Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Formation des masses d’eau'

We investigate the evolution of dust content in galaxies from redshifts z = 0 to z = 9.5. Using empirically motivated prescriptions, we model galactic-scale properties-including halo mass, stellar mass, star formation rate, gas mass, and metallicity-to make predictions for the galactic evolution of dust mass and dust temperature in main-sequence galaxies. Our simple analytic model, which predicts that galaxies in the early universe had greater quantities of dust than their low-redshift counterparts, does a good job of reproducing observed trends between galaxy dust and stellar mass out to z approximate to 6. We find that for fixed galaxy stellar mass, the dust temperature increases from z = 0 to z = 6. Our model forecasts a population of low-mass, high-redshift galaxies with interstellar dust as hot as, or hotter than, their more massive counterparts; but this prediction needs to be constrained by observations. Finally, we make predictions for observing 1.1 mm flux density arising from interstellar dust emission with the Atacama Large Millimeter Array.

La Selle Rivière, cours d’eau non canalisé du bassin Artois-Picardie est considérée par l’Agence de l’Eau comme une masse d’eau prioritaire dont la qualité est à améliorer. L’objet de ce travail a été d’étudier le comportement spatio-temporel de plusieurs substances déclassantes ou non, avec des échelles de temps allant du prélèvement ponctuel à la mesure haute fréquence, en passant par des échantillonneurs passifs intégrateurs. Nous nous sommes intéressés à plusieurs traceurs de la contamination urbaine, agricole et industrielle, au travers des nitrates, des phosphates, des éléments traces métalliques, de certains produits phytosanitaires et pharmaceutiques, et de la matière organique dissoute. Dans un premier temps, nous avons confirmé que la Selle est principalement alimentée par les eaux souterraines riches en nitrates, avec des teneurs résiduelles en atrazine qui se retrouvent dans le cours d’eau à des concentrations similaires. Par ailleurs, le bassin versant étant très agricole dans sa partie amont et avec des ilots urbains plutôt localisé en aval, quelques pesticides et médicaments sont retrouvés à l’état d’ultra-traces par temps sec, et des teneurs en phosphates souvent supérieures à 0,2 mg L-1. Les métaux sont peu présents dans le cours d’eau malgré des teneurs pouvant être élevées en sortie de stations d’épuration (notamment Gd et Zn) car les débits des stations représentent des apports mineurs. La mesure haute fréquence a permis de préciser des problèmes de qualité d’eau par temps de pluie avec des lessivages de sols, et des pics importants mais limités dans le temps en phosphore et carbone organique alors que l’on observe une dilution des nitrates. La composition de la matière organique étudiée par spectroscopie de fluorescence a permis de caractériser la signature spectrale de différents types d’eau (souterraine, de surface et effluent de station d’épuration) et de différencier les apports allochtones des apports autochtones. Enfin, ces résultats permettent de discuter qualitativement les futurs effets du changement climatique à l’échelle régionale sur l’évolution de la qualité de la Selle Rivière<br>The River Selle is a non-channelised stream in the Artois-Picardy basin and is considered as a priority waterbody by the Artois-Picardy Water Agency. The aim of this work was to study the spatio-temporal behaviour of several substances at different time scales, ranging from low-frequency (grab sampling, passive samplers) to high-frequency monitoring. More specifically, tracers of pollution reflecting urban, agricultural and industrial contamination (nitrates, phosphates, trace metal elements, pesticides, pharmaceutical residues, dissolved organic matter) were investigated. We confirmed that the River Selle is mainly fed by a nitrate-rich groundwater. Besides, the nitrates and atrazine concentrations in the river water were similar to those found in the groundwater. At the upstream of the river, the land-use is mainly dominated by agriculture whereas most of the urban islets are located at the downstream of the river. Consequently, during dry weather, ultra-trace concentrations of some pesticides and pharmaceutical residues were recorded and phosphate levels often exceeded 0.2 mg L-1. Due to the minor flow input of the wastewater treatment plants into the river, metallic contamination in the River Selle (particularly Gd and Zn) is quite low despite the high concentrations measured in wastewater effluents. Water quality issues during storm events were identified by high-frequency monitoring. Significant but time-limited peaks in phosphorus and organic carbon were observed, while nitrates were diluted. The composition of dissolved organic matter was studied by fluorescence spectroscopy. The spectral signature of different types of water (groundwater, surface water and wastewater effluents) was characterised as well as the origins of this organic matter (autochtonous vs allochthonous). Finally, these results enable to discuss qualitatively the future effects of climate change at a regional scale on the evolution of the water quality of the River Selle

L'étude des exoplanètes, et en particulier celle des planètes géantes gazeuses, est une branche jeune et florissante de l'astrophysique moderne. Les grandes problématiques qui ont émergé des études sur cette population de planètes consistent à comprendre comment elles se sont formées, comment elles ont spatialement et temporellement évolué, et comment elles influencent d'éventuelles autres planètes au sein des systèmes stellaires. Afin d'apporter des réponses à ces questions, il a été nécessaire de développer des techniques d'observation et des outils d'analyse des données les plus performants possibles. C'est dans ce cadre que j'ai effectué mon travail de thèse, qui s'est articulé autour de trois projets.En premier lieu, je me suis intéressée à étudier le taux d'occurrence des planètes géantes gazeuses en orbite autour des naines M. Pour réaliser cette étude statistique, j'ai utilisé des données de deux relevés NaCo, le premier étant consacré aux naines M, et le second étant constitué d'étoiles AF et ayant été précédemment étudié par des membres de notre équipe. J'ai développé un code Monte Carlo, et me suis servie de la logique de la contraposition pour mener une étude comparative des résultats de ces deux relevés. J'ai également associé des gammes de rapports de masses entre la planète et son étoile à des mécanismes de formation privilégiés. J'en ai conclu que la formation des planètes géantes gazeuses formée par accrétion sur coeur était favorisée si ces planètes se situaient autour d'étoiles AF plutôt que des naines M, pour des séparations allant de 8 à 400 unités astronomiques. La fréquence des planètes géantes gazeuses reste toutefois faible quelque soit la masse de l'étoile considérée (typiquement &lt;20%).Je me suis par la suite intéressée à développer un outil statistique capable de combiner des données de vitesses radiales et d'imagerie directe afin d'apporter des contraintes supplémentaires sur la population de planètes géantes situées à toutes les séparations, pour des systèmes particuliers. Le code que j'ai écrit repose sur une génération Monte Carlo de planètes synthétiques. Je l'ai appliqué sur les données de vitesses radiales et d'imagerie d'étoiles jeunes et proches : AUMic, ßPictoris, HD113337, et HD95086. Les futures applications pourront être nombreuses à la fois parce que les données de vitesses radiales sont de plus en plus abondantes, et parce que les instruments de haut contraste et haute résolution angulaire permettent de sonder des séparations toujours plus courtes.Grâce à ces deux premiers projets de ma thèse, j'ai pris en main les outils de réduction de données développés à l'IPAG, et j'ai développé des outils statistiques me permettant de commencer à mener mon dernier projet. Cet ultime projet consiste en l'observation, la réduction et l'analyse de données de vitesses radiales HARPS et d'imagerie SPHERE obtenues conjointement pour un set de naines K5-M5, proches et jeunes. L'analyse de l'ensemble des données va permettre d'apporter de fortes contraintes sur les populations de planètes géantes gazeuses en orbite autour des étoiles de faible masse, depuis les très courtes jusqu'aux plus longues séparations<br>Studying exoplanets, and in particular gaseous giant planets, is a new field of modern astrophysics. Understanding how the giant planets form, dynamically evolve, evolve with time, and have an impact on potential other planets within a stellar system are part of the biggest challenges of this science. The development of the most efficient observational technics and optimal analysis tools have been necessary to bring answers to these problematics. This is the context in which I realized my PhD thesis. I present in this manuscript the three projects that I led during these last three years.First, I studied the occurrence rate of the giant planets that orbit around M dwarfs. To realize this statistical study, I used NaCo data from two surveys. The first survey was composed of M dwarfs, the second was made of AF stars that were already studied by members of our team. I developed a Monte Carlo code, and used the contrapositive logic to lead a comparative analysis of these two surveys. I also associated stellar to planet mass ratios to planetary formation scenarios. My conclusions are that giant planets can more easily be formed by core accretion around AF stars than around M dwarfs, for separations between 8 and 400 astronomical units. Wide-orbit giant planets are rare whatever the stellar mass (basically &lt;20%).Then, I developed a statistical tool that combines radial velocity and direct imaging data of specific stars, to better constrain the giant planet population at all separations. The code that I wrote is based on a Monte Carlo generation of synthetic planet populations. I applied this code on radial velocity and direct imaging data from young and nearby stars: AUMic, ßPictoris, HD113337, and HD95086. The future applications will be numerous thanks to the increase of the time baseline of radial velocity data and thanks to new high contrast and high resolution instruments able to probe shorter regions.These first two projects have allowed me to understand how to reduce and analyse data, and to develop statistical tools useful for my last project. This last project consists of observing, reducing and analyzing radial velocity and direct imaging data of a sample of K5-M5 young and nearby dwarfs. This project will bring strong constraints on the gaseous giant planet population that orbits around low mass stars, from short to wider separations

Le climat de notre planete resulte d'interactions complexes entre l'atmosphere, l'ocean, la cryosphere et la biosphere. L'ocean joue un role fondamental de regulation en raison de sa forte inertie thermique. Sa capacite a stocker d'enormes quantites d'energie en son sein, eloignees d'un contact direct avec l'atmosphere, en fait la composante lente du systeme climatique. L'objet de ce travail est de contribuer a mieux comprendre les mecanismes qui gouvernent cette regulation, en particulier a travers le cycle de formation/consommation de la thermocline et des masses d'eau. Celles-ci sont formees dans l'ocean superficiel par echanges air-mer et transformees au sein de l'ocean par le melange turbulent. Cet equilibre souligne le role fondamental du melange turbulent dans l'ocean (encore tres peu connu) sur les flux air-mer et donc sur notre climat. L'outil d'etude de cette these est le modele de circulation generale (mcg) couple opa/-oasis/arpege, developpe au cerfacs en collaboration etroite avec la communaute gaston. La representation du melange turbulent, processus essentiellement sous-maille, est un des points faibles de ces mcg climatiques. A l'aide de trois simulations couplees de 40 ans, plusieurs parametrisations du melange turbulent lateral sont testees dans le mcg oceanique opa : la diffusion horizontale, la diffusion isopycnale et l'ajout d'un terme mimant la perte d'energie potentielle par instabilite barocline. Le choix de realiser cette etude de sensibilite a la physique oceanique en mode couple permet de liberer l'interface air-mer. Cette approche, associee a l'analyse de la phase d'ajustement initial, permet une mise en evidence claire et rapide du comportement de chaque parametrisation. L'analyse saisonniere de la couche de melange oceanique permet d'expliquer des changements importants de temperature de surface de la mer (sst) d'une simulation a l'autre. En particulier, la diffusion isopycnale entraine un flux de chaleur positif de l'ocean interieur vers la couche de melange entrainant des augmentations de sst de plusieurs degres celsius aux moyennes latitudes. Ce flux anti-intuitif, qui semble present dans les observations hydrographiques, est du a l'existence de gradients isopycnaux de salinite. Il met ainsi en evidence le role fondamental de la salinite dans l'equilibre thermique du systeme couple. Une technique de projection des masses d'eau sur la densite permet ensuite de quantifier l'equilibre formation/consommation sur les eaux modales de l'atlantique nord. Leur non-representation dans les simulations, due a une subduction insuffisante dans les trois cas testes, pourrait etre liee a une mauvaise representation du transport lie aux tourbillons.

Nous étudions le rôle des processus océaniques à petite échelle dans la formation et transformation des eaux de surface et intermédiaires qui participent à l’échange Indo- Atlantique à travers le Bassin du Cap. La dynamique de cette région est caractérisée par une forte turbulence et nous montrons l’impact que les structures de méso- ou de sous-méso- échelle, leurs interactions dynamiques et leur variabilité saisonnière ont sur les eaux locales de la thermocline. Une série des simulations numériques, allant de ’eddypermitting’ à ’submesoscale resolving’, souligne l’importance d’une résolution verticale adéquate pour bien représenter les propriétés des masses d’eau.Les tourbillons de Aiguilles sont principalement générés par des instabilités baroclines, et sont caractérisés par une saisonnalité, liée aux différentes instabilités dans les couches supérieures. En été, les instabilités symétriques sont plutôt en jeu, tandis qu’en hiver les instabilités de la couche de mélange prédominent.L’instabilité barocline de Charney connecte ces deux régimes de la sous-méso-échelle et joue un rôle majeur dans la formation saisonnière d’un nouveau type d’eaux modales : l’Agulhas Rings Mode Water.Enfin, on montre que tant les cyclones que les anticyclones transportent et mélangent l’Antarctic IntermediateWater, l’étirement de la méso-échelle produisant des filaments et structures thermohalines très fines.Nos résultats suggèrent l’existence des deux régimes dynamiques qui affectent les couches supérieures et intermédiaires du Bassin du Cap. Près de la surface, la frontogenèse et une énergique sous-méso-échelle conduisent à un régime agéostrophique. Les profondeurs intermédiaires sont caractérisées par un régime quasi-géostrophique due à l’action prédominante de la méso-échelle<br>This study addresses the role of oceanic small-scale processes in the formation and transformation of subsurface waters that participate in the Indo-Atlantic interocean exchange.We focus on the Cape Basin dynamics, characterized by a highly non-linear turbulence.We provide qualitative and quantitative evidence of the direct impact that meso- and submesoscale structures, their dynamical interactions and their seasonal variability have on the local thermocline and intermediate waters. A sequence of numerical simulations, ranging from ’eddy-permitting’ to ’submesoscale resolving’, underlines the importance of an adequate vertical resolution to correctly depict the water masses properties.We point out that Agulhas eddies are mainly generated through baroclinic instabilities and are marked by a clear seasonality. This is linked to the seasonal occurrence of distinct meso-submesoscale instabilities in the upper layers: symmetric instabilities are at play during summer, while mixed-layer instabilities prevail in winter.We also found that Charney baroclinic instability connects these two submesoscale regimes and plays a major role in the seasonal formation of a newly-identified type of mode waters: Agulhas Rings Mode Water. Finally, we show that eddies of both polarity advect, stir and mix Antarctic Intermediate Water, via the mesoscale strain field producing filaments and T-S fine-scale structures.Our results suggest the existence of two dynamical regimes affecting the upper and intermediate layers of the Cape Basin. Near the surface, the submesoscale-driven frontogenesis and their enhanced energetics lead to a predominance of ageostrophic dynamics. The intermediate depths are, instead, characterised by a quasigesotrophic regime due to the prevailing mesoscale effects

Du fait de leurs bonnes propriétés physiques et thermiques et de leur faible coût, les aciers ferrito-martensitiques à 9%Cr sont envisagés comme matériaux de circuits et comme tubes des échangeurs et des générateurs de vapeur pour le prototype de Réacteur Rapide au sodium (RNR-Na) ASTRID. Plusieurs mécanismes existent dans la littérature pour expliquer la formation de la couche d’oxyde duplexe spinelle Fe-Cr/magnétite formée lors de l’oxydation des aciers Fe-9Cr dans différents environnements. Par ailleurs, un endommagement partiel ou total de la couche d’oxyde apparait systématiquement en environnement eau ou vapeur d’eau. Aussi, afin d’apporter des éléments pour une évaluation robuste de ces alliages sur de longues durées, ce travail a eu pour but d’une part d’étudier les cinétiques d’oxydation et d’autre part de comprendre l’ensemble des mécanismes conduisant à l’écaillage de la couche d’oxyde. La première partie de l’étude a consisté à mener des essais d’oxydation à 550°C en milieu vapeur d’eau pure et sous Ar/D2O/H2, avec différentes teneurs en hydrogène et vapeur d’eau. Une simulation, basée sur une résolution analytique, a permis de montrer que le modèle de l’espace disponible proposé dans la littérature pour la croissance de la couche duplexe permet de représenter quantitativement les résultats expérimentaux (cinétique, stœchiométrie, proportion des phases). Le deuxième volet de cette étude a été consacré à l’étude de l’endommagement de la couche d’oxyde lors de sa croissance en milieu vapeur d’eau pure. La rupture de la couche d’oxyde par cloquage puis écaillage a systématiquement lieu au sein de la couche de magnétite. Les pores observés au sein de cette couche apparaissent être des sites d’initiation du phénomène de décohésion. Un modèle en cohérence avec le modèle cinétique a été proposé pour anticiper le lieu de formation des pores. Il repose sur le calcul du flux de fer au sein de la couche d’oxyde en croissance. Il permet d’expliquer quantitativement le lieu de formation des pores par l’accumulation de lacunes de fer au sein de la couche de magnétite dans une zone de plus fort gradient de potentiel chimique. Pour évaluer les contraintes présentes au sein de la couche d’oxyde et impliquées dans l’endommagement de celle-ci, des essais de déflexion d’une lame mince asymétrique ont été réalisés sous différents environnements oxydants à 550°C. Les essais réalisés en milieu humide sous Ar/H2O/(H2) et sous CO2 ont mis en évidence la présence de contraintes de croissance en compression de l’ordre de -150 MPa au sein de la couche d’oxyde lors de l’isotherme. Par ailleurs, la présence d’hydrogène dans le milieu oxydant apparait favoriser la fragilisation de la couche d’oxyde. Une approche numérique a été développée pour simuler les essais de déflexion, en prenant en compte les phénomènes de relaxation par fluage et le caractère multi-strates de la couche d’oxyde. Les principales formes de relaxation des contraintes, viscoplasticité de la couche, signes d’endommagement macroscopique (fissurations), ont ainsi été quantifiées<br>In the framework of the development of Generation IV reactors and specifically in the new Sodium Fast Reactor (SFR) project, Fe-9Cr ferritic-martensitic steels are candidates as structural materials for steam generators. Indeed, Fe-9Cr steels are already widely used in high temperature steam environments – like boilers and steam turbines- for their combination of creep strength and high thermal properties. Many studies have been focused on Fe-9Cr steels oxidation behavior between 550°C-700°C.Depending on the oxidizing environment, formation of a triplex (Fe-Cr spinel/magnetite/hematite) or duplex (Fe-Cr spinel/magnetite) oxide scales are reported.. Besides, for long time exposure in steam, the exfoliation of oxide scales can cause serious problems such as tube obstruction and steam turbine erosion. Consequently, this work has been dedicated to study, on the one hand the oxidation kinetics of T91 steel in water vapor environments, and on the other hand, the mechanisms leading to the spallation of the oxide scale. Oxidation tests have been carried out at 550°C in pure water vapor and in Ar/D2O/H2 environments with different hydrogen contents. Based on an analytical resolution, a quantitative modeling has shown that the “available space model” proposed in the literature for duplex oxide scale formation well reproduces both scales growth kinetics and spinel oxide stoichiometry. Then, oxidized samples have been precisely characterized and it turns out that buckling then spalling of the oxide scale is always located in the magnetite layer. Voids observed in the magnetite layer are major initiation sites of decohesion of the outer oxide scale. A mechanism of formation of these voids has been proposed, in accordance with the mechanism of duplex scale formation. The derived model based on the assumption that vacancies accumulate where the iron vacancies flux divergence is maximal gives a good estimation of the location of pores inside the magnetite layer. Then, in order to evaluate stresses involved in the spallation of the oxide scale, deflection tests have been performed in different oxidizing environments at 550°C. Tests carried out in Ar/H2O/(H2) and in CO2 have highlighted the presence of compressive growth strains (around -150 MPa) during isothermal oxidation. Moreover, hydrogen seems to promote the oxide scale embrittlement. A numerical approach has also been developed in order to simulate the deflection test experiment, taking into account different relaxation phenomenon and considering a triplex oxide scale. Hence, stress relaxation by oxide scale viscoplasticity and microfissuration have been quantified

Notre objectif est de contribuer à la compréhension du fonctionnement du système Méditerranéen grâce à la modélisation.<br />Nous nous intéressons d'abord à la formation et au devenir des masses d'eau en Méditerranée nord-occidentale. L'influence de la résolution spatiale du modèle océanique est examinée lors de l'étude de la convection profonde au large pour une année réelle. Le rôle essentiel joué par les structures de méso-échelle dans la formation et le devenir de l'eau profonde est mis en évidence. La comparaison de simulations effectuées avec différents forçages atmosphériques permet de montrer l'influence de la résolution spatiale de ce forçage sur la modélisation de la convection, liée à l'importance des extrêmes atmosphériques. Puis nous examinons l'impact de la variabilité interannuelle atmosphérique et du changement climatique sur la formation d'eau dense sur le plateau du Golfe du Lion. Les volumes d'eau dense formée, exportée, et cascadant sont corrélés à la perte de chaleur atmosphérique hivernale. L'intensification de la stratification de la colonne d'eau d'ici la fin du XXIème siècle provoque une quasi-disparition du cascading.<br />L'influence des processus physiques sur l'écosystème planctonique pélagique est examinée au moyen d'un modèle couplé hydrodynamique-biogéochimie. L'étude d'une année de référence permet de valider le modèle et d'en soulever les points faibles. Si les bilans de production présentent une faible variabilité interannuelle, celle de l'exportation de carbone et du métabolisme net est plus marquée. Le changement climatique provoque une augmentation de la production primaire et une intensification de la boucle microbienne.

Notre objectif est de contribuer à la compréhension du fonctionnement du système Méditerranéen grâce à la modélisation. Nous nous intéressons d'abord à la formation et au devenir des masses d'eau en Méditerranée nord-occidentale. L'influence de la résolution spatiale du modèle océanique est examinée lors de l'étude de la convection profonde au large pour une année réelle. Le rôle essentiel joué par les structures de méso-échelle dans la formation et le devenir de l'eau profonde est mis en évidence. La comparaison de simulations effectuées avec différents forçages atmosphériques permet de montrer l'influence de la résolution spatiale de ce forçage sur la modélisation de la convection, liée à l'importance des extrêmes atmosphériques. Puis nous examinons l'impact de la variabilité interannuelle atmosphérique et du changement climatique sur la formation d'eau dense sur le plateau du Golfe du Lion. Les volumes d'eau dense formée, exportée, et cascadant sont corrélés à la perte de chaleur atmosphérique hivernale. L'intensification de la stratification de la colonne d'eau d'ici la fin du XXIème siècle provoque une quasi-disparition du cascading. L'influence des processus physiques sur l'écosystème planctonique pélagique est examinée au moyen d'un modèle couplé hydrodynamique-biogéochimie. .<br>Our objective is to contribute to the understanding of the functioning of the Mediterranean system using modeling tools. We first study the formation and fate of water masses in the Northwestern Mediterranean Sea. The impact of the oceanic model spatial resolution on open-ocean deep convection modeling is examined through a real case study, and is related to the essential role played by the mesoscale structures in the formation and fate of deep water. The comparison of simulations performed under different atmospheric forcings enables to study the influence of the spatial resolution of this forcing on the modeling of deep convection and to underline the importance of atmospheric extremes. We then investigate the impact of interannual atmospheric variability and climate change on dense water formation over the Gulf of Lions shelf. The volumes of dense water formed over the shelf, exported and cascading into the deep ocean are well correlated with the winter atmospheric heat loss. The strengthening of the water column stratification between the XXth and the XXIst centuries induces a strong decrease of these volumes. We examine the impact of physical processes on the planktonic pelagic ecosystem using a coupled hydrodynamical - biogeochemical model. The study of a reference year enables to validate the model and to underline its defects. Primary production and respiration show a weak interannual variability, however, carbon exportation and net metabolism show a stronger variability. Finally, the warming of sea water due to climate change induces an increase of primary production by the end of the XXIth century, together with an enhancement of the microbial loop

La désinfection de l’eau de piscine est essentielle pour prévenir la propagation de maladies infectieuses. Cependant, les désinfectants réagissent avec les composés organiques présents dans l’eau y compris ceux introduits par les baigneurs, tels que les fluides corporels et les crèmes solaires, conduisant à la formation de sous-produits de désinfection (SPD) associés à des effets néfastes sur la santé. Le devenir des filtres UV organiques, présents dans les crèmes solaires et les produits de soins personnels, dans les piscines d'eau de mer chlorées est peu connu. Les objectifs de la présente étude étaient d'étudier la réactivité des filtres UV organiques dans l'eau de mer chlorée, d’identifier les SPD générées par les filtres UV, d'analyser l’occurrence des SPD dans les piscines d'eau de mer, et d'examiner leur génotoxicité. Des expériences de chloration ont été menées dans l'eau de mer reconstituée sur cinq filtres UV couramment utilisés : l’oxybenzone (OXY), le dioxybenzone (DIOXY), l’avobenzone (AVO), l’octyl méthoxycinnamate (OMC), et l’octocrylène (OC). Tous les composés étudiés sauf l’OC ont été dégradés conduisant à la formation de SPD bromés pour lesquels des schémas réactionnels ont été proposés. L'occurrence de ces SPD a été étudiée dans les piscines d'eau de mer où des SPD bromés ont été quantifiés. La génotoxicité de l’hydrate de bromal (BH), l’un des SPD généré par OXY et DIOXY et détecté dans les piscines d'eau de mer, a été évaluée. BH a induit une activité génotoxique dans le test d'Ames et l'essai de comète. Cette étude montre que les filtres UV peuvent agir comme précurseurs pour la formation de SPD génotoxiques dans l’eau de mer chlorée<br>Disinfection of swimming pool water is critical to prevent outbreaks of infectious diseases. However, disinfectants react with organic compounds present in water, including anthropogenic inputs (e.g. body fluids, sunscreens), leading to the formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) that have been linked to adverse health effects. Little is known about the fate of organic UV filters, present in sunscreens and personal care products, when introduced into chlorinated seawater swimming pools. The aims of the present study were to investigate the reactivity of five commonly used organic UV filters in chlorinated seawater, identify DBPs generated from the UV filters, analyze the occurrence of these DBPs in seawater swimming pools, and examine their genotoxicity. Chlorination experiments were conducted to analyze the reactivity of the UV filters oxybenzone (OXY), dioxybenzone (DIOXY), avobenzone (AVO), octyl methoxycinnamate (OMC), and octocrylene (OC) in reconstituted seawater. All the studied UV filters except OC were degraded in chlorinated seawater resulting in the formation of brominated DBPs. Based on the identified byproducts, transformation pathways were proposed. The occurrence of the identified DBPs was investigated in seawater pools. Several brominated DBPs were identified in seawater pool samples. The genotoxicity of bromal hydrate (BH), which was generated by the benzophenone UV filters OXY and DIOXY and detected in the investigated seawater pools, was assessed. BH induced genotoxic activity in the Ames test and in the comet assay. Overall, this study shows that UV filters can act as precursors for the formation of genotoxic DBPs in chlorinated seawater pools

La production de pétrole brut avec du gaz naturel et de l'eau à basse température et à haute pression favorise les conditions de formation d'hydrates de gaz qui peuvent causer de nombreux problèmes d’écoulement jusqu'au blocage des pipelines. Pour éviter le bouchage, diverses méthodes sont appliquées aux pipelines par addition d'inhibiteurs thermodynamiques (THIs), cinétiques (KHIs) et d'antiagglomérants (AAs). Récemment, l’utilisation des AAs est devenue plus courante car non seulement à cause de leur haute performance dans des conditions sévères, mais aussi grâce à la réduction du coût d’opération dû à avec une faible dose d’AAs utilisée (AA-LDHIs). La plupart des études antérieures sur la formation et transport d’hydrates de gaz se limitent à de faibles fractions d’eau et sans antiagglomérants. Pour des fortes fractions d’eau, la formation et le transport d'hydrates de gaz en présence d’AA-LDHI et/ou de sel dans les conduites d'écoulement restent mal compris. L'objectif principal de cette étude est une meilleure compréhension de la formation et de l’agglomération des hydrates, en testant l’influence des additifs commerciaux pour éviter le colmatage. Ce travail traite plus précisément de la cinétique de cristallisation et d'agglomération des hydrates, ainsi que du transport et du dépôt des suspensions en fonction des conditions d'écoulement (en particulier dans les systèmes à haute fraction d'eau). Les effets de divers paramètres sont étudiés, notamment : à faible dose d’antiagglomérant (AA-LDHI), et fraction volumique d'eau et de salinité dans l'eau variables dans un mélange avec du Kerdane®. Des expériences ont été menées dans la boucle "Archimède". Cet appareillage, capable de fonctionner à plus de 80 bar, permet de reproduire les conditions de transport de pétrole et de gaz dans les pipelines sous-marins. Il est équipé d'une sonde FBRM (Focused Beam Reflectance Measurement) et d'une sonde PVM (Particle Video Microscope) ainsi que de capteurs de température, de perte de charge, de débit et de masse volumique. La mise en circulation du fluide est assurée par une pompe Moineau et/ou un système dit de "gaz-lift". Les résultats ont révélé que dans le protocole avec gaz-lift, les hydrates se forment à la surface des bulles de gaz et des gouttelettes d'eau et leur transport a lieu dans les phases continues d'huile ou d'eau. Généralement, les hydrates ont tendance à se déposer à haute fraction d'eau et à s'agglomérer à une faible fraction d'eau. Des mécanismes de formation et transport des hydrates en présence de bulles ont été proposés. Dans le protocole avec pompe Moineau, les effets de la formation des hydrates, de l'agglomération, du dépôt et du colmatage dans le cadre d’un écoulement multiphasique et vice-versa ont été identifiés, analysés et évalués à fort pourcentage d’eau. Quelques mécanismes de formation et transport d'hydrates dans des conditions expérimentales différentes sont aussi proposés. Un modèle a été développé pour prédire la perte de charge relative dans les pipelines une fois l'hydrate formé<br>Production of crude oil with natural gas and water at low temperature and high pressure favors conditions for gas hydrate formation which might cause many troubles in flow assurance, up to blockage of pipelines. To prevent plugging, varieties of methods are applied to flowlines by addition of thermodynamic inhibitors (THIs), kinetic hydrate inhibitors (KHIs) and anti-agglomerants (AAs). Recently, AAs are more widely used due to not only their high performance at severe conditions but also the reduction in costs of operation at low dosage (AA-LDHIs). Mostly, previous studies on gas hydrate formation and transport have focused on low water cuts and without anti-agglomerants. On the contrary, at high water cuts, the gas hydrate formation and transport in the presence of AA-LDHI and/or salt in pipelines are not widely understood. The principal objective of this study is a better understanding on hydrate formation and plugging by testing the role of commercial additives to avoid plugging. In details, this work deals with hydrate kinetics of crystallization and agglomeration together with hydrate slurry transport and deposition under flowing conditions (especially at high water cuts). Effects of various parameters were studied, including the amount of commercial anti-agglomerants (AA-LDHIs), water volume fraction, and water salinity in a mixture of Kerdane® oil and water. The experiments were performed in the “Archimède” 80 bar - pilot scale flowloop which reproduces the conditions in oil and gas transport in subsea pipelines. The experimental apparatus is equipped with a FBRM (Focused Beam Reflectance Measurement) and a PVM (Particle Video Microscope) probe and temperature, pressure drop, flowrate and density sensors. The flow was induced through Moineau pump and/or a “gas-lift” system. The results revealed that with gas-lift protocol; hydrates formed on the surface of gas bubbles and water droplets and they were transported in oil and water continuous phases. Generally, the hydrates tend to deposit at high water cut and agglomerate at low water cut. Mechanisms of hydrate formation and transport with and without AA-LDHI in bubble conditions were proposed. With Moineau pump protocol; effects of hydrate formation

La Méditerranée Occidentale est l’un des bassins avec le plus de pollution plastique au monde, et son réchauffement de surface est quatre fois plus intense que celui des océans. Elle est dite "bassin laboratoire" pour l’étude de l’océan global : elle développe sa propre circulation de retournement. Sa courantologie est composée de 4 couches et d’environ 6 masses d’eau. La rencontre de deux masses d’eau de différentes températures et salinités en surface crée un front thermohalin. Cette thèse présente des avancées récentes sur la caractérisation des zones de fronts et sur la dynamique des masses d’eau en Méditerranée Occidentale. La détection de fronts de surface dans une simulation, et sur des observations satellites, a produit des cartes de statistiques de présence des fronts. Deux zones majeures de fronts, de température et de salinité, apparaissent dans le centre du bassin et se révèlent très différentes.La première est thermique, estivale et sur une profondeur de 50m. Elle part des Pyrénées mais s’estompe vers le nord-ouest de la Corse. La deuxième est haline, quasi-permanente et sur 200m de profondeur. Elle relie nettement les îles Baléares au sud-ouest de la Sardaigne. Précédemment confondues au sein d’un seul « front Nord-Baléares », leurs différentes origines et localisations impliquent que deux nouvelles appellations soient proposées. La zone de fronts halins marque la frontière entre eaux atlantiques jeunes du sud (AW) et vieilles du nord (mAW). Elle se fait déplacer vers le sud lors de la formation d’eau profonde (DWF) interannuelle du bassin provençal, et remonte ensuite vers le nord sous l’influence des tourbillons algériens (AEs). Le développement d’un algorithme de séparation des 6 différentes masses d’eau a permis de décrire la circulation particulière de chacune d’entre elles dans la simulation. Les circulations moyennes coïncident avec la littérature connue. Puis, outre un évènement irréaliste de circulation profonde, deux résultats importants sont déduits. D’une part, la simulation montre que la DWF du bassin provençal semble disloquer le gyre profond Est-Algérien, modifiant à son tour la trajectoire des AEs en surface. D’autre part, la DWF de 2005 a induit en 2009 un transit d’eau profonde vers la mer Tyrrhénienne.Néanmoins, ce transit a provoqué en surface un courant de retour de mAWs par le canal de Sardaigne vers le bassin algérien, au lieu d’un apport habituel par le canal Corse, et entraînant exceptionnellement de l’AW jusqu’en mer Ligure<br>The Western Mediterranean is one of the basins with the most plastic pollution in the world, and its surface warming is four times more intense than that of the oceans. It is a so-called "laboratory basin" for the study of the global ocean : it develops its own overturning circulation. Its currentology is composed of 4 layers and about 6 water masses. The meeting of two water masses of different surface temperatures and salinities creates a thermohaline front. This thesis presents recent advances in the characterisation of front zones and water mass dynamics in the Western Mediterranean. The detection of surface fronts in a simulation, and on satellite observations, has produced maps of front presence statistics. Two major zones of fronts, of temperature and salinity, appear in the centre of the basin and are very different. The first is thermal, summer and 50m deep. It starts in the Pyrenees but fades towards the north-west of Corsica. The second is haline, quasi-permanent and over 200m depth. It clearly connects the Balearic Islands to southwestern Sardinia. Previously confused within a single "North Balearic front", their different origins and locations imply that two new designations are proposed. The haline front zone marks the boundary between young southern Atlantic waters (AW) and old northern waters (mAW). It is displaced southwards during the interannual deep water formation (DWF) of the Provençal basin, and then moves northwards under the influence of Algerian eddies (AEs). The development of an algorithmfor separating the 6 different water masses allowed the description of the particular circulation of each of them in the simulation. The average circulations coincide with the known literature. Then, besides an unrealistic deep circulation event, two important results are deduced. On the one hand, the simulation shows that the DWF of the Provençal Basin seems to dislocate the deep East Algerian gyre, modifying in turn the trajectory of the surface AEs. On the other hand, the 2005 DWF induced a deep water transit towards the Tyrrhenian Sea in 2009. However, this transit induced a surface return flow of mAWs through the Sardinia Channel towards the Algerian Basin, instead of the usual inflow through the Corsica Channel, and exceptionally causing AWto reach the Ligurian Sea

L'objectif de cette thèse est d'étudier la variabilité des propriétés de l’eau dense formée sur le plateau antarctique au large de la Terre Adélie dans la polynie du Mertz. Cette masse d'eau est reconnue comme le précurseur d’une source majeure d’eau Antarctique de Fond, l’ALBW (Adélie Land Bottom Water). Nous nous sommes appuyés sur des observations hydrologiques, récoltées de 2007 à 2012 dans le cadre du projet ALBION lors de campagnes de mesures estivales et à partir d’un réseau de mouillages, sur des estimations de production de glace de mer et sur un modèle de couche de mélange. Différents régimes hydrologiques, principalement associés aux caractéristiques topographiques de la région ont été identifiés. Nous avons également pu établir que la variabilité interannuelle de la salinité de l’eau dense mesurée en été est un traceur de l’activité convective lors de l’hiver précédent. Avant la rupture du glacier du Mertz en février 2010, l'efficacité de la convection est fortement modulée par la stratification verticale. Après la rupture, la chute de la production de glace de mer se traduit par un arrêt de la convection profonde ayant pour conséquence une diminution de densité de l'eau de fond qui devient trop légère pour contribuer à l'alimentation de l'eau Antarctique de fond. Une estimation grossière, prenant en compte la fonte estivale de glace suggère que les apports d’eau douce vers la dépression Adélie n'ont pas été radicalement affectés par la rupture du Mertz. Enfin, un modèle de couche de mélange couplé avec un modèle simplifié de production de glace de mer a permis d'évaluer que les flux océaniques pouvaient réduire cette production de 17% durant l’année<br>The objective of this PhD thesis was to study the variability of the properties of the dense shelf water formed in the Mertz Polynya on the Antarctic shelf off Adélie Land. This water mass is a precursor to a major source of Antarctic Bottom Water, the ALBW (Adélie Land Bottom Water). Our analysis is based on hydrographyical observations collected from 2007 to 2012 as part of the ALBION project during summer cruises, and through all year long moorings, combined with estimates of sea-ice production and interpreted in the idealized framework of a mixed layer model. Several hydrographycal regimes, mainly linked with topography, were identified. The interannual variability of the summer salinity of the dense water was shown to relate to the previous winter convective activity. Before the Mertz glacier calving in February 2010, the convection efficiency is modulated by the vertical stratification. After, the calving, the sharp decline of the sea-ice production leads to a shutdown of the deep convection and a bottom layer which was not dense enough to possibly contribute to the renewal of the Antarctic Bottom Water in the Australian-Antarctic Basin. A rough estimate of the fresh water budget of the Adelie Depression taking into account summer sea-ice melt suggests that the Mertz calving did not affect much the fresh water input to the depression. At last, a mixed layer model coupled to a simplified model of sea-ice production shows that the ocean heat flux can reduce the ice production by 17% over the year

On suit la depolymerisation de la cellulose au cours du blanchiment par l'oxygene en milieu alcalin de diverses pates cellulosiques en etudiant l'evolution des distributions des masses moleculaires des derives carbaniles. On utilise la technique du couplage chromatographie par permeation sur gel-diffusion de la lumiere et les derives carbaniles sont prepares a partir des alpha -celluloses des pates etudiees. On prend en consideration les parametres lies au traitement o::(2)-naoh et ceux lies au materiau fibreux. Le blanchiment o::(2)-naoh conduit a des echantillons dont les distributions de masses moleculaires sont uniformes. Les inhibiteurs de degradation modifient l'evolution des courbes de distribution. La presence de lignine accentue la depolymerisation de la cellulose et augmente la polydispersite

L’objectif de cette thèse est d’apporter de nouvelles contraintes sur l’hydrologie de l’Atlantique Nord-Est et de la Méditerranée occidentale depuis la dernière période glaciaire à partir de l’analyse de la composition isotopique du Nd (εNd) dans des échantillons d’eau de mer ainsi que des coraux profonds et des foraminifères, prélevés dans des carottes sédimentaires marines. Les changements de l’hydrologie des masses d’eau intermédiaire (LIW, MSW, AAIW et masses d’eau intermédiaire des gyres subtropical et subpolaire) ont été plus particulièrement étudiés car leur rôle sur les transferts de sels en Atlantique Nord et in fine sur l’AMOC est actuellement mal contraint. Ce travail a été mené au cours des périodes de changements hydrologiques majeurs et abrupts de l’océan qui se sont produits lors des variations climatiques rapides de la dernière période glaciaire (événements d’Heinrich et cycles de Dansgaard-Oeschger) et lors du dépôt du Sapropel S1 en Méditerranée orientale. Dans un premier volet, nous avons amélioré la couverture spatiale des valeurs d’εNd des masses d’eau de l’Atlantique Nord-Est et de la mer d’Alboran, préalable indispensable pour restituer l’hydrologie passée de ces régions avec le traceur εNd. Nous avons ensuite mis en évidence un changement majeur du schéma de circulation de la Méditerranée occidentale durant la période de dépôt du sapropel S1, marquée par une forte réduction des masses d’eau de la Méditerranée orientale (LIW) au sud de la Sardaigne au profit de celles provenant du Golfe du Lion (WIW). Ce changement hydrologique ainsi que ceux qui s’opèrent en Méditerranée depuis la dernière période glaciaire ne sont pas associés à de fortes modifications des valeurs d’εNd de la LIW de la mer d’Alboran et de la mer des Baléares, suggérant une stabilité de la signature isotopique en Nd de la MOW au cours du temps. Ceci a permis, à partir d’un enregistrement d’εNd obtenus sur des coraux profonds du Golfe de Cadix, de mettre en évidence une contribution plus importante de l’AAIW plus radiogénique et donc une pénétration plus marquée en Atlantique Nord de cette masse d’eau lors des périodes de fortes réductions de l’AMOC, liées à la déstabilisation des calottes de glace de l’Hémisphère Nord<br>: The purpose of this thesis is to constrain the hydrology of the North-East Atlantic and western Mediterranean Sea since the last glacial period from neodymium isotopic composition (εNd) measured on seawater, cold water corals and foraminifera. In particular, hydrological changes of intermediate water masses (LIW, AAIW, MSW, mid-subtropical and subpolar gyre water) have been studied as their role on salt budget in North Atlantic and ultimately on AMOC are currently poorly constrained. This work has been conducted at times of major and abrupt hydrological changes that occurred during rapid climatic variations of the last glacial period (Heinrich and Dansgaard-Oeschger events) and during the last sapropel deposit (S1) in eastern Mediterranean Sea. In a first step, we have improved the spatial distribution of water masses εNd values in North-east Atlantic and Alboran Sea, what is an absolute prerequisite in order to track past hydrological changes in these areas with εNd proxy. Next, we have highlighted a major change of the western Mediterranean circulation pattern during the sapropel S1 deposit, which is marked south of Sardinia by a strong reduction of eastern-sourced water masses (LIW) in favor of western-sourced water masses (WIW). This hydrological change as well as those occurring in Mediterranean Sea since the last glacial period was not associated with strong modifications of εNd values in Alboran and Balearic Sea, suggesting a stability of Nd isotopic signature of MOW over the time. This has highlighted, from an εNd record obtained on cold water corals in the Gulf of Cadiz, an enhanced contribution of more radiogenic AAIW and therefore a stronger northward penetration in North Atlantic at times of reduced AMOC linked to iceberg discharges from Northern Hemisphere ice sheets

Aim of this thesis is to investigate the role of the galaxy mass and environment in shaping the galaxy properties, characterising the history of stellar evolution, the stellar mass assembly, and the structure development of galaxies in different environments, by tracing the star formation rate, the total stellar mass of galaxies and the morphology at different redshifts. The data exploited in this thesis come from four surveys which focus on different environments and redshifts in the range z=0 to z=1: the Wide-field Nearby Galaxy-cluster Survey (WINGS - Fasano et al. 2006), the Padova-Millennium Galaxy and Group catalogue (PM2GC - Calvi, Poggianti, Vulcani 2011), the IMACS Cluster Building Survey (ICBS - Oemler et al. 2012a,b, in preparation), and the ESO Distant Cluster Survey (EDisCS - White et al. 2005). First, analysing a sample of galaxies from EDisCS and using field data from literature, I study the ongoing Star Formation Rate (SFR) and the Specific Star Formation Rate (SSFR) at z=0.4-0.8 for different stellar masses and environments. In mass-limited samples, the SFR at a fixed galaxy mass declines with time. The SSFR declines as galaxy stellar mass increases, showing that the current star formation contributes more to the fractional growth of low-mass galaxies than high-mass galaxies. The median SFR is lower in cluster star-forming galaxies than in the field, by a factor of ~1.5. I conclude that the average SFR in star-forming galaxies varies with galaxy environment at a fixed galaxy mass. Subsequently, using both WINGS and EDisCS data, I examine the morphology-mass relation (the way the proportion of galaxies of different morphological types changes with galaxy mass), and find it strongly depends on redshift. Both at z=0 and z~0.6, ~40% of the stellar mass is in elliptical galaxies. Another ~43% of the mass is in S0 galaxies in local clusters, while it is in late-types in distant clusters. Using data from all the surveys, I then analyse the galaxy stellar mass function in mass-limited samples, focusing on a number of aspects, such as the role of the global and local environment in shaping the mass distribution, its evolution in clusters compared to the field, and what simulations predict for galaxies located in haloes of different mass. The main results are: (1) at intermediate redshift I do not detect any dependence of the mass function on the global environment: galaxies in clusters, groups and in the field are regulated by similar mass distributions, at least for M_star/M_sun >10.5. (2) In clusters, I investigate the evolution of the total mass function from z~0.6 to z\sim 0, and I find that in the local Universe there are proportionally more low-mass galaxies than at high-z. This evolution is mainly driven by the galaxy mass growth due to star formation and by morphological transformations from one type to the other. (3) I contrast the evolution of the mass function in clusters and in the field from z~ 0.4 and z~ 0.6 to z~ 0 and find that it is very similar, hence independent of global environment. (4) I analyse the role of the local galaxy density in shaping the mass function, both at low and intermediate redshift, in clusters and in the field. Galaxies in different local density regions follow different mass functions. This result, coupled with point (1) above, suggests that galaxy properties such as galaxy mass are not much dependent on halo mass, but do depend on local scale processes. (5) Simulations are able to reproduce the observed mass function for field galaxies in the local Universe, while they fail in reproducing clusters at both low- and high-z and the field at high-z, suggesting that the current treatment of star formation performed in simulations has to be improved to well reproduce the galaxy mass distribution at different epochs and in different environments. Having found that both the morphological fractions and the mass functions vary with redshift, I then study how this evolution influences the ellipticity distribution of cluster early-type galaxies, finding that the variation with redshift is due to a change both of the median and of the shape of the distributions with redshift. The evolution of early-type galaxies is not simply related to the different mass distributions at high- and low-z, but it is mainly related to the evolution of the morphological mix with redshift and hence to the relative contribution of ellipticals and S0s at the two epochs. Finally, I present the spectroscopic analysis of galaxies in a field containing a z=0.96 cluster, Cl 1103.7-1245C, as part of the EDisCS project, for which I carried out the data reduction. I characterise the galaxy population of the two structures I singled out (the ``main cluster'' and a ``secondary structure'') and I compare my results with the galaxy populations of the other EDisCS clusters that have comparable values of velocity dispersions, but are located at lower redshifts. In general, the properties of the main cluster are in line with the other clusters and the expected evolution, while the secondary structure is an outstanding system, composed only of low-mass, strongly star-forming and morphologically peculiar galaxies. To conclude, the role of the galaxy stellar mass is undisputed in driving galaxy evolution: galaxies are characterised by a wide range of total stellar masses and the evolution of their properties strongly depends on their mass. Anyway, mass and environment are not independent. The environment, besides affecting some galaxy properties, is partially able to influence the mass distribution: more massive galaxies are preferentially found at higher densities.<br>Lo scopo principale di questa tesi e` quello di verificare l'importanza della massa delle galassie e dell'ambiente per l'evoluzione delle proprieta` delle galassie. Per fare cio`, ho studiato il tasso di formazione stellare, la massa stellare e le morfologie di galassie situate a diversi redshift, per caratterizzare la storia dell'evoluzione stellare, l'aggregazione della massa stellare e l'evoluzione della struttura delle galassie situate in ambienti diversi. I dati utilizzati per questo lavoro derivano da quattro campagne osservative che hanno lo scopo di campionare galassie in ambienti differenti e a diverse epoche cosmiche nell'intervallo z=0-1: la Wide-field Nearby Galaxy-cluster Survey (WINGS - Fasano et al. 2006), il Padova-Millennium Galaxy and Group Catalogue (PM2GC - Calvi, Poggianti, Vulcani2011), l'IMACS Cluster Building Survey (ICBS - Oemler et al. 2012a,b, in preparazione) e l'ESO Distant Cluster Survey (EDisCS - White et al. 2005). I primi risultati presentati in questa tesi riguardano l'analisi del tasso di formazione stellare e del tasso specifico di formazione stellare per galassie di varie masse stellari e situate in vari ambienti. Prendendo in esame un campione di galassie di EDisCS e dati di letteratura, ho trovato che il tasso di formazione stellare per ogni massa diminuisce con il tempo. Inoltre, il tasso specifico di formazione stellare diminuisce all'aumentare della massa, a prova del fatto che a $z\sim 0.6$ la formazione stellare contribuisce maggiormente alla crescita delle galassie di piccola massa piuttosto che a quella delle galassie pi\`u massive. In generale, le galassie di ammasso presentano un tasso di formazione stellare minore di quelle di campo, di un fattore ~1.5. In conclusione, il tasso di formazione stellare medio delle galassie che formano stelle dipende sia dalla massa che dall'ambiente. Successivamente, utilizzando dati provenienti da WINGS e EDisCS, presento uno studio sulla relazione tra massa e morfologia (ossia come variano le frazioni morfologiche con la massa), mostrando come questa relazione dipenda dal redshift. Sia a z=0 che a z~0.6, circa il 40% della massa stellare e' racchiusa in galassie ellittiche, mentre il 43% della massa stellare e' nelle S0 in ammassi vicini e in galassie di tipi morfologici piu' avanzati in ammassi lontani. Di seguito, in base ai dati di tutti i campioni disponibili, presento l'analisi della distribuzione di massa stellare delle galassie in campioni limitati in massa, focalizzandomi su alcuni aspetti principali: l'influenza dell'ambiente globale e locale sull'anda-mento della distribuzione di massa, l'evoluzione della distribuzione stessa, sia in galassie di ammasso che in galassie di campo, e le predizioni delle simulazioni per la distribuzione di massa di galassie in aloni di massa differente. I principali risultati possono essere cos\`i riassunti: (1) Per galassie a redshift intermedio la funzione di massa non dipende dall'ambiente globale: le galassie di ammasso, di gruppo e di campo sono regolate da distribuzioni simili, almeno per galassie con M_star/M_sun >10.5. (2) La distribuzione di massa in ammasso evolve da z~ 0.6 a z~0: il numero di galassie di piccola massa negli ammassi vicini e' proporzionalmente maggiore rispetto a quello di galassie negli ammassi lontani. Quest'evoluzione e' per la maggior parte dovuta al fatto che,le galassie di piccola massa, a questi redshift, continuano a formare stelle e crescono in massa. Contemporaneamente, le galassie cambiano anche tipo morfologico. (3) Confrontando l'evoluzione della funzione di massa in ammassi e nel campo, da z~0.4 e z~0.6 fino a z~0, si trova che e' molto simile nei diversi ambienti, pertanto l'evoluzione sembra essere indipendente dall'ambiente stesso. (4) La densita' locale influenza la distribuzione di massa, sia in diversi ambienti globali sia a diversi redshift. Le galassie situate in zone a diversa densita' sono regolate da distribuzioni di massa differenti. Riassumendo i risultati, si puo' concludere che proprieta' delle galassie come la massa sono maggiormente influenzate dalla densita' locale che dall'ambiente globale in cui si trovano. (5) Le simulazioni riescono a riprodurre la distribuzione di massa osservata solo per il campo a basso redshift, mentre negli altri casi danno risultati in disaccordo con le osservazioni. Questo significa che i modelli non sono ancora in grado di trattare nel modo corretto la formazione stellare, soprattutto a basse masse. Dal momento che sia le frazioni morfologiche che la distribuzione di massa variano con il redshift, e' interessante studiare l'effetto della loro evoluzione sull'evoluzione della distribuzione di ellitticita' delle galassie dei primi tipi morfologici (ellittiche ed S0) in ammasso. In base ai dati di WINGS ed EDisCS, l'evoluzione totale e' dovuta sia alla variazione della mediana che della forma della distribuzione ai diversi redshift. Tale evoluzione non e' semplicemente dovuta alle diverse distribuzioni di massa di ellittiche ed S0 ai diversi redshift, bensi' alla variazione delle frazioni morfologiche e quindi del diverso contributo di ellittiche ed S0 alla popolazione totale. Come ultimo argomento, presento la riduzione dati e l'analisi spettroscopica di galassie situate in un campo contenente un ammasso a z=0.96, Cl1103.7-1245C, che fa parte del progetto di EDisCS. Mostro il confronto tra le popolazioni delle galassie localizzate nelle due principali strutture del campo (``ammasso principale'' e ``struttura secondaria'') con le popolazioni di altri ammassi di EDisCS, localizzati a redshift piu' bassi, ma caratterizzati da una dispersione di velocita' simile. In generale, risulta che le proprieta' dell'ammasso principale sono molto simili a quelle degli altri ammassi ed in linea con l'evoluzione delle propriet\`a con il redshift, mentre la struttura secondaria e' una struttura peculiare composta principalmente da galassie di piccola massa, con elevata formazione stellare e di morfologia peculiare. Concludendo, la massa stellare galattica gioca un ruolo molto importante nell'influenzare l'evoluzione: le galassie possono assumere diversi valori di massa e la loro evoluzione \`e fortemente legata alla massa stessa. Comunque, massa e ambiente non sono indipendenti. L'effetto dell'ambiente in cui la galassia si trova si esplica sia su alcune proprieta' delle galassie che, in qualche modo, sulla distribuzione di massa: galassie piu' massive si trovano preferibilmente in ambienti piu' densi.

Les recherches que j’ai menées durant ma thèse traitent de trois grands défis en formation stellaire : contraindre par les observations les phases précoces de la formation des étoiles massives – le stade préstellaire, déterminer l’origine des masses stellaires et caractériser les processus d’accrétion-éjection de la phase protostellaire.Dépasser les paradigmes actuels en formation stellaire nécessite d’étudier des régions de formations d’étoiles plus représentatives des processus typiques dans la Voie Lactée. C’est dans ce but que j’ai travaillé sur des observations ALMA de W43-MM1, un jeune proto-amas situé à 5500 pc du Soleil présentant un taux de formation stellaire élevé. J’ai d’abord identifié et caractérisé les cœurs sur la carte continuum. J’ai découvert 131 cœurs avec des tailles typiques de 2400 ua et des masses entre 1 et 100 Msol. La distribution en masse de ces cœurs (CMF) montre au-dessus de 1.6 Msol une pente de -0.96 +/- 0.13 significativement plus plate que celle de l’IMF de référence sur cet intervalle de masse, -1.35. Cela signifie une surabondance de cœurs massifs – et donc d’étoiles massives – par rapport au nombre attendu dans les modèles actuels de formation stellaire. Les explications possibles impliquent soit que la formation d’étoiles est atypique dans W43-MM1 (variabilité dans notre galaxie), soit que les étoiles massives se forment dans les amas sur des échelles de temps différentes des étoiles de type solaire (la formation d’étoiles ne serait pas un processus continu).J’ai ensuite caractérisé ces cœurs en utilisant les raies de CO(2-1) et SiO(5-4) et révélé un riche amas de flots protostellaires constitué de 46 lobes venant de 27 cœurs couvrant tout l’intervalle de masse et incluant 11 cœurs massifs (avec des masses supérieures à 16 Msol ). J’ai aussi utilisé la détection de molécules organiques complexes, des traceurs d’environnements chauds, comme un autre indicateur d’activité protostellaire. 12 des 13 cœurs massifs sont finalement apparus comme étant protostellaires, laissant un seul bon candidat cœur préstellaire massif. Ces statistiques interrogent sur l’universalité de la phase préstellaire pour les cœurs massifs et suggèrent que le modèle du cœur turbulent ne peux s’appliquer partout. Les flots protostellaires permettent aussi de reconstituer l’historique des processus d’accrétion/éjection. J’ai étudié la cinématique des nœuds constituant les jets moléculaires à haute vitesse en utilisant des diagrammes position-vitesse. J’ai montré que la complexité des structures en vitesse de ces nœuds cache une forte variabilité, et évalué le temps caractéristiques entre deux éjections à environ 500 ans. Ces échelles de temps sont similaires à celles mesurés entre deux sursauts d’accrétion pour les étoiles de type FU-Orionis<br>The research I have performed during my PhD addresses three major challenges of the star formation field: constraining, observationally, the earliest phases of high-mass star formation – the so-called prestellar stage, studying the origin of the stellar masses, and characterizing the process of protostellar accretion-ejection.Going beyond the current paradigms of star formation requires studying star-forming regions which are more representative of the general mode of star formation in the Milky Way. To this purpose I have used ALMA observations of W43-MM1, a young located at 5.5 kpc distance from the Sun, which presents a high star formation rate. The first step of my work has been to identify and characterize cores in the continuum image. I discovered 131 cores about 2400 AU in size which have mass between 1 and 100 Msun. I measured their mass distribution (CMF) and found a slope of -0.96 +/- 0.13 on 1.6 - 100 Msun that is markedly flatter than the reference Salpeter slope of the IMF on that range, -1.35. This means an overabundance of high-mass cores - and thus high-mass stars -compared to the number expected by the current models of star formation. Possible explanations imply either that star-formation is atypical in W43-MM1 (variably in the Milky Way) or that high-mass stars form at different time than low-mass stars in a cluster (star formation would not be a continuous process).I have characterized these cores using CO(2-1) and SiO(5-4) lines and revealed a rich cluster of 45 outflow lobes from 27 cores covering the whole mass range and including 11 high-mass cores (M&gt;16 Msun). I have also used the detection of Complex Organic Molecules (COMs), typically detected in warm environments like hot cores, as indicator of the protostellar activity. 12 out of the 13 high-mass cores in W43-MM1 have eventually been characterized as protostellar, leaving one good high-mass prestellar core candidate. These statistics raises question about the universality of a prestellar phase for high-mass stars and suggests that the core-fed models for high-mass star formation cannot generally apply. The protostellar outflows also bring valuable information on the accretion/ejection history. I have studied the kinematics of high-velocity molecular jets that divide into knots using Position-Velocity diagrams. I have shown that the complex velocity structures of these knots hide a strong variability, and evaluated the associated timescale between two ejections to be about 500 yr. This is reminiscent of the values obtained between accretion burst in FU Orionis stars

L'un des buts majeurs de l'astrophysique moderne est de comprendre la formation du Système Solaire. Puisque les protoétoiles de faible masse sont des soleils en formation, l'étude de ces objets est un des meilleurs moyens d'étudier le processus de formation du Soleil et de son système planétaire. Dans ma thèse, je me suis concentrée sur la chimie des premières phases d'évolution des protoétoiles de faible masse en étudiant les molécules organiques complexes dans des sources de Classe 0, qui représentent les phases les plus jeunes connues. De telles molécules ont été découvertes dans IRAS16293-2422, le prototype des sources de Classe 0, démontrant l'existence des ``hot corinos'', des régions où les manteaux des grains subliment. Certaines de ces molécules ont aussi été observées dans des comètes de notre Système Solaire, soulevant la question de savoir si (et auquel cas, comment) la chimie des Classes 0 affecte la composition chimique de la matière du disque protoplanétaire incorporée dans les comètes et autres corps planétaires. Cependant, il est d'abord nécessaire de déterminer si les hot corinos sont omniprésents dans les protoétoiles de faible masse, ou si IRAS16293-2422 est une exception. Ceci était le premier but de ma thèse. L'approche consistait principalement à observer trois sources de Classe 0 pour chercher des molécules organiques complexes. J'ai ainsi découvert et/ou confirmé trois hot corinos de plus. Le second but était de contraindre la taille de la région d'émission des molécules complexes au moyen d'observations interférométriques des deux hot corinos les plus brillants : cette émission est compacte (&lt;150 AU), avec, dans l'un des cas, une composante étendue provenant de l'enveloppe externe. Le troisième but avait pour lieu de confronter les voies de formation possibles des molécules complexes avec les résultats de mes observations pour essayer de distinguer si ces molécules se forment en phase gazeuse ou à la surface des grains. Bien que mes données ne puissent éliminer aucun des deux cas, elles semblent favoriser le second type de formation. De plus, la comparaison entre hot corinos et leurs homologues massifs, les hot cores (qui montre que les molécules complexes sont relativement plus abondantes dans les hot corinos), soutient également la formation à la surface des grains<br>One of the major goals of modern astrophysics is to understand the formation of our Solar System. Since low-mass protostars are suns in the making, the study of these objects and their environment provides one of the best ways to investigate the Sun's formation process and to peek in the past history of our Solar System. In my thesis, I focused on the chemistry occuring in Class 0 sources (the earliest known phases in the evolutionary scenario of low-mass protostars) by studying complex organic molecules in their envelopes. Such molecules have been discovered in IRAS16293--2422, the prototype of Class 0 sources, proving the existence of hot corinos, the inner regions of the protostellar envelope where the icy grain mantles sublimate. Some of these molecules have also been observed in comets in our Solar System, raising the question of whether (and if so, how) the chemistry of Class 0 objects affects the chemical composition of the protoplanetary disk material from which comets and other planetary bodies form. However, it is first necessary to determine whether hot corinos are ubiquitous in low-mass protostars or if IRAS16293-2422 is an exception. This was the first goal of my thesis. The approach consisted mainly in observing three Class 0 sources to search for complex organic molecules. I thereby discovered and/or confirmed three more hot corinos. The second goal was then to constrain the size of emission of complex molecules. For this, I carried out interferometric observations of the two brightest hot corinos: this emission is compact (&lt;150 AU) with, in one of the sources, an extended component originating from the cooler, less dense outer envelope. The third goal consisted in confronting the possible formation pathways with the results of my observations to try and discriminate whether complex organic molecules form via gas-phase or grain-surface reactions. Although it was not possible to arrive at a definite answer, my data seem to favor the later formation route. Moreover, the comparison of hot corinos and their high-mass analogs, the hot cores (showing that complex molecules are relatively more abundant in hot corinos), also support grain-surface synthesis of these molecules

This thesis presents one of the first census of the properties of galaxies in X-ray selected groups and clusters at intermediate redshift, with the aim of assessing the role of envi- ronment on the galaxy stellar mass assembly, star formation activity and observed stellar population properties. My project is framed in the XXL Survey (Pierre et al. 2016), the largest XMM-Newton programme approved to date, covering two extragalactic regions in the sky of 25 deg2 each one. Extended X-ray sources identified as groups and clusters are spectroscopically confirmed and their main properties are characterised either via direct measurements or by means of scaling relations. Among them, inferred X-ray luminosities and temperatures, virial masses and radii are of fundamental importance for the development of this thesis. The great advantage of XXL is that the XXL-North field (XXL-N) is fully covered by photometric and spectroscopic observations coming from the most recent extragalactic surveys of galaxies. The availability of such a treasure trove of information motivates the development of my research on galaxy populations at 0.1≤z≤0.6 in XXL-N, exploring the most diverse environments ranging from the field, to groups, clusters and superclusters. The first task of my work consists in the creation of a homogeneous spectrophotometric sample of galaxies, released in Guglielmo et al. (2017), suitable for scientific purposes. The catalogue contains spectroscopic redshifts, membership information on groups and clus- ters, spectroscopic completeness weights as a function of position in the sky and observed magnitude, stellar masses and absolute magnitudes computed by means of a spectral en- ergy distribution (SED) technique. The catalogue is fundamental for all XXL studies that aims at relating optical properties derived from galaxies with X-ray information and is widely used in the whole XXL collaboration. The released spectrophotometric catalogue enables the first scientific achievement of this thesis regarding the study of the galaxy stellar mass function (GSMF). The goal of this analysis is to unveil whether the mass assembly of galaxies depends on global environment, i.e. field vs groups and clusters and, among groups and clusters, on X-ray luminosity, used as a proxy for the halo mass. I performed the analysis in four redshift bins in the range 0.1≤z≤0.6, finding overall that environment does not affect the GSMF, at least in the mass range probed. The result is further confirmed by the invariance of the mean mass of member galaxies on X-ray luminosity. I also looked into the evolution of the mass assembly from z=0.6 down to z=0.1, finding that the high mass end is already in place at the oldest epoch and does not evolve and detecting an increase in the low-mass galaxy population in the same redshift range. This study is one of the first systematic studies on the GSMF conducted for X-ray extended sources ranging from the group to the cluster environment, and is published in the second part of Guglielmo et al. (2017). Having assessed the independence of the mass distributions on the global environment, I proceed investigating whether and to what extent the environment affects the star formation activity and the observed properties of the galaxy stellar populations. I started this analysis from the richest supercluster identified in XXL-N, XLSSsC N01, located at redshift z∼0.3 and composed of 14 groups and clusters. This work has been submitted in Guglielmo et al. (2018a). With focus on the region surrounding XLSSsC N01, I divided galaxies in different environments, ranging from the virial regions of groups and clusters to the field, using a combination of global and local environment parametri- sations. The main results of this study are that, in the supercluster environment, while the star forming fractions and quenching efficiency strongly depend on environment, the SFR-mass relation does not. The star forming fraction progressively declines from the field to filaments to the virialised regions of groups and clusters, with an interesting en- hancement in the outer regions of the X-ray structures. Moreover, while the average luminosity weighted (LW)-age-mass relation is independent of the environment, a clear signature for recent star formation quenching is found in the stellar ages of passive galaxies in the virialised regions of X-ray structures. Finally, I extend the analysis of this peculiar supercluster to the whole XXL-N field. This work will be enclosed in two articles in preparation (Guglielmo et al. 2018 b,c in prep.). Thanks to the higher statistics of the entire sample, I investigated the properties of galaxies and their evolution at 0.1≤z≤0.5 in different environments, with the goal of characterising the changing in the stellar population properties and the build up of the passive population via environmental quenching. Besides distinguishing among galaxies in the field, and in groups and clusters (virial regions and outskirts), I also focused on galaxies located in structures of different X-ray luminosity and in galaxies located within superclusters. Simultaneously, I also investigated the properties of galaxies located at different projected local densities (LD). In particular, I characterised the fraction of star forming/blue galaxies and of the SFR- mass relation, as a function of both global and local environment. The fraction of star forming and blue galaxies is strictly related to the environment, having the lowest value in the virial regions of groups and clusters, and the highest in the field. In outer members, the same fraction is similar to that in the field at z≥0.2, and assumes intermediate values with respect to virial members and the field at 0.1≤z<0.2. The SFR-mass relation is also environment dependent, and in particular the number of virial member galaxies having reduced SFR (galaxies in transition) nearly doubles that of field galaxies. Again, outer members show intermediate properties: the fraction of galaxies in transition is similar to the virial population at z>0.3, when it is found to be associated to the supercluster environment, and then reduces to values typical of field galaxies at 0.1≤z<0.3. The star forming and blue fractions also decrease with increasing LD at all redshifts. On the contrary, the fraction of galaxies in transition does not vary in the same LD range. These significant differences emerging among the global and local environments are intrinsically related to the different physical meaning of the two parametrisations, thus to the different physical mechanisms acting on galaxies when bound in the potential well of a dark matter halo (according to the global definition) or when exposed to interactions with other galaxies in over dense and highly populated regions (according to the local definition). During the first stages of my PhD, I also completed the analysis of my master thesis, and I report the full text of the published paper in the Appendix of the thesis (Guglielmo et al. 2015). The results are closely related to the scientific questions tackled in my PhD project, addressed through a complementary approach that reconstructed the star formation history of low- redshift galaxies in clusters and in the field to study the dependence on global environment, stellar mass and observed morphology.<br>Questa tesi presenta uno dei primi censimenti delle proprietà delle galassie in gruppi ed ammassi selezionati nei raggi X a redshift intermedio, con lo scopo di valutare il ruolo dell'ambiente sull'assemblamento della massa stellare delle galassie, l'attività di formazione stellare e le proprietà delle popolazioni stellari osservate. Il mio progetto è inquadrato nella Survey XXL (Pierre et al., 2016), il più grande programma XMM-Newton approvato fino ad oggi, che copre due regioni extra-galattiche di 25 gradi quadrati ciascuna. Le sorgenti di raggi X estese ed identificate come gruppi ed ammassi sono state confermate spettroscopicamente e le loro proprietà principali sono caratterizzate o tramite misurazioni dirette o mediante relazioni di scala. Tra queste, le luminosità e le temperature X, le masse virali ed i raggi viriali sono di fondamentale importanza per lo sviluppo di questa tesi. Il grande vantaggio di XXL è che il campo XXL-Nord (XXL-N) è completamente coperto da osservazioni fotometriche e spettroscopiche provenienti dalle più recenti survey extra-galattiche di galassie. La disponibilità di una tale miniera di informazioni motiva lo sviluppo della mia ricerca sulle popolazioni di galassie nell'intervallo di redshift 0.1≤z≤0.6 nel campo XXL-N, esplorando gli ambienti più diversi dalle regioni di campo, ai gruppi, agli ammassi e ai superammassi. Il primo compito del mio lavoro consiste nella creazione di un campione spettrofotometrico omogeneo di galassie, pubblicato in Guglielmo et al. (2017), e adatto ad essere utilizzato in un'analisi scientifica. Il catalogo contiene redshift spettroscopici, informazioni sull'appartenenza a gruppi e ammassi, pesi di completezza spettroscopica in funzione della posizione nel cielo e magnitudine osservata, le masse stellari e le magnitudini assolute calcolate mediante una tecnica di spectral energy distribution (SED). Il catalogo è fondamentale per tutti gli studi all'interno della collaborazione XXL che mirano a correlare le proprietà ottiche derivate dalle galassie con informazioni sulle strutture X ed è ampiamente utilizzato nell'intera collaborazione XXL. Il catalogo spettrofotometrico pubblicato consente il primo risultato scientifico di questa tesi riguardante lo studio della funzione di massa stellare delle galassie (GSMF). L'obiettivo di questa analisi è di svelare se il processo di assemblamento della massa delle galassie dipende dall'ambiente cosiddetto globale, cioè dall'appartenenza al campo o a gruppi ed ammassi e, tra quest'ultimi, dalla luminosità X, utilizzata come proxy per la massa di alone. Ho eseguito l'analisi in quattro intervalli di redshift nel range 0.1≤z≤0.6, trovando nel complesso che l'ambiente non influenza la GSMF, almeno nell'intervallo di massa campionato. Il risultato è ulteriormente confermato dall'invarianza della massa media delle galassie membre rispetto alla luminosità X. Ho anche esaminato l'evoluzione della GSMF da z = 0.6 fino a z = 0.1, trovando che l'estremità della funzione a masse elevate è già formata nell'epoca più antica e non evolve, e rilevando invece un aumento del numero di galassie a bassa massa nello stesso intervallo di redshift. Questo studio è uno dei primi studi sistematici della GSMF condotto per sorgenti estese a raggi X che vanno da masse di alone tipiche di gruppi fino agli ammassi, ed è pubblicato nella seconda parte di Guglielmo et al. (2017). Avendo valutato l'indipendenza delle distribuzioni di massa rispetto all'ambiente globale, procedo a indagare se e in che misura l'ambiente influisce sull'attività di formazione stellare e sulle proprietà osservate delle popolazioni stellari delle galassie. Ho iniziato questa analisi dal superammasso più ricco identificato in XXL-N, XLSSsC N01, situato a redshift z~0.3 e composto da 14 gruppi ed ammassi. Questo lavoro è stato sottomesso in Guglielmo et al. (2018a). Concentrandosi sulla regione che circonda XLSSsC N01, ho diviso le galassie in diversi ambienti, che vanno dalle regioni virali di gruppi ed ammassi fino al campo, utilizzando una combinazione di parametrizzazioni ambientali globali e locali. I risultati principali di questo studio sono che, nell'ambiente del superammasso, mentre la frazione di galassie che formano stelle e l'efficienza di arresto dell'attività di formazione stellare dipendono fortemente dall'ambiente, lo stesso non vale per la relazione fra massa e tasso di formazione stellare (SFR). La frazione di galassie che formano stelle declina progressivamente dal campo ai filamenti fino alle regioni virializzate di gruppi ed ammassi, con un interessante aumento della stessa nelle regioni esterne delle strutture X. Inoltre, mentre la relazione media fra l'età delle galassie pesata per la luminosità (LW-age) e la massa stellare delle stesse è indipendente dall'ambiente, una chiara evidenza di una recente estinzione della formazione stellare si rileva nelle galassie passive situate nelle regioni virializzate delle strutture X. Infine, si estende l'analisi di questo particolare superammasso all'intero campo XXL-N. Questo lavoro sarà racchiuso in due articoli in preparazione (Guglielmo et al., 2018 b, c in preparazione). Grazie alla statistica più elevata dell'intero campione, ho studiato le proprietà delle galassie e la loro evoluzione nell'intervallo 0.1≤z≤0.5 in diversi ambienti, con l'obiettivo di caratterizzare il cambiamento nelle proprietà delle popolazioni stellari e la formazione della popolazione passiva al variare dell'ambiente. Oltre a distinguere tra le galassie di campo, e in gruppi ed ammassi (regioni virali e periferiche), mi sono concentrata anche su galassie situate in strutture di diversa luminosità X e sulle galassie situate all'interno di superammassi. Contemporaneamente, ho anche studiato le proprietà delle galassie situate a diverse densità locali proiettate (LD). In particolare, ho caratterizzato la frazione galassie con formazione stellare attiva / galassie blu e ho studiato la relazione fra massa e SFR, in funzione sia dell'ambiente globale che di quello locale. La frazione di galassie con formazione stellare attiva e di galassie blu è strettamente correlata all'ambiente, con il valore più basso nelle regioni virali di gruppi ed ammassi e il più alto nel campo. Nei membri esterni, la stessa frazione è simile a quella nel campo a z≥0.2 e assume valori intermedi rispetto ai membri virali e il campo a 0.1≤z<0.2. La relazione fra SFR e massa è anch'essa dipendente dall'ambiente, e in particolare il numero di galassie dei membri virali che hanno una ridotta SFR (galassie in transizione) risulta essere quasi il doppio di quella di galassie di campo. Ancora una volta, i membri esterni mostrano proprietà intermedie: la frazione di galassie in transizione è simile alla popolazione virale a z>0,3, ed in particolare risulta associata all'ambiente dei superammassi, e si riduce successivamente a valori tipici delle galassie di campo a 0.1≤z<0.3. Inoltre, la frazione di galassie attive nella formazione stellare e quella di galassie blu diminuiscono con l'aumentare della LD a tutti i redshift. Al contrario, la frazione di galassie in transizione non varia nello stesso intervallo LD. Queste differenze significative emergenti tra gli ambienti globali e locali sono intrinsecamente correlate al diverso significato fisico delle due parametrizzazioni, quindi ai diversi meccanismi fisici che agiscono sulle galassie quando sono legate al potenziale gravitazionale di un alone di materia oscura (secondo la definizione globale) o quando esposto ad interazioni con altre galassie in regioni densamente popolate (secondo la definizione locale). Durante le prime fasi del mio dottorato di ricerca, ho anche completato l'analisi della mia tesi magistrale, e riporto il testo completo del documento pubblicato in Appendice alla tesi (Guglielmo et al., 2015). I risultati sono strettamente correlati alle domande scientifiche trattate nel mio progetto di dottorato, ma vengono affrontate attraverso un approccio complementare, che mira alla ricostruzione della storia della formazione stellare delle galassie a basso redshift in ammassi e nel campo per studiare la dipendenza dall'ambiente globale, dalla massa stellare e dalla morfologia osservata.

Des observations in situ et la modélisation ont été conjointement utilisées pour mieux comprendre les processus physiques qui contrôlent les échanges côte-large et étudier les transferts de matière particulaire gouvernés par l'effet des courants et des vagues dans le Golfe du Lion. Cette étude montre que les tempêtes de vent marin induisent une circulation cyclonique sur le plateau et un processus de downwelling dans les canyons sous-marins. En période automnale, lorsque la colonne d'eau est stratifiée et que l'eau du plateau est légère, le downwelling est limité en profondeur. En revanche, en hiver, les plongées d'eaux denses, formées lors des vents de nord froids sur le plateau, intensifient ce processus. D'autre part, les tempêtes de vent marin sont responsables de fortes remises en suspension sur l'ensemble du plateau (> 5 M t) et d'une exportation massive dans la partie ouest du Golfe. Le canyon du Cap Creus apparaît comme une voie d'exportation privilégiée vers le large.

Un disque de débris autour d'une étoile de la séquence principale est composé de planétésimaux, reste de la formation des planètes selon la théorie core-accretion. Dans le Système solaire, il s'agit de la ceinture d'astéroïdes et de la ceinture de Kuiper. Autour des autres étoiles, les disques de débris sont observables s'ils sont assez massifs pour que les collisions entre planétésimaux produisent continûment assez de poussière détectable en émission thermique dans l'infrarouge lointain ou en lumière diffusée dans le visible. Dans cette thèse, nous étudions la purge (stripping), l'excitation dynamique, et la structuration d'un disque soumis à une interaction gravitationnelle avec une planète à l'intérieur du système, un compagnon stellaire dans un système binaire, et une étoile de passage dans l'environnement dense d'un amas ouvert pendant 100 millions d'années après la naissance de l'étoile. Nous avons abordé ces problèmes par la simulation de la dynamique d'un disque de planétésimaux dans ces différentes conditions. Enfin, nous avons mené une étude pour déterminer les caractéristiques de la population de disques de débris autour des étoiles de différents types stellaires à l'aide du modèle d'évolution collisionnelle standard, de nos résultats sur l'excitation dynamique des disques et des données des relevés Spitzer. Ainsi, nous montrons que la quasi-absence des disques de débris observée autour des étoiles de faibles masses de type stellaire M peut être expliquée par des planétésimaux au moins 10 fois plus petits en taille que ceux autour des étoiles de type solaire ou plus massives.

El principal objectiu d'aquesta tesi doctoral és determinar quin és l'efecte de la xarxa de relacions en la formació de la imatge turística induïda d'una destinació. A fi de poder assolir aquest objectiu es desenvolupa un model conceptual en el qual es detecten tres possibles gaps en la formació de la imatge turística induïda, i un total de set proposicions que expliquen les raons per les quals es produeixen aquestes disfuncions en la imatge turística induïda. El model conceptual desenvolupat es complementa amb un estudi comparatiu de dos casos d'estudi: Girona i Perpinyà. La metodologia emprada combina metodologies quantititives i qualitatives, les quals han permès analitzar la imatge turística d'ambdues destinacions, així com determinar la xarxa relacional de cadascun dels casos. Els resultats mostren que en ambdós casos es materialitzen els tres gaps detectats a partir del model conceptual proposat, tot i que amb diferències substancials.<br>The main aim of this thesis is to determine the effect of the internal relational network of a tourism destination on the induced tourism image formation process. In order to attain this aim, a conceptual model is developed in which three possible gaps are detected in the induced image formation process. The reasons that explain why these dysfunctions show up are explained by mean seven propositions. The conceptual model is analysed with a comparative study of two cases: Girona and Perpignan. The methodology combines qualitative and quantitative techniques, and allows the analysis of the induced imatge of both destinations, as well as the determination of the relational network of each case. The results show that in both cases the three proposed gaps are matarialized, although with substantial differences.

The work presented in this thesis investigates the evolution of starforming galaxies over the last ten billion years. This time period encompasses nearly three-fourths of the age of the Universe, when a substantial fraction of the total stellar mass forms, and the sites of active star formation shift to lower-mass galaxies. The first study presented here combines galaxies from the spectroscopic datasets of the FORS Deep Field and the MUNICS Survey and provides the first significant investigation of the specific star formation rate (SSFR; star formation rate [SFR] per unit stellar mass) over a wide range of stellar masses and redshifts (reaching redshift z = 1:5). From [OII]-derived SFRs, we find that low-mass galaxies have higher SSFRs all the way to z = 1:5, implying that star formation contributes progressively more to the growth of stellar mass in low-mass galaxies than in high-mass galaxies. In the follow-up to this study, we combine several near-infrared-selected samples to create one of the largest collections of galaxies with spectroscopic redshifts and morphologies from Hubble Space Telescope images, to characterize the stellar mass build up in galaxies since z = 1:6. The primary data comes from the FORS Deep Field, the MUNICS Survey, the GOODS-South field as observed by the K20 survey and ESO, and the Sloan Digital Sky Survey as a local comparison sample. After bringing together extensive photometric and spectroscopic data sets from several publicly available surveys, we use identical methods to derive physical properties and investigate how galaxy populations evolve with time. Galaxy properties include stellar masses derived from multiwavelength photometry, star formation rates calculated from [OII][lambda]3726Å emission lines, metallicity, color, and SSFRs. We find that the reddest, yet actively star-forming, disk-dominated galaxy population present at z ~ 1:3, decreases in number by z ~ 0:3 during the same timeframe when the bluest quiescent, disk-dominated galaxy population increases in number. We confirm the previously identified morphological separation in the SSFR versus M[subscript asterisk] plane found for local samples and for galaxies at z = 0:7: bulge-dominated galaxies are more massive and have lower SSFRs. We extend this relation for the first time to z = 1:6, showing that galaxies with high SSFRs and diskdominated structures tend to shift to lower masses as redshift decreases. We identify an observed upper envelop in SSFR that lies roughly parallel to lines of constant SFR, decreases with time, and is unaffected by incompleteness among the samples. We apply common star formation histories (constant, ex ponential, and power law) to understand the evolving populations we see, but cannot simultaneously reproduce low-mass galaxies with high SSFRs and highmass galaxies with low SSFRs at all redshifts and over our full mass range. Current semi-analytic models attempt to understand the mass at which galaxies stop forming stars through connections to Active Galactic Nuclei feedback, gas consumption, declining galaxy merger rates and/or changes in the incoming cold gas supply, but none can explain the gradual and constant decline of star formation consistent among all galaxies below this mass. We suggest a possible resolution where star formation histories of galaxies are dependent on morphology, in addition to the growing evidence for lower mass galaxies to begin forming stars at later times, and with lower initial SFRs than the initial SFRs experienced at earlier times by higher mass galaxies.<br>text

The Trapezium Cluster stellar population is studied in detail using near-infrared and optical means in order to probe the clustered mode of low and high mass star formation. We determine fundamental stellar parameters such as the spectral types, ages, masses, extinctions and dust excesses for a significant number of cluster stars. Various techniques are applied to deredden the stars in the color-magnitude diagram and hence compare intrinsic positions with theoretical evolutionary tracks. Through these means, we estimate properties of the low mass stellar population to greater accuracy than has previously been achieved. Near-infrared photometry of Trapezium Cluster stars provides an initial evaluation of the nature of the cluster population. This evaluation is improved upon using optical spectroscopy to measure spectral types of a large number of Trapezium Cluster stars for the first time. We find our sample of Trapezium Cluster stars to have a mean spectral type of mid-K, in agreement with :findings for the low mass stars in the vicinity of, and external to, the central cluster. The stars are dereddened on the color-magnitude diagram using our acquired spectral types. Their intrinsic positions provide the most accurate determination for the cluster age obtained to date, -10/6 yr, confirming the pre-main sequence nature of the population. This age estimate is extended to the infrared cluster population of more than 550 stars revealed by infrared-array images. The K luminosity function for the infrared cluster is used in combination with the cluster age to derive the stellar mass distribution. The slope of the mass function obtained here is found to be comparable with the slopes of field initial mass functions. A mean stellar mass of, -0.9 Mo is estimated for the low mass stars. Our determinations for the masses, ages, and spectral types of Trapezium Cluster stars shows that they are a similar stellar population to the more extended Orion Nebula Cluster population, except in density of stars. The mass density of the Trapezium system of low mass and high mass (01 Ori) stars is found to be -4690 Mo pc-3 , approximately 1.5 times greater than previous estimates based on optical studies. The stellar mass derived for the low mass cluster is also used to calculate the star formation efficiency in the region to first order, -72%. This is similar to, but higher than, the star formation efficiencies determined in other regions of embedded cluster formation. The mean extinction estimated for the low mass cluster stars in our sample place the stars at approximately the same depth into the molecular cloud as the Trapezium OB stars, at the near-face of the cloud. Our sample is biased towards optical members of the cluster, suggesting that a significant number of the low mass stars may be embedded more deeply in the molecular cloud than the OB stars. However, using the K luminosity function for the infrared cluster we determine that the low mass cluster is most probably not spread through the whole cloud, but is pre-dominantly located close to the near-face of the cloud. Dust excess determinations show that the Trapezium Cluster stars sampled here contain a typical proportion of classical (dust-excess) T Tauri stars compared with naked (no dust-excess) T Tauri stars for a young stellar population. Approximately one-third of our sample have insignificant dust excesses. Calcium II IR triplet emission is observed in members of our Trapezium Cluster sample. We judge that the strengths of the triplet features imply a circumstellar disk origin for the emission. The frequency of calcium triplet emitting stars is estimated for our sample. We compare this estimate with the proportion of triplet emitters in a sample of Chamaeleon pre-main sequence stars. We find that 20-30 % of classical T Tauri stars in the two populations exhibit triplet emission; the frequency of triplet emission in the Trapezium Cluster sample is found to be comparable with that in Chamaeleon. We perform an approximate dynamical analysis of the Trapezium Cluster star-forming region using our estimates for stellar mass and age. The low mass cluster is found to be at an early stage in its dynamical evolution, and has not had time to completely relax as a system and lose its initial characteristics. It is too young, therefore, to exhibit mass segregation, and the observed isothermality of the stars is proposed here to arise from the distribution of the clumps from which the stars have formed. The high mass stars considered separately are determined to be old enough to have relaxed as a system. We find that, if the 01 Ori stars are located centrally with respect to the low mass cluster, then they are most likely to have formed in their present locations rather than have arrived there from larger radii through dynamical friction processes. In addition, the binding energies of the two high mass binary systems are found to be almost forty times the energy of the low mass cluster. It is suggested that the binary energies must have been acquired through their formation processes instead of through dynamical interactions with the low mass cluster. Thus, present characteristics of the stellar population of the Trapezium Cluster directly relate to the conditions under which the cluster formed, and are not due to dynamical processes among the stars themselves. The total stellar mass determined for the low mass cluster is estimated to be sufficient to bind the cluster at this time. This remains true even with future removal of gas from the region. However, continued dynamical interactions may lead to the eventual dissipation of the low mass cluster.

La recherche porte sur les patrons de distribution longitudinale (amont-aval) et transversale (rive nord - rive sud) des communautés de crustacés planctoniques qui ont été analysés le long du fleuve Saint-Laurent entre le lac Saint-François et la zone de transition estuarienne, à deux hydropériodes en mai (crue) et en août (étiage). Les données zooplanctoniques et environnementales ont été récoltées à 52 stations réparties sur 16 transects transversaux en 2006. Au chapitre 1, nous présentons les principaux modèles écosystémiques en rivière, une synthèse des facteurs influençant le zooplancton en rivières et les objectifs et hypothèses de recherche. Au chapitre 2, nous décrivons la structure des communautés de zooplancton dans trois zones biogéographiques du fleuve et 6 habitats longitudinaux, ainsi que les relations entre la structure du zooplancton et la distribution spatiale des masses d’eau et les variables environnementales. Au chapitre 3, nous réalisons une partition de la variation des variables spatiales AEM (basées sur la distribution des masses d’eau) et des variables environnementales pour évaluer quelle part de la variation du zooplancton est expliquée par les processus hydrologiques (variables AEM) et les conditions locales (facteurs environnementaux). Le gradient salinité-conductivité relié à la discontinuité fleuve-estuaire a déterminé la distribution à grande échelle du zooplancton. Dans les zones fluviales, la distribution du zooplancton est davantage influencée par la distribution des masses d’eau que par les facteurs environnementaux locaux. La distribution des masses d’eau explique une plus grande partie de la variation dans la distribution du zooplancton en août qu’en mai.<br>The research aims to determine the distribution patterns of crustacean plankton along the longitudinal (west-east) and transversal (north shore - south shore) axes of the St. Lawrence River between Lake Saint-François and the estuarine transition zone, during two hydroperiods in May (high discharge) and August (low discharge). The zooplankton samples and the environmental data were collected at 52 stations distributed along 16 transversal transects in 2006. In chapter 1, we present the theoretical concepts of river ecosystem models, and a synthesis on the generative processes driving zooplankton spatial patterns in rivers. We also present our research objectives and hypotheses. In chapter 2, we describe spatial patterns of the zooplankton community structure in three biogeographic zones of the St. Lawrence and 6 longitudinal habitats, together with the relationships between zooplankton spatial structure and water masses spatial distribution and environmental characteristics. In chapter 3, we perform a variation partitioning procedure on spatial variables AEM (based on water masses spatial distribution) and environmental variables in order to assess how much of the zooplankton variation is explained by hydrological processes (AEM variables) and local conditions (environmental factors). The salinity-conductivity gradient related to the fluvial-estuary discontinuity determines the large-scale spatial patterns of the crustacean zooplankton. In the fluvial zones, the zooplankton distribution patterns are more influenced by the water masses spatial structure than by local environmental factors. The spatial distribution of the water masses explained more of the spatial structure of zooplankton communities in August than in May.