação de OD segundo tabela da UNESCO (1973), os nutrientes conforme descritos em Grasshof et al. (1983), o N-amoniacal segundo APHA (1995) e Clorofila a segundo Teixeira (1973). As variáveis ambientais apresentaram diferenças significativas entre os períodos analisados (p<0,05), tendendo a um padrão sazonal, exceto N-amoniacal (p>0,05) logo não teve influência sazonal. Levando em consideração as marés as concentrações de salinidade, CE e clorofila-a foram significativas durante a maré enchente. A turbidez foi mais elevada durante as marés de vazante (p<0,05). Os parâmetros fosfato e N-amoniacal não apresentaram diferença significativa entre marés (p>0,05). O efeito da sazonalidade pode restringir à variação da qualidade do ambiente, logo indica a relevância do monitoramento do ambiente, assim servir de ferramenta em planos de políticas públicas de melhoria do saneamento da população. Sazonal Dynamics of Nutrients in Amazonian EstuaryA B S T R A C TVariations in natural ecosystems require society's attention to water, as the risk of shortages is not a localized problem, it is a national issue. The effect of seasonality on water quality in the Creek Muriá, Curuçá, Pará, Brazil, was evaluated. Water samples were collected at 21 points along the Creek during February, March, October and November 2015, during Tides and flood. Abiotic variables were determined in situ using probe. The parameters of Dissolved Oxygen (OD), saturation rate of OD (% OD), Chlorophyll a (Cl-a), Phosphate (Fosf), Nitrite (NO2), Nitrate (NO3) and N-ammonical (N- Master). The environmental variables presented significant differences between the analyzed periods (p <0.05), tending to a seasonal pattern, except for N-ammoniacal (p> 0.05), thus not having a seasonal influence. Taking into account the tides the concentrations of salinity, EC and chlorophyll-a were significant during tide flood. The turbidity was higher during tidal ebb tides (p <0.05). The phosphate and N-ammonia parameters showed no significant difference between tides (p> 0.05). The effect of seasonality may restrict the variation of the quality of the environment, thus indicating the relevance of environmental monitoring, thus serving as a tool in public policy plans to improve population sanitation.Keywords: Chlorophyll a; nutrients; tide

Dans la zone soudano-sahélienne du Burkina Faso, la performance des associations mixtes sorgho-niébé reste faible bien que les nombreux services écosystémiques rendus par les associations céréales-légumineuses soient connus. L’objectif de la présente étude a été de comprendre la performance des associations mixtes sorgho-niébé sur la productivité du sorgho et du sol. L’étude a consisté à conduire des tests multi-locaux avec de petits agriculteurs familiaux de la région Nord du Burkina Faso. Des traitements à base de zaï simple (ZS), zaï + 9 t ha-1 de substrats organiques (ZF) et zaï + 9 t ha-1 de substrats organiques + 50 kg ha-1 d’urée (ZFN) ont été testés en 2013, chaque traitement étant répété 9 fois. En 2014, le traitement ZFN a été remplacé par le traitement zaï + 9 t ha-1 de substrat organique + 600 kg ha-1 de Burkina Phosphate (ZFP). Chaque parcelle élémentaire a abrité l’association mixte sorgho-niébé et la monoculture du sorgho. Les résultats ont montré que l’association mixte sorgho-niébé a généralement entrainé une dépréciation des rendements du sorgho par rapport à la monoculture du sorgho. Par contre, une performance significative de +58% en 2014 et un accroissement de +10% en 2013 des rendements totaux grains de sorgho et de niébé ont été enregistrés par rapport à la monoculture du sorgho. Une grande efficacité d’acquisition des nutriments par le sorgho associé au niébé a été enregistrée en comparaison à la monoculture du sorgho. Pour une meilleure performance des cultures mixtes sorgho-niébé, les traitements ZS et ZF sont à recommander pour augmenter les rendements totaux grains de niébé et de sorgho ainsi que l’acquisition de N dans les grains du sorgho ; les traitements ZFN et ZFP sont, quant à eux, sont à recommander pour améliorer la fertilité résiduelle en N et P des sols dans la région Nord du Burkina Faso. English title: Performance of sorghum-cowpea mixed cropping system on sorghum and soils productivities in the Sudano-Sahelian zone of Burkina Faso In Sudano-Sahelian zone of Burkina Faso, the performance of sorghum and cowpea mixed cropping system remains low although the many ecosystems provided associated by cereal and legume mixed or intercropping system are known. The objective of this study was to understand the performance of these sorghum and cowpea mixed cropping system on the productivities of sorghum and soils. The study consisted to multi-local tests with small family farmers in the northern region of Burkina Faso. Treatments based on simple zaï (ZS), zaï + 9 t ha-1 of organic substrates (ZF) and zaï + 9 t ha-1 of organic substrates + 50 kg ha-1 of urea (ZFN) were tested in 2013, each treatment being replicated at 9 times. In 2014, the ZFN treatment was replaced by the zaï + 9 t ha-1 of organic substrate + 600 kg ha-1 of Burkina Phosphate (ZFP). Each elementary plot was occupied by sorghum and cowpea mixed cropping system and monocropping sorghum. The results showed that the yields of sorghum mixed by cowpea generally lowered than the yields of monocropping sorghum. In contrast, a significant performance of +58% in 2014 and an increase of +10% in 2013 on total sorghum and cowpea grains yields were recorded compared to monocropping sorghum. The high efficiency of nutrient acquisition by sorghum in mixed cropping system with cowpea was recorded compared to monocropping sorghum. For better performance of sorghum and cowpea mixed cropping system, ZS and ZF treatments are recommended to increase total sorghum and cowpea grains yields, the N acquisition in sorghum grains, and ZFN and ZFP treatments were suggested to improve residual N and P fertility of soils in the northern region Burkina Faso.

L’agriculture, et plus particulièrement les productions animales, sont depuis quelques années au cœur des préoccupations mondiales, si l’on en juge par les nombreux rapports que les institutions internationales, ainsi que l’INRA et le CIRAD, leur ont récemment consacré (Millenium Ecosystem Assessment 2005, IPCC 2006, Steinfeld et al 2006, World Bank 2008, FAO 2009, Steinfeld et al 2010, Dorin et al 2011). Deux points forts ressortent de ces exercices de prospective : 1/ Le poids économique et social de l'élevage dans l'agriculture mondiale est considérable :- La planète compte, toutes catégories confondues, 19 milliards d’animaux d'élevage dont 70% sont détenus par des éleveurs hors pays industrialisés ; - On comptait en 2000 : 1 porcin pour 7 habitants, 1 bovin pour 4 habitants, 1 petit ruminant pour 3 habitants, et plus de 2 volailles par habitant ; - Environ 250 millions d'animaux de trait apportent la force de travail pour près de la moitié des cultures vivrières dans les agricultures familiales des pays en développement ;- L’élevage mobilise environ 4 milliards d’ha de surfaces en herbe (soit près de 30% des terres émergées non gelées), fournit le tiers des protéines pour l’alimentation humaine et représente 40% de la valeur de la production agricole brute mondiale ;- On prévoit d’ici à 2050 le doublement des productions animales, essentiellement par une forte expansion des activités d’élevage dans les pays du Sud ;- Quant à l’approvisionnement futur en produits aquatiques, il repose sur l’essor de l’aquaculture (50% déjà du marché mondial), qui est le secteur de l’élevage lato sensu ayant la plus forte croissance surtout dans la zone AsiePacifique ;- L’élevage contribue aux moyens de vie d’un milliard de pauvres dans les pays du Sud et emploie au total 1,3 milliard de personnes dans le monde. 2/ Les productions animales doivent faire face, plus que les productions végétales, à de nombreuses interrogationset remises en cause qui interpellent la recherche et le développement. On peut les résumer de la façon suivante :comment répondre à l’augmentation considérable de la demande en produits animaux, notamment dans les pays du Sud, dans un contexte de compétition forte sur les ressources pour l’alimentation humaine et de la nécessite d’une prise en compte des impacts environnementaux de l’élevage, qu’ils soient positifs (services environnementaux rendus par les systèmes de productions animales) ou négatifs (contribution au changement climatique liées aux émissions de GES, dégradation de la biodiversité, consommation importante d’eau et d'énergie, détérioration de la qualité des eaux par les effluents d’élevage). Ces interrogations ne se déclinent pas de la même façon dans les pays du Nord et du Sud, parce que la place de l’élevage dans la société et les enjeux de son développement y sont différents. Les productions animales au Sud se trouvent ainsi dans une situation paradoxale : elles doivent faire face à une évolution importante de la demande à moyen terme, dans un contexte nouveau, marqué notamment par les tensions sur les disponibilités et les coûts des intrants et par la prise en compte impérative tant des contributions que des effets liés au changement climatique. C’est dans ce contexte particulier, et en prolongement de la réflexion menée par l’INRA et le CIRAD dans le cadre du chantier PARC rappelé dans la préface, que la Rédaction de la revue INRA Productions animales a décidé de consacrer un numéro complet au thème de l’Elevage en régions chaudes (Coulon et al 2011). Les contributions rassemblées dans ce numéro spécial ont pour ambition de faire une synthèse approfondie de l’état connaissances et des expériences acquises en termes d’élevage en régions chaudes. Les productions animales sont analysées à différents niveaux d’organisation, tenant compte de leur spécificité et des interrelations entre les diverses échelles, permettant une visualisation à la fois circonstanciée et large de la situation de l’élevage dans le monde. Les auteurs fournissent ainsi un panel de résultats, d’illustrations, de solutions et d’alternatives innovantes, ainsi que de nouvelles pistes et priorités de recherche. Celles-ci peuvent réellement contribuer à mieux appréhender la multifonctionnalité de l’élevage, la durabilité de son développement et ses évolutions à venir. Après une présentation des éléments d’évolution des productions animales au niveau mondial (Gerber et al), le deuxième article synthétise les nombreuses connaissances acquises concernant les ressources alimentaires tropicales (diversité, disponibilité et valeur nutritive), utilisables en hors-sol ou au pâturage (Archimède et al). Pour les animaux, ruminants et monogastriques, les caractères majeurs d’adaptation aux effets directs du climat, à la sous-nutrition ou aux maladies parasitaires sont développés, et des options d’optimisation de la productivité et de la résilience sont proposées (Mandonnet et al). Dans le domaine de la santé, les maladies infectieuses animales constituent des contraintes économiques fortes ainsi que des risques pour la santé humaine ; des stratégies pour faire face à cette situation sont formulées, concernant à la fois la conduite des systèmes d’élevage et l’organisation de réseaux de surveillance à l’échelle régionale (Lancelot et al). L’article suivant insiste sur la nécessaire prise en compte de la qualité des produits par les producteurs et les transformateurs et l’importance des règles de caractérisation et de gestion de cette qualité, dans un contexte spécifique aux pays du Sud en termes de conditions climatiques, économiques et sociologiques (Faye et al). Les interactions entre l’environnement et les systèmes d’élevage diversifiés sont décrites et illustrées tant en termes d’impacts que de services agro-écologiques, et diverses pistes sont suggérées pour une gestion plus durable de ces systèmes en régions chaudes (Blanfort et al). En sus de la composante environnementale, et au vu de la diversité des systèmes d’élevage et de leur multifonctionnalité, une démarche essentielle de conception-évaluation de systèmes durables est explicitée, illustrée d’exemples géographiques contrastés (Dedieu et al). A une échelle plus large, les auteurs examinent les interactions entre les territoires ou espaces de production et les filières et proposent un modèle d’analyse appliqué à quatre territoires représentatifs du Sud (Poccard et al). Enfin l’élevage, marqueur socioculturel de nombreuses sociétés du Sud, est analysé comme contributeur culturel et capital social, pour son rôle économique majeur à l’échelle des familles, mais également en faveur de la sécurité alimentaire et le développement local (Alary et al). Souhaitons que ces articles de synthèse et les pistes de recherche évoquées dans ce numéro thématique incitent les chercheurs de l’INRA et du CIRAD à renforcer leur collaboration et à proposer de nouvelles approches de la conception et de l’évaluation des systèmes d’élevage en régions chaudes.

Le Parc national de la Comoé (PNC) en Côte d’Ivoire, abrite une importante diversité biologique et fait partie des aires prioritaires du réseau d’aires protégées d’Afrique de l’Ouest. De nombreuses espèces fauniques y sont menacées par un braconnage intensif. Le buffle africain Syncerus caffer n’échappe pas à cette pression anthropique et malgré son importance fondamentale dans l’équilibre des écosystèmes de savanes soudaniennes du PNC, les informations disponibles sur ce dernier restent encore très parcellaires. Une étude portant sur leur abondance et leur distribution a été menée de janvier 2018 à septembre 2019. La méthode de transect linéaire a permis d’améliorer les connaissances sur les buffles dans ce parc. Au total, 41 transects de 10 km chacun ont été établis et parcourus de mai à juin 2018 et de février à mars 2019. Chaque transect a été parcouru une fois par saison. Les résultats de l’étude confirment la présence des buffles dans le PNC. Le dénombrement des individus à travers le monitoring des crottes des buffles, donne des densités de 37,89 crottes / km² en saison pluvieuse et de 28,165 crottes / km ² en saison sèche. Ces chiffres permettent d’estimer la densité des buffles à 0,2 individu / km² et un effectif de 2306 individus en saison pluvieuse contre 0,15 individu / km² et un effectif de 1715 individus en saison sèche. Les buffles sont principalement localisés dans la partie Centrale et Ouest de la zone d’étude en saison pluvieuse. Par contre, ils se concentrent dans la partie Centre, Nord et Sud du parc en saison sèche. Selon les observations faites, l’orpaillage et le braconnage sont les activités humaines les plus pratiquées dans le parc, notamment dans sa partie Nord et Sud-Est. La valorisation des résultats de cette étude par le renforcement des suivis réguliers tous les semestres, s’avère nécessaire pour améliorer l’évolution des tendances démographiques des populations des buffles du parc. 8024 Journal of Animal & Plant Sciences (J.Anim.Plant Sci. ISSN 2071-7024) Atta et al., 2020 Vol.45 (3): 8024-8037 https://doi.org/10.35759/JAnmPlSci.v45-3.6 Abundance and distribution of buffaloes Syncerus caffer (sparrman, 1779) in Comoe national Park, North-East of Côte d’Ivoire ABSTRACT Comoe national Park (PNC) in Côte d’Ivoire, is one of the significant biological diversity and is one of the priority site the protected areas in West Africa network. Several species are threatened because of intensive poaching and other anthropic activities. The African buffalo Syncerus caffer does not escape this anthropic pressure and despite its fundamental importance in the balance of the Sudanese savannah ecosystems of the PNC, the information available on the latter is still very fragmentary. A study on the abundance and distribution of the buffalo Syncerus caffer (Sparrman, 1779) from PNC was carried out from January 2018 to September 2019. The linear transect method improved knowledge of buffaloes in this park. In total, 41 transects of 10 km each were established and traveled from May to June 2018 and from February to March 2019. Each transect was visited once per season. The results of the study confirm the presence of buffaloes in the PNC. From the results of the inventories, the density of buffalo droppings is estimated at 37, 89 droppings per square kilometer (km²) in the rainy season and 28, 165 droppings per km ² in the dry season. This gives an estimate of 0, 2 individuals per kilometer and a population of 2306 individuals in the rainy season, and 0, 15 individuals per kilometer and a population of 1715 individuals in the dry season. Buffaloes are mainly located in the central and western part of the study area in the rainy season. On the other hand, they are located in the Center, North and South part of the park in the dry season. According to the observations made, gold panning and poaching are the most practiced human activities in the park, especially in its North and Southeast part. The enhancement of the results of this study by strengthening regular monitoring every six months is necessary to improve the evolution of demographic trends in the buffalo populations in the park.

Abstract Island ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to the predicted increases in the intensity and frequency of tropical storms resulting from climate change. In this study, we assess the short-term effects of Hurricane Maria (September 2017) on forest bird communities on the Caribbean island of Dominica. We compared community composition, functional composition, biometrics, and forest structure changes pre- and two years post-hurricane. We caught a total of 408 birds of 18 species across the three years using mist nets. Post-hurricane catch rates were lower than pre-hurricane, and we observed changes in abundance between years across all functional groups, with decreases in the relative abundance of all groups except for omnivores. Hummingbirds showed the greatest reduction in both abundance and richness. Non-metric multidimensional scaling and analysis of dissimilarity indicate a significant shift in community composition for 2018, with 2019 overlapping both 2017 and 2018. The observed changes in richness, abundance, and community composition show that Dominica’s forest birds varied in response to Hurricane Maria, and that these changes are still observed two years following the storm. Severe storms like Hurricane Maria disproportionately impact some functional groups, while other species may be able to capitalize on the changes in habitat. Keywords bird conservation, Caribbean, climate change, island, tropical storm Resumen Los impactos a corto plazo del huracán Maria en las aves de boque de Dominica. • Los ecosistemas insulares son particularmente vulnerables a los aumentos previstos en la intensidad y frecuencia de tormentas tropicales como consecuencia del cambio climático. En este estudio, evaluamos los efectos a corto plazo del huracán María (septiembre de 2017) en las comunidades de aves de bosque de la isla caribeña de Dominica. Comparamos la composición de la comunidad, la composición funcional, la biometría y los cambios en la estructura del bosque antes y dos años después del huracán. Capturamos un total de 408 individuos de 18 especies de aves durante los tres años con redes de niebla. Las tasas de captura posteriores al huracán fueron más bajas que antes del huracán, y observamos cambios en la abundancia entre años en todos los grupos funcionales, con disminuciones en la abundancia relativa de todos los grupos, excepto los omnívoros. Los colibríes mostraron la mayor reducción, tanto en abundancia como en riqueza. El escalado multidimensional no métrico y el análisis de similitud indican un cambio significativo en la composición de la comunidad para 2018, y una superposición de 2019 con 2017 y 2018. Los cambios observados en la riqueza, abundancia y composición de la comunidad de aves de bosque de Dominica muestran una variedad de respuestas al huracán María, y que estos cambios aún se observan dos años después de la tormenta. Las tormentas severas, como María, impactan de manera desproporcionada en algunos grupos funcionales, mientras que otras especies pueden ser capaces de beneficiarse con los cambios sufridos en el hábitat. Palabras clave cambio climático, Caribe, conservación de aves, isla, tormenta tropical Résumé Les effets à court terme de l’ouragan Maria sur les oiseaux forestiers de la Dominique • Les écosystèmes insulaires sont particulièrement vulnérables aux augmentations prévues de l’intensité et de la fréquence des tempêtes tropicales résultant du changement climatique. Dans cette étude, les effets à court terme de l’ouragan Maria (septembre 2017) sur les communautés d’oiseaux forestiers de l’île caribéenne de la Dominique ont été analysés. La composition de la communauté, la composition fonctionnelle, la biométrie ainsi que la structure forestière avant l’ouragan et deux ans après ont été comparées. Au total, 408 oiseaux de 18 espèces ont été capturés à l’aide de filets japonais au cours de ces trois années. Les taux de capture après l’ouragan étaient inférieurs à ceux enregistrés avant l’ouragan, et des variations de l’abondance ont été observés entre les deux périodes pour tous les groupes fonctionnels, avec une baisse de leur abondance relative pour tous à l’exception des omnivores. Les colibris ont présenté la plus grande réduction en matière d’abondance et de richesse. L’échelle multidimensionnelle non métrique et l’analyse de similarité indiquent un changement important dans la composition de la communauté pour 2018, 2019 chevauchant à la fois 2017 et 2018. Les changements observés de la richesse, de l’abondance et de la composition de la communauté d’oiseaux forestiers de la Dominique démontrent qu’ils ont eu lieu en réponse à l’ouragan Maria, et qu’ils perdurent deux ans après la tempête. Les fortes tempêtes telles que Maria ont un effet disproportionné sur certains groupes fonctionnels, tandis que certaines espèces peuvent réussir à bénéficier des changements de leurs habitats. Mots clés Caraïbes, changement climatique, comportement en cas de tempête tropicale, île, préservation des oiseaux

Free and open source software (a.k.a. FOSS or ‘digital infrastructure’) is now fully integrated into commercial ecosystems. IT firms invest in FOSS in order (a) to share with other firms development costs; (b) to help attract prospective employees in a competitive job market where hiring skilled IT professionals is challenging and (c) to shape the governance and technical orientation of projects: firm employees participating in leading in FOSS projects may help IT firms create digital infrastructure more suited to the firmware they develop atop this infrastructure. How does the world of FOSS volunteers connect to the world of commercial ecosystems? Are firms developing policies in relation to open source communities, requesting projects conform to certain technical or behavioral standards, for example? To what extent are these strategies successful? To answer, we present a qualitative analysis of firm discourses collected during three open source conferences. We then analyze the email discussion lists of Linux and Firefox and search for the occurrence of key firm discourse terms in order to ascertain in what way these discourses are being used by FOSS developers. Our in-depth analysis of firm discourses and exploratory analysis of project discussions around these terms show that the FOSS world encompasses a diversity of industrial outlooks. They also highlight the evolution of the role of foundations: whilst foundations used to protect projects from firm interference, some have now wholly been placed in the service of firm efforts to standardize project work, particularly around the key issue of security.

The genetic diversity of pathogenic members of the Fusarium oxysporum species complex (FOSC) has been intensively studied worldwide, yet strains occurring from native soils with low anthropogenic disturbance remain poorly understood. This study focused on 355 F. oxysporum isolates from soils with low anthropogenic activity obtained from the grassland biome of South Africa. Analysis of the translation elongation factor 1-alpha (tef-1α) gene revealed high levels of sequence type (ST) diversity within the soil population in comparison to the global dataset. Phylogenetic relationships of the South African isolates revealed that only four nested within FOSC Clade 1. This is the first report of members of the basal clade recovered from ecosystems with low anthropogenic disturbance from Sub-Saharan Africa. The remaining strains nested within Clades 2 to 5. This study contributes significantly to our understanding of the distribution of the FOSC in natural systems as we show that FOSC populations in the South African grassland biome are genetically diverse. This fills in our knowledge gap as previous studies reported only on the occurrence and diversity of the FOSC isolated from plant debris in South Africa. This is the first comprehensive survey of fusaria from grassland soils with low anthropogenic disturbance in South Africa.

Recent advances in computer technology have brought a revolution in ecological modelling. Ecoinformatics and computational ecology make use of various programs, including agent-based modeling algorithms, to study ecological systems. In this study, an in-silico analysis was performed using an agent based modelling software, to analyze the impacts of a potential toxin on Lake Ontario ecosystem. For easier duplication of the real world into the virtual system, the ecosystem was divided into 6 compartments. These compartments include phytoplankton, zooplankton, macroinvertebrates, forage fish, piscivores, and sea lamprey. The test model was performed under five different concentrations of toxin. Each test was repeated 15 times to reduce demographic stochasticity. The results suggest that toxic contaminations, such as mercury, could potentially lead to population reduction in forage fish, piscivores and sea lamprey compartments.Les progrès récents reliés à la technologie informatique ont amené une révolution dans la modélisation écologique. L’éco-informatique et l’écologie computationnelle utilisent plusieurs programmes, y compris des algorithmes basés sur les systèmes multiagents pour étudier les systèmes écologiques. Dans cette étude, une analyse insilico a été accomplie en utilisant les systèmes multiagents pour analyser les impacts d’une toxine potentielle dans l’écosystème du Lac Ontario. Afin de mieux améliorer la représentation du monde réel dans le système virtuel, l’écosystème du Lac d’Ontario a été divisé en six compartiments. Ces compartiments comprennent le phytoplancton, le zooplancton, les macroinvertébrés, les poissons fourragers, les piscivores et la lamproie marine. Ce modèle a été examiné sous cinq concentrations des toxines différentes. Chaque examen a été répété 15 fois pour réduire la stochasticité démographique. Les résultats suggèrent que des contaminations toxiques, comme la contamination par le mercure, pourraient potentiellement arriver à une réduction de la population des poissons fourragers, des piscivores et des compartiments de la lamproie marine.

ABSTRACT: Citrus is an important export commodity, mostly grown on Mediterranean and Aegean coasts of Turkey. Weeds are hidden foes impairing citrus productivity. Limited knowledge of weed distribution and factors affecting the distribution are among major hurdles in successful weed management. In this study, weed flora of citrus orchards and factors affecting its distributions in Mugla province of Turkey were determined. Sixty orchards were surveyed in spring and autumn seasons of 2010 and 2011. Data relating to frequency, coverage and density of weed species were recorded. Soil samples (0-30 cm depth) were collected and analyzed for physicochemical properties. Climatic variables, altitude and soil properties were correlated with weed flora. Sixty-eight weed species belonging to 30 families were documented. Higher number of weed species (54) was recorded in spring season compared with autumn (29 weed species). Annuals and therophytes were the most dominant growth and life forms, respectively. Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) to correlate soil properties and weed vegetation data yielded three distinct groups dominated by phosphorus, sand and silt contents, which affected weed distribution. CCA to correlate vegetation data and weather attributes produced two distinct groups affected by altitude and precipitation. Generally, cosmopolitan weeds adapted to different ecosystems were observed during the survey. Keeping in view the spatial variability of soil and nature of weeds, site-specific/orchard-specific weed management practices are recommended to be opted for successful weed management.

From 2001 to 2010, the incidence rates of melanomas have increased by over 2% for both Canadian men and women. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles are common additives to sunscreen products. Their ability to render creams and lotions transparent, as well as their use as an ultraviolet light filter makes them a popular choice. Yet their effects on the skin, other organs, and the environment are largely unexplored, giving rise to questions about their safety. Current research findings report that titanium dioxide nanoparticles tend to be less hazardous to organisms than other nanomaterials. Nonetheless, studies on test animals and cell cultures show signi cant neurological, pulmonary, cardiac, and genetic damage once titanium dioxide nanoparticles have been absorbed into the bloodstream through inhalation and ingestion. Nanoparticles are also usually discharged as feces and urine, rinsed off, or disposed of through sewage to enter wastewater treatment plants and released into the surrounding ecosystems. The largest obstacle in nanoparticle research is the lack of consistency in terms of measuring and reporting ndings. Since the amounts of nanoparticles present after experiments are often not recorded, it is difficult to quantify the amount of nanoparticles in our environment and the rate at which they are released. In addition, manufacturers often do not label their products accurately, leading to misinformed consumers and the potential for adverse health effects. It is for these reasons that the scientific community, governments, industries, and environmental groups need to collaborate in the interest of public health and environmental sustainability in order set the precedence for future scientific advancements. This review provides background information on the properties of titanium dioxide nanoparticles, the effects of such particles on human and environmental health, the current regulations in place in Europe and North America, as well as suggestions for improving consumer safety. De 2001 à 2010, la fréquence des mélanomes avait augmentée par plus de 2% pour les hommes et les femmes canadiens. Les nanoparticules de dioxyde de titane sont des additifs communs dans des produits de protection anti- UV. Elles sont un choix populaire à cause de leur capacité pour rendre les lotions et les crèmes transparentes, et leur fonction comme un filtre des rayons UV. Pourtant, leurs effets sur la peau, les autres organes et l’environnement sont pour la plupart inexplorés, qui provoque des questions concernant la sécurité de leur utilisation. Les résultats courants nous montrent que les nanoparticules de dioxyde de titane sont souvent moins dangereuses pour les organismes que les autres nanomatériaux. Néanmoins, les recherches sur les animaux de laboratoire et les cultures cellulaires montrent qu’il y a des dommages neurologiques, pulmonaires, cardiaques et génétiques assez signifiants une fois que les nanoparticules de dioxyde de titane sont absorbées par le système sanguin au moyen d’inhalation et ingestion. Les nanoparticules sont souvent déchargées du corps comme matières fécales ou urine, enlevées en passant sous l’eau, ou débarrassées dans les eaux usées ou elles peuvent entrer les usines d’assainissement d’eau. Ensuite, ces nanoparticules sont laissées dans les écosystèmes environnants. Le plus grand obstacle dans la recherche des nanoparticules est l’absence d’uniformité concernant la mesure et le rapport des résultats. Bien que les premières mesures des quantités de nanoparticules soient enregistrées, souvent les quantités de nanoparticules présentes après ces études ne sont pas enregistrées. Alors, c’est difficile de chiffrer la quantité de nanoparticules dans notre environnement et le taux auquel elles sont libérées. De plus, c’est rare que les fabricants étiquettent leurs produits d’une manière précise et alors les consommateurs peuvent être mal informés, entrainant la possibilité des effets négatifs sur la santé. Celles-ci sont les raisons pour lesquelles la communauté scientifique, les gouvernements, les industries, et les groupes environnementales ont besoin de collaborer dans les intérêts de la santé publique et la durabilité environnementale pour créer un précédent pour les avancées scientifiques dans le futur. Cet article fournit de information sur les propriétés des nanoparticules de dioxyde de titane, les effets de ces genres de particules sur la santé humaine et environnementale, les régulations courantes mis en place en Europe et Amérique du Nord, ainsi que des suggestions pour l’amélioration de la sécurité des consommateurs.

Over the past century, many books for general readers have styled sharks as “monsters of the deep” (Steele). In recent decades, however, at least some writers have also turned to representing how sharks are seriously threatened by human activities. At a time when media coverage of shark sightings seems ever increasing in Australia, scholarship has begun to consider people’s attitudes to sharks and how these are formed, investigating the representation of sharks (Peschak; Ostrovski et al.) in films (Le Busque and Litchfield; Neff; Schwanebeck), newspaper reports (Muter et al.), and social media (Le Busque et al., “An Analysis”). My own research into representations of surfing and sharks in Australian writing (Brien) has, however, revealed that, although reporting of shark sightings and human-shark interactions are prominent in the news, and sharks function as vivid and commanding images and metaphors in art and writing (Ellis; Westbrook et al.), little scholarship has investigated their representation in Australian books published for a general readership. While recognising representations of sharks in other book-length narrative forms in Australia, including Australian fiction, poetry, and film (Ryan and Ellison), this enquiry is focussed on non-fiction books for general readers, to provide an initial review. Sampling holdings of non-fiction books in the National Library of Australia, crosschecked with Google Books, in early 2021, this investigation identified 50 Australian books for general readers that are principally about sharks, or that feature attitudes to them, published from 1911 to 2021. Although not seeking to capture all Australian non-fiction books for general readers that feature sharks, the sampling attempted to locate a wide range of representations and genres across the time frame from the earliest identified text until the time of the survey. The books located include works of natural and popular history, travel writing, memoir, biography, humour, and other long-form non-fiction for adult and younger readers, including hybrid works. A thematic analysis (Guest et al.) of the representation of sharks in these texts identified five themes that moved from understanding sharks as fishes to seeing them as monsters, then prey, and finally to endangered species needing conservation. Many books contained more than one theme, and not all examples identified have been quoted in the discussion of the themes below. Sharks as Part of the Natural Environment Drawing on oral histories passed through generations, two memoirs (Bradley et al.; Fossa) narrate Indigenous stories in which sharks play a central role. These reveal that sharks are part of both the world and a wider cosmology for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people (Clua and Guiart). In these representations, sharks are integrated with, and integral to, Indigenous life, with one writer suggesting they are “creator beings, ancestors, totems. Their lifecycles reflect the seasons, the landscape and sea country. They are seen in the movement of the stars” (Allam). A series of natural history narratives focus on zoological studies of Australian sharks, describing shark species and their anatomy and physiology, as well as discussing shark genetics, behaviour, habitats, and distribution. A foundational and relatively early Australian example is Gilbert P. Whitley’s The Fishes of Australia: The Sharks, Rays, Devil-fish, and Other Primitive Fishes of Australia and New Zealand, published in 1940. Ichthyologist at the Australian Museum in Sydney from the early 1920s to 1964, Whitley authored several books which furthered scientific thought on sharks. Four editions of his Australian Sharks were published between 1983 and 1991 in English, and the book is still held in many libraries and other collections worldwide. In this text, Whitley described a wide variety of sharks, noting shared as well as individual features. Beautiful drawings contribute information on shape, colouring, markings, and other recognisable features to assist with correct identification. Although a scientist and a Fellow and then President of the Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, Whitley recognised it was important to communicate with general readers and his books are accessible, the prose crisp and clear. Books published after this text (Aiken; Ayling; Last and Stevens; Tricas and Carwardine) share Whitley’s regard for the diversity of sharks as well as his desire to educate a general readership. By 2002, the CSIRO’s Field Guide to Australian Sharks & Rays (Daley et al.) also featured numerous striking photographs of these creatures. Titles such as Australia’s Amazing Sharks (Australian Geographic) emphasise sharks’ unique qualities, including their agility and speed in the water, sensitive sight and smell, and ability to detect changes in water pressure around them, heal rapidly, and replace their teeth. These books also emphasise the central role that sharks play in the marine ecosystem. There are also such field guides to sharks in specific parts of Australia (Allen). This attention to disseminating accurate zoological information about sharks is also evident in books written for younger readers including very young children (Berkes; Kear; Parker and Parker). In these and other similar books, sharks are imaged as a central and vital component of the ocean environment, and the narratives focus on their features and qualities as wondrous rather than monstrous. Sharks as Predatory Monsters A number of books for general readers do, however, image sharks as monsters. In 1911, in his travel narrative Peeps at Many Lands: Australia, Frank Fox describes sharks as “the most dangerous foes of man in Australia” (23) and many books have reinforced this view over the following century. This can be seen in titles that refer to sharks as dangerous predatory killers (Fox and Ruhen; Goadby; Reid; Riley; Sharpe; Taylor and Taylor). The covers of a large proportion of such books feature sharks emerging from the water, jaws wide open in explicit homage to the imaging of the monster shark in the film Jaws (Spielberg). Shark!: Killer Tales from the Dangerous Depths (Reid) is characteristic of books that portray encounters with sharks as terrifying and dramatic, using emotive language and stories that describe sharks as “the world’s most feared sea creature” (47) because they are such “highly efficient killing machines” (iv, see also 127, 129). This representation of sharks is also common in several books for younger readers (Moriarty; Rohr). Although the risk of being injured by an unprovoked shark is extremely low (Chapman; Fletcher et al.), fear of sharks is prevalent and real (Le Busque et al., “People’s Fear”) and described in a number of these texts. Several of the memoirs located describe surfers’ fear of sharks (Muirhead; Orgias), as do those of swimmers, divers, and other frequent users of the sea (Denness; de Gelder; McAloon), even if the author has never encountered a shark in the wild. In these texts, this fear of sharks is often traced to viewing Jaws, and especially to how the film’s huge, bloodthirsty great white shark persistently and determinedly attacks its human hunters. Pioneer Australian shark expert Valerie Taylor describes such great white sharks as “very big, powerful … and amazingly beautiful” but accurately notes that “revenge is not part of their thought process” (Kindle version). Two books explicitly seek to map and explain Australians’ fear of sharks. In Sharks: A History of Fear in Australia, Callum Denness charts this fear across time, beginning with his own “shark story”: a panicked, terror-filled evacuation from the sea, following the sighting of a shadow which turned out not to be a shark. Blake Chapman’s Shark Attacks: Myths, Misunderstandings and Human Fears explains commonly held fearful perceptions of sharks. Acknowledging that sharks are a “highly emotive topic”, the author of this text does not deny “the terror [that] they invoke in our psyche” but makes a case that this is “only a minor characteristic of what makes them such intriguing animals” (ix). In Death by Coconut: 50 Things More Dangerous than a Shark and Why You Shouldn’t Be Afraid of the Ocean, Ruby Ashby Orr utilises humour to educate younger readers about the real risk humans face from sharks and, as per the book’s title, why they should not be feared, listing champagne corks and falling coconuts among the many everyday activities more likely to lead to injury and death in Australia than encountering a shark. Taylor goes further in her memoir – not only describing her wonder at swimming with these creatures, but also her calm acceptance of the possibility of being injured by a shark: "if we are to be bitten, then we are to be bitten … . One must choose a life of adventure, and of mystery and discovery, but with that choice, one must also choose the attendant risks" (2019: Kindle version). Such an attitude is very rare in the books located, with even some of the most positive about these sea creatures still quite sensibly fearful of potentially dangerous encounters with them. Sharks as Prey There is a long history of sharks being fished in Australia (Clark). The killing of sharks for sport is detailed in An American Angler in Australia, which describes popular adventure writer Zane Grey’s visit to Australia and New Zealand in the 1930s to fish ‘big game’. This text includes many bloody accounts of killing sharks, which are justified with explanations about how sharks are dangerous. It is also illustrated with gruesome pictures of dead sharks. Australian fisher Alf Dean’s biography describes him as the “World’s Greatest Shark Hunter” (Thiele), this text similarly illustrated with photographs of some of the gigantic sharks he caught and killed in the second half of the twentieth century. Apart from being killed during pleasure and sport fishing, sharks are also hunted by spearfishers. Valerie Taylor and her late husband, Ron Taylor, are well known in Australia and internationally as shark experts, but they began their careers as spearfishers and shark hunters (Taylor, Ron Taylor’s), with the documentary Shark Hunters gruesomely detailing their killing of many sharks. The couple have produced several books that recount their close encounters with sharks (Taylor; Taylor, Taylor and Goadby; Taylor and Taylor), charting their movement from killers to conservationists as they learned more about the ocean and its inhabitants. Now a passionate campaigner against the past butchery she participated in, Taylor’s memoir describes her shift to a more respectful relationship with sharks, driven by her desire to understand and protect them. In Australia, the culling of sharks is supposedly carried out to ensure human safety in the ocean, although this practice has long been questioned. In 1983, for instance, Whitley noted the “indiscriminate” killing of grey nurse sharks, despite this species largely being very docile and of little threat to people (Australian Sharks, 10). This is repeated by Tony Ayling twenty-five years later who adds the information that the generally harmless grey nurse sharks have been killed to the point of extinction, as it was wrongly believed they preyed on surfers and swimmers. Shark researcher and conservationist Riley Elliott, author of Shark Man: One Kiwi Man’s Mission to Save Our Most Feared and Misunderstood Predator (2014), includes an extremely critical chapter on Western Australian shark ‘management’ through culling, summing up the problems associated with this approach: it seems to me that this cull involved no science or logic, just waste and politics. It’s sickening that the people behind this cull were the Fisheries department, which prior to this was the very department responsible for setting up the world’s best acoustic tagging system for sharks. (Kindle version, Chapter 7) Describing sharks as “misunderstood creatures”, Orr is also clear in her opposition to killing sharks to ‘protect’ swimmers noting that “each year only around 10 people are killed in shark attacks worldwide, while around 73 million sharks are killed by humans”. She adds the question and answer, “sounds unfair? Of course it is, but when an attack is all over the news and the people are baying for shark blood, it’s easy to lose perspective. But culling them? Seriously?” (back cover). The condemnation of culling is also evident in David Brooks’s recent essay on the topic in his collection of essays about animal welfare, conservation and the relationship between humans and other species, Animal Dreams. This disapproval is also evident in narratives by those who have been injured by sharks. Navy diver Paul de Gelder and surfer Glen Orgias were both bitten by sharks in Sydney in 2009 and both their memoirs detail their fear of sharks and the pain they suffered from these interactions and their lengthy recoveries. However, despite their undoubted suffering – both men lost limbs due to these encounters – they also attest to their ongoing respect for these creatures and specify a shared desire not to see them culled. Orgias, instead, charts the life story of the shark who bit him alongside his own story in his memoir, musing at the end of the book, not about himself or his injury, but about the fate of the shark he had encountered: great whites are portrayed … as pathological creatures, and as malevolent. That’s rubbish … they are graceful, mighty beasts. I respect them, and fear them … [but] the thought of them fighting, dying, in a net upsets me. I hope this great white shark doesn’t end up like that. (271–271) Several of the more recent books identified in this study acknowledge that, despite growing understanding of sharks, the popular press and many policy makers continue to advocate for shark culls, these calls especially vocal after a shark-related human death or injury (Peppin-Neff). The damage to shark species involved caused by their killing – either directly by fishing, spearing, finning, or otherwise hunting them, or inadvertently as they become caught in nets or affected by human pollution of the ocean – is discussed in many of the more recent books identified in this study. Sharks as Endangered Alongside fishing, finning, and hunting, human actions and their effects such as beach netting, pollution and habitat change are killing many sharks, to the point where many shark species are threatened. Several recent books follow Orr in noting that an estimated 100 million sharks are now killed annually across the globe and that this, as well as changes to their habitats, are driving many shark species to the status of vulnerable, threatened or towards extinction (Dulvy et al.). This is detailed in texts about biodiversity and climate change in Australia (Steffen et al.) as well as in many of the zoologically focussed books discussed above under the theme of “Sharks as part of the natural environment”. The CSIRO’s Field Guide to Australian Sharks & Rays (Daley et al.), for example, emphasises not only that several shark species are under threat (and protected) (8–9) but also that sharks are, as individuals, themselves very fragile creatures. Their skeletons are made from flexible, soft cartilage rather than bone, meaning that although they are “often thought of as being incredibly tough; in reality, they need to be handled carefully to maximise their chance of survival following capture” (9). Material on this theme is included in books for younger readers on Australia’s endangered animals (Bourke; Roc and Hawke). Shark Conservation By 1991, shark conservation in Australia and overseas was a topic of serious discussion in Sydney, with an international workshop on the subject held at Taronga Zoo and the proceedings published (Pepperell et al.). Since then, the movement to protect sharks has grown, with marine scientists, high-profile figures and other writers promoting shark conservation, especially through attempts to educate the general public about sharks. De Gelder’s memoir, for instance, describes how he now champions sharks, promoting shark conservation in his work as a public speaker. Peter Benchley, who (with Carl Gottlieb) recast his novel Jaws for the film’s screenplay, later attested to regretting his portrayal of sharks as aggressive and became a prominent spokesperson for shark conservation. In explaining his change of heart, he stated that when he wrote the novel, he was reflecting the general belief that sharks would both seek out human prey and attack boats, but he later discovered this to be untrue (Benchley, “Without Malice”). Many recent books about sharks for younger readers convey a conservation message, underscoring how, instead of fearing or killing sharks, or doing nothing, humans need to actively assist these vulnerable creatures to survive. In the children’s book series featuring Bindi Irwin and her “wildlife adventures”, there is a volume where Bindi and a friend are on a diving holiday when they find a dead shark whose fin has been removed. The book not only describes how shark finning is illegal, but also how Bindi and friend are “determined to bring the culprits to justice” (Browne). This narrative, like the other books in this series, has a dual focus; highlighting the beauty of wildlife and its value, but also how the creatures described need protection and assistance. Concluding Discussion This study was prompted by the understanding that the Earth is currently in the epoch known as the Anthropocene, a time in which humans have significantly altered, and continue to alter, the Earth by our activities (Myers), resulting in numerous species becoming threatened, endangered, or extinct. It acknowledges the pressing need for not only natural science research on these actions and their effects, but also for such scientists to publish their findings in more accessible ways (see, Paulin and Green). It specifically responds to demands for scholarship outside the relevant areas of science and conservation to encourage widespread thinking and action (Mascia et al.; Bennett et al.). As understanding public perceptions and overcoming widely held fear of sharks can facilitate their conservation (Panoch and Pearson), the way sharks are imaged is integral to their survival. The five themes identified in this study reveal vastly different ways of viewing and writing about sharks. These range from seeing sharks as nothing more than large fishes to be killed for pleasure, to viewing them as terrifying monsters, to finally understanding that they are amazing creatures who play an important role in the world’s environment and are in urgent need of conservation. This range of representation is important, for if sharks are understood as demon monsters which hunt humans, then it is much more ‘reasonable’ to not care about their future than if they are understood to be fascinating and fragile creatures suffering from their interactions with humans and our effect on the environment. Further research could conduct a textual analysis of these books. In this context, it is interesting to note that, although in 1949 C. Bede Maxwell suggested describing human deaths and injuries from sharks as “accidents” (182) and in 2013 Christopher Neff and Robert Hueter proposed using “sightings, encounters, bites, and the rare cases of fatal bites” (70) to accurately represent “the true risk posed by sharks” to humans (70), the majority of the books in this study, like mass media reports, continue to use the ubiquitous and more dramatic terminology of “shark attack”. The books identified in this analysis could also be compared with international texts to reveal and investigate global similarities and differences. While the focus of this discussion has been on non-fiction texts, a companion analysis of representation of sharks in Australian fiction, poetry, films, and other narratives could also be undertaken, in the hope that such investigations contribute to more nuanced understandings of these majestic sea creatures. 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