Academic literature on the topic 'Forest biomass- Wood market'

Abstract Recent interest in producing energy from woody biomass has raised questions about the coexistence of wood-to-energy markets and the traditional forest products industry in Virginia. This study examined recent trends in the forest products industry and the wood-to-energy market, as well as the potential for competition between the two industries. Results indicate that the forest products industry has struggled recently, whereas wood-to-energy markets have expanded. Current opinion varies as to whether or not the wood-to-energy market will negatively affect the forest products industry. At present, 75% of Virginia's pulpmills are located within 50 miles of a wood-to-energy facility, and all pulpmills are within 75 miles. Recent trends in pulpwood prices, fuel chip prices, and Virginia law indicate that competition for raw material is unlikely in the short term. However, this research indicates that in the longer term, depending on government policies and technological progress in conversion technologies, competition between forest industry and wood-to-energy companies is possible.

Forest biomass is and will remain a primary source of renewable energy in many EU countries in the coming years. The aim of this study was to determine the energy potential of forest biomass on a regional scale with regard to the needs of its inhabitants in terms of electricity and heat consumption. The study was carried out in south-eastern Poland. Energy potential was calculated based on the determined wood mass and calorific value of wood. The current level of forest biomass acquisition satisfies 4.2% of the needs of the local market in terms of electricity and heat consumption. Taking into account high forest cover of the region (40%), the 60% annual increment of total harvesting, and obtaining biomass at the level of 30% of the total harvesting, waste wood from the forest can meet 58.1% of the needs of the local market in terms of electricity consumption and 14.4% of the need for thermal energy consumption. There is a certain niche in the fuel wood market that is currently unused, presenting the opportunity to develop this sector and generate additional jobs in local markets. However, the increase in obtained forest biomass must be in accordance with the principles of sustainable development.

Promotion of renewable energy sources in Europe is foreseen to result in a dramatic increase in the demand for woody biomass. This paper assesses whether wood resources in the European Union (EU) will support future demand. Possible implications for countries with ample forest resources and a well-developed forest industry, such as Sweden, of an expected mounting demand pressure are discussed. Other drivers of change in global wood product markets posing challenges for the forest sector in general are also addressed. These drivers are reviewed and, together with the results from the EUwood project and econometric wood market models, analyzed as to their impacts on the Swedish forest sector. Demand is foreseen to vastly exceed the potential supply of woody biomass in Europe, putting a tremendous pressure on the Swedish forest resource and necessitating trade-offs between different ecosystem services. Further, projections suggest that Sweden will decrease in importance in production as well as consumption terms for all wood products.

Charcoal production in Portugal is mostly based on the valorization of woody residues from cork oak and holm oak, the latter being considered a reference feedstock in the market. Nevertheless, since wildfire prevention became a priority in Portugal, after the recent dramatic wildfires, urgent actions are being conducted to reduce the fuel load in the forests, which is increasing the amount of biomass that is available for valorization. Additionally, biomass residues from agriculture, forest management, control of invasive species, partially burnt wood from post-fire recovery actions, and waste wood from storm devastated forests need also to be considered within the national biomass valorization policies. This has motivated the present work on whether the carbonization process can be used to valorize alternative woody biomasses not currently used on a large scale. For this purpose, slow pyrolysis experiments were carried out with ten types of wood, using a fixed bed reactor allowing the controlled heating of large fuel particles at 0.1 to 5 °C/min and final temperatures within 300–450 °C. Apart from an evaluation of the mass balance of the process, emphasis was given to the properties of the resulting charcoals considering its major market in Portugal—barbecue charcoal for both recreational and professional purposes.

Over half of California’s forestland is managed by the US Forest Service, and the agency has identified a need to scale up forest restoration treatments in the state to one million acres per year by 2025. However, the high costs of mechanical fuel reduction and lack of markets for biomass pose significant barriers to accomplishing this target. The objectives of this case study were: (1) to identify costs of forest restoration treatments on federally-managed land in the Northern Sierra under a variety of harvesting scenarios and haul distances to biomass facilities, and (2) to understand what market prices for biomass must be offered to support such efforts. We modeled silvicultural prescription and harvesting options, machine productivity and costs, and transportation costs to assess economic thresholds. Biomass harvest, chip, and haul costs ranged from $55/bone dry ton to $118/bone dry ton, depending on the harvesting system scenario and distance from the biomass disposal site. Results suggest that the cost of forest restoration far exceeds current market prices for biomass, and additional investment is needed to adequately pay for federal forest restoration in California. Additional takeaways include that biomass outlets closer to supply sources can reduce both haul costs and production costs, and local wood utilization campuses can play a key role in supporting forest restoration.

Forests are a natural resource of major economic significance to Canada, contributing $13.5 billion (2006) to the Canadian economy. However, the forest products industry is essentially an export industry and must compete locally and globally. The development of new and emerging products including biofuel and biomaterial derived from woody biomass will further drive up wood costs. As such, new products and process innovation are required to reduce production costs and gain market share. In this editorial, we summarize the role of sensors and how the use of sensors could provide means for cost reduction and new product development.

Northwest Russia has significant volumes of woody biomass of different origins that are available for energy, butwoodis not widely used as fuel.Four alternatives of forest chip supply systems were compared in the Republic of Kareliawith the support systemand the most favorable methods of wood chip production were determined by the local market conditions. The collection of logging residues for chipping is cost-effective if the distance to the customer is less than 100 km. The use of round energy wood for the production of forest chips compared with the use of logging residues is more economically feasible. In this case, forest chips can be transported up to 150 km. The availability of logging residues largely depends on the load-bearing capacity of the soil at harvesting sites. When considering the local market, a production method based on chipping energy wood at the end user facility has the best economic efficiency.

(1) Wood is a widely available raw material on the market, which satisfies the industrial demand and which is used both as a source of biomass for the wood materials industry in a broad sense and for energy-supplying purposes. These areas prove the functional values and the possibilities of the directional use of low-quality wood products. One of the factors influencing the overall balance of the wood biomass is the form and quality of the wood material that cannot be further processed mechanically. This study was conducted to determine the influence of this material by presenting the dependence between the level of wood biomass resources and the conditions of wood acquisition and processing in Poland. (2) The basic directions of biomass acquisition were verified in correlation with the level of its acquisition from forest areas and with the form of by-products generated by sawmills. The research was based on the data from reference publications and analysis of the processing of raw wood in sawmills. The research was conducted on raw hardwood and softwood from coniferous and deciduous forests in Poland. (3) The research confirmed the influence of the processing method on the form and share of by-products. It also showed that the form of the wood biomass obtained was influenced by the region of Poland. (4) The research showed that the regionalisation and wood processing directions were correlated with the structure of the wood biomass acquired.

Abstract This article presents the most important aspects relevant to forest-derived biomass utilization for the purposes of energy production by professional energy providers. The issues discussed here are divided into four groups: environmental, social, economic and technological aspects of biomass utilization in energy production. The environmental part focuses on the effects of intensive use of leftovers from timber harvest on forest ecosystems as well as the problem of ash utilization. Economic and social problems include the costs of energy production from timber, consequences of intensified fuel wood demand for the state of the timber and paper industry as well as the impact on the labor market. The technology section of the article covers questions related to the harvest and transport of forest-derived biomass. We conclude that, before regarding it as an energy source, wood should be mainly used for the production of timber due to the necessity and difficulty of considering all of the above-mentioned diverse aspects of energy production. Wood should be used for the production of energy only after its usage as timber products and their recycling.

Economic potential of feedstock generated low-valued forest residue can be enhanced by emerging biomass conversion technologies (BCT), such as torrefaction, briquetting, and gasification. However, for implementing these emerging processes within the woods, several hurdles are to be overcome, among which a balanced supply chain is pivotal. Centralized biomass recovery operation (CBRO) could be an economically viable solution in accessing harvesting sites and allows integration of BCT into forest management. The goal of this study was to examine the logistic effects of integrating a BCT into a CBRO, under different in-wood scenarios based on variations in travel time between the facility locations, amount of raw materials handled, intermediate storage capacity, and duration (number of days) of annual operations. Specific objectives included analyzing the effects of forest residue recoverability (BDMT, bone dry metric ton/ha), total transportation time from the harvest unit to the market, and the annual number of in-woods production sites on the overall efficiency of the BCT operations. Concurrently, this study examined the forest managerial impacts due to such an integration. Location-allocation tool (maximize market share problem type) within the ArcGIS Network Analyst platform was utilized to model the scenarios and generate one-way travel times from the harvest site to final markets. Results from geospatial analysis showed that there were 89–159 and 64–136 suitable locations for the BCT for logistics model (LM) I and II, respectively. Total one-way travel time for all the models ranged between 1.0–1.7 h. Additionally, the annual numbers of BCT sites was inversely proportional to the total one-way travel time (i.e., harvest unit to market). Arranging CBRO and BCT operations to occur at the same in-woods site returned shorter total and average travel times than arranging the two activities at separate in-woods sites. The model developed for this study can be used by forest managers and entrepreneurs to identify sites for placing BCTs in the forest that minimizes transportation times.

Thesis (MScFor (Forest and Wood Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Wood waste, when used for gasification is commonly pressed into briquettes, especially if no uniform particle size is available. This densification reduces problems of handling, storage and transportation and improves the combustion performance because of a more uniform fuel size. Briquettes have to be mechanically strong enough to be handled. Cohesive strength is provided by residual moisture and lignin present in the wood. The lignin acts as a natural binder. However, the briquetting process becomes more complicated if one wants to add other agricultural waste products that do not necessarily contain lignin as binders,, In this study we have investigated various briquetting process parameters, such as mixing ratios of briquettes containing wood chips, grape skins and chicken litter, moisture content and press time. The aim was to determine the optimum process parameters that allow the production of briquettes, containing a blend of biomaterials that are mechanically stable to allow further handling but yield high energy content at the same time.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Wanneer houtafval vir vergassing gebruik word en die partikelgrootte daarvan varieer, word die materiaal normaalweg in ’n brikket gedruk. Brikketvorming vergemaklik opberging, hantering en vervoer. Weens die meer uniforme grootte en vorm van die brikkette is verbranding daarvan heelwat meer doeltreffend. Brikkette moet egter meganies sterk genoeg wees om hanteer te kan word. Die kohesiewe sterkte word deur residuele vog en lignien, wat as natuurlike bindmiddel in hout aanwesig is, verskaf. Indien ander materiale soos landbouafval, wat noodwendig geen lignien bevat nie egter gebruik word, word die brikketvormingsproses meer kompleks. In hierdie ondersoek is verskeie brikketvormingsparameters evalueer. Mengverhoudings van brikkette wat houtspaanders, druiwedoppe en hoendermis bevat, asook invloed van materiaalvoggehalte en druktyd is bestudeer. Die doel was om die optimale materiaal- en prosesparameters vas te stel wanneer ’n mengsel van biomateriale gebruik word om brikkette te lewer wat meganies sterk genoeg is maar steeds die hoogste energieopbrengs lewer.
Centre for Renewable and Sustainable Energy Studies

The goal of this research study was to contribute to a better understanding of the challenges and opportunities of developing a woody biomass industry that includes non-industrial private forest (NIPF) landowners. Surveys were administered to 475 forest landowners before and after a forestry extension education program on emerging woody biomass markets in ten counties across North Carolina. We predicted that landowners would have low knowledge levels of woody biomass but, as a result of participating in the training, would increase knowledge, have more positive attitudes, and develop aspirations to harvest woody biomass on their land. Results, based on 395 returned surveys, confirmed these hypotheses, thus strengthening the perception of the importance of woody biomass educational programs as a component of renewable energy adoption plans. However, while the majority of landowners reported that the information gained was beneficial, we found that landowners would like more specific information before committing to participate in emerging woody biomass markets. Outreach to minority and traditionally underserved landowners also requires considerable development. If Extension professionals do not make a conscious effort to reach out to these populations they will be effectively excluded from this woody biomass market opportunity. These findings will assist Extension agents and other adult educators, policy makers, and energy or timber industry professionals to make informed decisions when developing policies and programs concentrated on woody biomass harvesting for energy.

Thesis (MFor (Forest and Wood Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009.
The aim of this study was to develop biomass prediction models for the determination of total aboveground biomass for mopane at three (3) study sites in Botswana. Thereafter, based on the pooled data from the three (3) study sites, recommend one cross-site biomass prediction model that could be used for the indirect estimation of the total aboveground biomass for mopane in Botswana. All the data were collected by destructive sampling from three (3) study sites in Botswana. Stratified random sampling was based on the stem diameter at breast height (1.3 m from the ground). A total of 30 sample trees at each study site were measured, felled and weighed. The 30 sample trees were distributed equally between six DBH classes (Five sample trees per DBH class). Thereafter, using the data from these sample trees, site-specific biomass prediction models for the indirect estimation of total aboveground biomass for mopane were developed as a function of the following independent variables: stem diameter at 0.15 m from the ground; stem diameter at 1.3 m from the ground; stem diameter at 3 m from the ground; crown diameter; and total tree height. The data from the sites were pooled together to develop cross-site biomass prediction models as a function of the given independent variables. The biomass prediction model that provided the best fit at Serule was a linear equation estimated by means of the stem diameter at 1.3 m, while in Sexaxa the biomass prediction model that provided the best fit was estimated by means of the stem diameter at 0.15 m. The biomass prediction model that provided the best fit at the Tamacha site was estimated by means of the stem diameter at 1.3 m. On the basis of the collected data, cross-site biomass prediction models were developed. The cross-site biomass prediction model that provided the best fit was developed from the stem diameter at 1.3 m. This relationship was adopted as the prediction model for the indirect biomass estimation of Colophospermum mopane (mopane) in Botswana.

Recent emphasis on producing energy from woody biomass has raised questions about the impact of a vibrant wood-to-energy market on the southern wood supply chain, which consists of forest landowners, forest industry mills, and harvesting contractors. This study utilized two surveys of southern wood supply chain participants and a designed operational study of an energywood harvest to investigate the impact of an expanded wood-to-energy market on each member of the southern wood supply chain. First, a survey of consulting foresters was conducted to examine how harvest tract size, forest ownership, and forest industry structure have changed within the U.S. South and how foresters expect the wood-to-energy market to impact the wood supply chain in the future. Second, this study employed a mail survey of forest landowners, forest industry mills, and wood-to-energy facilities from the thirteen southern states in order to investigate expected competition for resources, wood supply chain profitability, and landowner willingness to sell timber to energy facilities. Third, this study conducted a designed operational study on a southern pine clearcut in the Coastal Plain of North Carolina, with three replications of three harvest prescriptions to measure harvesting productivity and costs when harvesting woody biomass for energy. The three treatments were: a Conventional roundwood only harvest (control), an Integrated harvest in which roundwood was delivered to traditional mills and residuals were chipped for energy, and a Chip harvest in which all stems were chipped for energy use. Results from the two surveys suggest that timber markets are inadequate in many areas of the South as a result of expanded timber supply and reduced forest products industry capacity. Only 12% of responding landowners and foresters had sold wood to an energy facility, indicating that wood-to-energy markets are non-existent in many areas of the South. Nonetheless, 98% of consulting foresters and 90% of landowners reported a willingness to sell timber to an energy facility if the right price were offered. Consulting foresters expected wood-to-energy facilities to provide an additional market for wood, and not displace forest products industry capacity. However, two-thirds of consulting foresters, wood-to-energy facilities, and private landowners expected competition between mills and energy facilities while 95% of fibermills (pulp/paper and composite mills) expected competition. Fibermills were much more concerned about competition for resources and increases in wood costs than any other member of the southern wood supply chain. The operational study documented the challenges facing some harvesting contractors in economically producing energywood. Onboard truck roundwood costs increased from $9.35 green t-1 in the Conventional treatment to $10.98 green t-1 in the Integrated treatment as a result of reduced felling and skidding productivity. Energy chips were produced for $19.19 green t-1 onboard truck in the Integrated treatment and $17.93 green t-1 in the Chip treatment. Energywood harvesting costs were higher in this study than in previous research that employed loggers with less expensive, more fuel efficient equipment. This suggests that high capacity, wet-site capable loggers may not be able to economically harvest and transport energywood without a substantial increase in energywood prices. This study suggests that the southern wood supply chain is in position to benefit from a vibrant wood-to-energy market. Landowners should benefit from an additional market for small-diameter stems. This study shows that high production, wet-site capable loggers should not harvest energywood until prices for this material appreciate considerably. Wet-site loggers have very expensive equipment with high hourly fuel consumption rates and this study documented that energywood production was not sufficiently high to offset the high hourly cost of owning and operating this equipment. Nevertheless, a wood-to-energy market should benefit harvesting contractors in general because unless the forest products industry contracts further, loggers can continue to harvest and deliver roundwood to mills as they do at present and those properly equipped for energywood harvesting at low cost may be able to profit from a new market. The forest products industry has the largest potential downside of any member of the southern wood supply chain. This study documents widespread anticipation of competition between the forest products and wood-to-energy industries. However, to date there has been minimal wide-scale competition between the forest products and wood-to-energy industries. It is possible that the wood-to-energy industry will complement, rather than compete with the forest products industry, and thereby benefit each member of the southern wood supply chain.
Ph. D.

Thesis (MScFor)--Stellenbosch University, 2013.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The study aims at developing models for predicting aboveground biomass for selected drought tolerant Eucalyptus (E) species (E. cladocalyx, E. gomphocephala and E. grandis x camaldulensis) from the dry west coast. Biomass models were fit for each of the species and a cross-species model was parameterised based on pooled data for all the three species. Data was based on destructive sampling of 28 eucalypt trees which were 20 years of age and additional five five-year old E. gomphocephala trees. Preliminary measurements on diameter at breast height (dbh), height (h) and crown height were recorded in the field. The sampled trees were then felled and samples of discs, branches and foliage were collected. Density of the wood discs and the bark was determined by a water displacement method and computer tomography scanning (CT-scanner). Stem biomass was reconstructed using Smalian’s formula for volume determination and the calculated densities. Upscaling of the crown was carried out by regression equations formulated by employing the sampled branches. Further assessment was carried out on a sub-sample by subjecting the samples to different drying temperatures in a series between 60 and 105ºC. Linear models were parameterised by a simultaneous regression approach based on Seemingly Unrelated Regression (SUR) using the “Systemfit” R statistical package. The predictor variables employed in the study were dbh, d2h and h in which the coefficient of determination (R2), Mean Standard Error (MSE) and Root Mean Standard Error (RMSE) were used to determine the goodness of fit for the models. Akaike Information Criteria (AIC) was also used in the selection of the best fitting model. A system of equations consisting of five models was formulated for each Eucalyptus species. The biomass prediction models had degrees of determination (R2) ranging from 0.65 to 0.98 in which dbh and d2h were the main predictor variable while h improved the model fit. The total biomass models were the best fitting models in most cases while foliage biomass had the least good fit when compared to other models. When the samples were subjected to different drying temperatures, stem wood had the largest percentage change of 6% when drying from 60ºC to 105ºC while foliage had the lowest percentage change of less than 2%.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel met hierdie studie is om modelle vir die voorspelling van die bogrondse biomassa van drie droogte-bestande Eucalyptus (E) spesies (E. cladocalyx, E. gomphocephala en E. grandis x camaldulensis), gekweek op die droë kusvlakte in Wes-Kaapland, te ontwikkel. Biomassa modelle vir elk van die spesies is gepas en ’n model gegrond op die gekombineerde data van al drie die spesies, is geparameteriseer. Verder is die biomassa variasie onder verskeie droogingstemperature vasgestel. Die data versameling is uitgevoer gegrond op die destruktiewe mostering van 28 Eucalyptus bome wat 20 jaar oud was en ’n bykomende vyf vyfjarige E. gomphocephala bome. Die aanvanklike mates, naamlik deursnee op borshoogte (dbh), boomhoogte (h) en kroonhoogte is in die veld opgemeet. Die gemonsterde bome is afgesaag en monsters van stamhout skywe, takke en die bas is versamel. Die digtheid van die skywe en die bas is deur die waterverplasing metode, en Rekenaar Tomografie skandering (“CT-scanning”) vasgestel. Stam biomassa is rekonstrukteer deur gebruik te maak van Smalian se formule vir die vasstelling van volume en berekende digtheid. Die opskaal van die kroon biomassa is gedoen met behulp van regressie vergelykings van gekose takmonsters. Submonsters is onderwerp aan ’n reeks van verskillende drogingstemperature tussen 60 en 105ºC. Lineêre modelle is deur ’n gelyktydige regressie benadering gegrond op die Seemingly Unrelated Regression (SUR) wat ’n“Systemfit” R statistiese pakket gebruik, parameteriseer. Die voorspeller veranderlikes wat in hierdie studie gebruik is, is dbh, d2h en h waarin die koëffisient van bepaling (R2), gemiddelde standaardfout (MSE) en vierkantswortel van die gemiddelde standaardfout (RMSE) gebruik is om vas te stel hoe goed die model pas. Akaike Inligting Kriteria is gebruik vir die seleksie van die gepaste model. ’n Reeks vergelykings wat bestaan uit vyf modelle is vir elke Eucalyptus spesie geformuleer. Die biomassa voorspelling model het waardes vir die koëffisiente van bepaling (R2) opgelewer wat strek van 0.65 to 0.98% en waarin dbh en d2h die hoof voorspelling veranderlikes is, terwyl h die pas van die model verbeter. Die totale biomassa model het in die meeste gevalle die beste gepas en die blaarbiomassa die swakste as dit met die ander modelle vergelyk word. Tydens droging vind die grootste persentasie verandering van 6% by stamhout plaas tussen temperature van 60ºC tot 105ºC, en die kleinste persentasie verandering van minder as 2% by blare.

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2009.
Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains vii, 119 p. : ill. (some col.). Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references.

Forests are fundamentally important in relation to the multitude of ecosystem services they provide. Many ecosystem services supplied by forests are positive externalities and public goods and they are considered “market failures”: people can benefit from them without contributing to their sustainment. The failure in assigning a proper value may lead to degradation of forest ecosystems, or to abandonment of forest management, resulting in a consequent under provision of the service, with substantial economic and social losses to society. To preserve and sustain ecosystem services, including those provided by forests, there is an increasing agreement in favour of Market Based Instruments (MBI). MBI encourage behaviour through market signals rather than through explicit directives. Their main common characteristic is the use of monetary values in one way or another through a commodification process. MBI are heterogeneous and many authors have listed and classified them, in different ways. The present research adopts the classification of Pirard (2012), who described six types of MBI: direct deals, tradable permits, regulatory price signals, voluntary price signals, reverse auctions and Coasean type agreements. Among the several ecosystem services provided by forests, some, more than others, have experienced a process of commodification, testified by several examples worldwide. This is the case of Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFP) and of the climate regulation that derives from the carbon sequestration function of forests. The research aimed at i) assessing which are the most important MBI types applied to NWFP and forests carbon, according to the scientific literature; ii) analysing the application of MBI to NWFP and to climate regulation that derives from the carbon sequestration function of forests, at different scales; iii) assessing whether the application of the MBI to NWFP and to climate regulation that derives from the carbon sequestration function of forests, in the selected examples, is likely to deliver co-benefits or sustainability aspects. In order to determine how is the MBI type reflected in the scientific literature the Elsevier Scopus database was used, using a set of keywords. According to the analysis of the scientific literature, the most quoted MBI for NWFP is “direct deals”. Two levels of analysis were selected: the first focused on the international NWFP trade of Italy (performed using the Harmonised System and UNComtrade) and the second on the regional market of NWFP (with the supply chain analysis of wild mushrooms and chestnuts in South Tyrol conducted through face-to-face questionnaires; plus two in depth case-studies, one in Fiemme valley (TN), targeting the organization of the mushroom picking service, and one in Castione (TN), targeting the organization of a chestnut producers association). The other MBI of main importance for NWFP is “voluntary price signals”, namely certification, which was investigated through literature analysis. The study for the climate regulation that derives from the carbon sequestration function of forests was conducted at two levels: i) the Italian compliance forest carbon market, in the Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) example (utilising official databases) and ii) the voluntary forest carbon market, by submitting an online questionnaire to the actors of the sector. The analysis of “direct deals” applied to NWFP confirms that commodification of NWFP is so extended that nowadays many NWFP are traded at international scale. In these, Italy has a leading position within the five main global importers and/or exporters of vegetable tannins, cork stoppers, chestnuts and wild mushrooms. The International trade of wild forest products is increasing. This could be an opportunity for Italy and for European Union in general, to promote a sustainable forest management based on multifunctionality, which includes use and commercialization of NWFP. The survey conducted in Trentino-South Tyrol for wild mushrooms and chestnuts shows the presence of different types of markets and food supply chains, based on local and non-local NWFP, the second largely exceeding the first. This is driven by the same logics that rule the trade of other commodities, such as the cheaper raw material and labour cost obtainable in some foreign countries. However, there are also supply chains based on local NWFP. The trade of local products is based on much lower quantities, and almost the totality remains within regional boundaries. The trade occurrs for the vast majority through Short Food Supply Chains, whose application is considered one of the most important tools to strengthen rural development, by providing several socio-economic and environmental benefits. Chestnuts production in the region takes also advantage of form of integrations among producers and of geographic specific horizontal alliances for the sale of complementary products and services. Other MBI are applied to NWFP in the region. Of particular importance are the public incentives for the restoration of the chestnuts sector and the permits for the collection of wild mushrooms. The analysis of tradable permits application to the climate regulation (carbon sequestration function of forest), in the Italian CDM example, shows that Italian Government participates in a relatively high number of forest projects in developing countries, producing a relevant amount of climatic benefits. However, the connection “carbon forest project- conservation of native forests and of biodiversity” is not automatic, since 55% of the new forests was planted with non-native species. The analysis of the statements of the forest carbon project design documents shows that all the projects claim that they stimulate the local economy, including short and long term employment in the project area, and that they engage the local population. However, the system of indicators developed by United Nation Convention of Climate Change (UNFCCC) does not provide a method for assessing how much a project contributes to sustainable development. Integration of the available information from the Italian Government would be particularly valuable, also considering the relevant financial involvement of Italy in these activities and the positive lessons to be learned from the ongoing experience in the light of the future development of the UNFCCC negotiations. The analysis of the tradable permits in the example of the Italian voluntary forest carbon market shows that the Italian market is a small market, which has showing a decline in the latest years. The prices are instead in positive countertrend. The Italian sector is characterized by a balanced presence of profit and non-profit organizations, which develop more and more small and micro projects in Italy. Differently form the international situation, most of the projects operate in the absence of certification and standards that assure carbon accounting quality and delivery of co-benefits. However, many projects use guidelines and internal quality standards, a strategy aimed at containing costs for the micro or small scale projects. This choice might, however, raise criticisms. A good sign in terms of environmental benefits is given by the fact that most of the projects, contrarily from what happen in the CDM projects, used exclusively native species. Since problems of double counting with Kyoto based initiatives could undermine the development of the sector, the voluntary carbon market is looking for official signals from the Italian Government. Currently there is a legislative gap about this. With clear and precise directives, a more stable strategy for the sector could be implemented, also looking at the successful examples of domestic markets that exist in many EU countries. NWFP certification is promoted as a solution to address the many ecological, economic, and social challenges associated with NWFP commercialization. The research shows that several certification schemes are applied to NWFP and they have different scopes, which follow in different degree under the spheres of socio-economic and environmental sustainability and of assurance of quality and health benefits. However, only two standards (sustainable forest management and wild certification), include detailed ecological specifications for sustainable harvesting. Being the entire NWFP supply chain connected to the renewability of the NWFP itself, these recommendations are of particular importance. Market Based Instruments are mechanisms that can provide economic values to forest ecosystems, also providing greater flexibility of the management of the resources and to changing conditions. The research shows that application of MBI to forest ecosystem services can perform at different scales, form the local to the global. However, they have not to be idealistically seen as the solution; they rather can, if carefully designed and implemented, complement regulations or provide alternatives. The definition of the best option should be designed case-by-case, especially aiming at including the delivering of sustainable aspects, with particular reference to the place where the forest resources are. At the same way, due to heterogeneity of MBI and of the contexts where they are implemented, MBI effectiveness in managing and conserving ecosystems cannot be a priori assessed and other indicators, applied at specific scale, should be used.
Le foreste hanno fondamentale importanza per i servizi ecosistemici che forniscono alla società. Molti servizi ecosistemici derivanti dalle foreste ricadono nelle cosiddette esternalità positive e nella classe dei beni pubblici. Ciò implica che molti possano beneficiare da tali servizi ecosistemici, senza però contribuire al loro sostentamento. Tale fallimento nell’attribuzione del giusto valore può comportare una degradazione degli ecosistemi forestali, o l’abbandono della gestione forestale, con un conseguente sotto approvvigionamento del servizio ecosistemico stesso. Ne derivano conseguentemente perdite anche dal punto di vista socio-economico. Al fine di preservare, conservare e sostenere i servizi ecosistemici, compresi quelli generati dalle foreste, c’è un crescente accordo circa l’effettività dell’uso degli strumenti basati sul mercato (Market Based Instruments- MBI). I MBI sono strumenti che incoraggiano le azioni tramite segnali di mercato, invece che tramite norme. Essi costituiscono un gruppo eterogeneo di strumenti, il cui maggiore comune denominatore è l’uso di valori monetari, in svariati modi, attraverso un processo di commodificazione. Diversi autori hanno classificato i MBI, in modi differenti. La presente ricerca adotta la classificazione di Pirard (2012), il quale ha definito sei tipi di MBI: scambi diretti (direct deals), permessi commercializzabili (tradable permits), segnali di prezzo su base normativa (regulatory price signals), segnali di prezzo su base volontaria (voluntary price signals), accordi basati sul modello di Coase (Coasean types agreements), aste al contrario (reverse auctions). Tra i tanti servizi ecosistemici forniti dalle foreste, alcuni, più di altri, hanno esperito un processo di commodificazione, testimoniato da molti esempi nel mondo. E’ il caos dei Prodotti Forestali Non Legnosi (PFNL) e del servizio di regolazione che deriva dalla funzione di sequestro del carbonio operato dalle foreste. La presente ricerca ha avuto i seguenti obiettivi: i) determinare quali siano i più importanti MBI applicati ai PFNL e al servizio di regolazione che deriva dalla funzione di sequestro del carbonio operato dalle foreste, secondo la letteratura scientifica; ii) analizzare l’applicazione di tali MBI ai PFNL e al servizio di regolazione che deriva dalla funzione di sequestro del carbonio operato dalle foreste, a diverse scale; iii) valutare se sia probabile che l’applicazione dei MBI ai PFNL e al servizio di regolazione che deriva dalla funzione di sequestro del carbonio operato dalle foreste, negli esempi selezionati, porti co-benefici o aspetti di sostenibilità. Per determinare quali siano i più importanti MBI, è stato utilizzato il database Scopus, tramite una ricerca con parole chiave. Secondo la letteratura, i più citati MBI per i PFNL sono i “direct deals”. Sono stati determinati due livelli di analisi per la ricerca di tale applicazione del meccanismo: la prima internazionale, con focus sul commercio internazionale dei PFNL in cui l’Italia è coinvolta (utilizzando il database UNComtrade); la seconda regionale, con l’analisi delle filiere di funghi selvatici e castagne in Trentino-Alto Adige, condotta tramite interviste dirette; l’indagine si è anche avvalsa di ulteriori ricerche, la prima concernente il servizio di raccolta dei permessi dei funghi in val di Fiemme (TN), la seconda un’associazione di produttori di castagne a Castione (TN). L’altro MBI di maggiore importanza per i PFNL, come riportato in letteratura, è “regulatory price signals”, e specificatamente la certificazione e l’uso di standards. L’analisi dell’applicazione di questo meccanismo si è svolta tramite ricerca bibliografica. Lo studio sul servizio di regolazione che deriva dalla funzione di sequestro del carbonio operato dalle foreste è stato condotto a due livelli: i) il mercato regolamentare del carbonio forestale, nell’esempio dei progetti forestali sviluppati nell’ambito del Clean Development Mechanism del Protocollo di Kyoto (studio avvenuto tramite ricerca nei database ufficiali); ii) il mercato volontario del carbonio forestale, avvenuto tramite questionari inviati agli attori del settore. L’analisi dei “direct deals” applicati ai PFNL conferma che la commodificazione dei PFNL è tale che oggi molti di questi prodotti sono commercializzati in mercati con scala globale. In questo contesto, l’Italia riveste una posizione di leader globale tra i maggiori importatori o esportatori di alcuni prodotti: tannini di origine vegetale, tappi di sughero, castagne e funghi selvatici. Il commercio internazionale di PFNL è in crescita. Ciò può rappresentare un’opportunità per l’Italia, e per l’Unione Europea in generale, per promuovere una gestione forestale sostenibile e multifunzionale, basata anche sui PFNL. L’indagine condotta in Trentino-Alto Adige per i funghi selvatici e le castagne mostra la presenza di diversi tipi di mercati e filiere, basate sia su prodotti locali che non locali, i secondi largamente eccedenti i primi. Le dinamiche che muovono tali mercati sono basate su logiche similari a quelle di tanti altri prodotti, quali i minori costi di produzione che susistono in alcuni paesi esteri. Tuttavia, nella regione ci sono anche filiere basate su PFNL locali. Il commercio imperniato sulla produzione locale è basato su quantità molto minori e la quasi totalità rimane all’interno dei confini regionali. La commercializzazione avviene tramite filiere corte (Short Food Supply Chains), la cui applicazione è considerata ono dei più importanti strumenti per rafforzare lo sviluppo rurale, fornendo diversi benefici sociali, economici e ambientali. Nella regione esistono anche altri MBI applicati ai PFNL. Di particolare importanza sono gli incentivi pubblici per la revitalizzazione del settore castanicolo e i permessi per la raccolta dei funghi. L’analisi circa l’applicazione dei tradable permits al servizio di regolazione che deriva dalla funzione di sequestro del carbonio operato dalle foreste, nell’esempio CDM italiano, mostra che il Governo Italiano partecipa ad un numero relativamente alto di progetti forestali nei paesi in via di sviluppo. Ciò produce un ammontare rilevante di benefici climatici. Tuttavia, la connessione “progetto di carbonio forestale- conservazione delle foreste native” nonè automatica, visto che circa il 55% di queste foreste è stat piantata con specie non native. L’analisi condotta sulle dichiarazioni contenute nei documenti di progetto CDM mostra che tutti i progetti sostengono di aver stimolato l’economia locale, inclusa la generazione di impiego a lungo e breve termine, e di aver coinvolto la popolazione locale. Tuttavia, il sistema di indicatori fornito dall’ United Nation Convention of Climate Change (UNFCCC) non procura un metodo per valutare quanto un progeto contribuisca allo sviluppo sostenibile. Sarebbero a questo proposito utili integrazioni informative da parte del Governo Italiano, anche considerando il coinvolgimento finanziario rilevante che l’Italia ha in queste attività. Ciò in vista dello sviluppo delle future negoziazioni in ambito UNFCCC. L’analisi dei tradable permits nell’esempio del mercato volontario italiano mostra come il mercato italiano sia un piccolo mercato, che ha mostrato un declino negli anni recenti. I prezzi dei crediti di carbonio, invece, risultano essere in controtendenza. Il mercato italiano è caratterizzato da una presenza bilanciata di associazioni profit e non profit, le quali sviluppano sempre più progetti a piccola e micro scala. Al contrario di quanto accade internazionalmente, si riscontra che la maggior parte dei progetti opera in assenza di certificazione e di standard che assicurino la bontà dei calcoli sulla quantità di carbonio immagazzinato e la generazione di co-benefici. Tuttavia molti progetti utilizzano linee guida e standard interni, strategia messa in atto per contenere i costi dei piccoli progetti, i quali hanno difficoltà a sostenere i costi di certificazione. Tuttavia, tale scelta può essere da molti criticata. Un buon indicatore è invece dato dall’uso quasi esclusivo di specie native nei progetti. Dato che problemi di doppia rendicontazione con il Protocollo di Kyoto possono minare lo sviluppo del settore, esssendoci ora una vacanza legislativa, gli attori del mercato volontario sono in attesa da segnali chiari dal Governo. Con precise direttive potrebbe essere designata una strategia più stabile, anche considerando gli esempi positivi di alcuni mercati domestici in altri paesi europei. La ricerca sui “voluntary price signals” mostra come esistano molti schemi di certificazione che sono applicabili ai PFNL. Hanno obiettivi differenti, ascrivibili con diversa intensità alle sfere di sostenibilità socio-economica, ambientale, e di assicurazione di qualità. Tuttavia, solo due standard (gestione forestale sostenibile e certificazione “wild”) includono specificazioni dettagliate circa la raccolta sostenibile dei PFNL. Essendo l’intera filiera basata sulla presenza della risorsa PFNL, queste specificazioni sono di fondamentale importanza. I MBI sono meccanismi che possono fornire valore economico agli ecosistemi forestali, dando anche maggiore flessibilità di gestione delle risorse e maggior resilienza a situazioni dinamiche. La ricerca mostra che l’applicazione di MBI ai servizi ecosistemici derivanti dalle foreste può essere applicata a scale diverse, dalla locale alla globale. Tuttavia, l’applicazione di MBI non deve essere idealisticamente vista come “la soluzione”; è piuttosto, se attentamente sviluppata e messa in atto, di complemento alle norme esistenti. La definizione dell’opzione migliore dovresse essere designata caso per caso, specialmente mirando ad includere la generazione di aspetti di sostenibilità, con riferimento particolare al luogo dove sono site le risorse forestali. Allo stesso modo, data l’eterogeneità dei MBI e dei contesti a cui sono applicati, l’effettività dei MBI nella gestione e conservazione degli ecosistemi non può essere valutata a priori e dovrebbero essere utilizzati altri indicatori, applicati a scala specifica.

The Commonwealth of Kentucky is taking steps to expand bioenergy production in response to federal policy initiatives as well as environmental and energy security concerns. The success of this industry will be impacted by the supply of feedstock available from private individuals who own a majority (78%) of forest resources in the state. Despite a developing body of bioenergy research, little is known concerning the social availability of forest biomass for energy production. This study measures intent to harvest energy wood among family forest owners using a mail-­‐based survey and tests the effect of educational materials provided to participants. The theory of planned behavior is used to model factors that affect landowner intentions. Two-­‐thirds of respondents reported that they intend to include energy wood in future harvests, but the educational material treatment did not affect intentions. Respondents’ attitudes, perceived subjective norms, and perceived control each had a significant effect on intent to harvest. Respondents also identified barriers that may prevent them from harvesting, providing forestry professionals with a list of challenges to overcome if supply is to be maximized. The results of this study are valuable for all stakeholders involved in the development of a sustainable biomass and bioenergy industry.

New Zealand has ratified the Kyoto Protocol and agreed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels in the first commitment period 2008-2012. Energy generated from renewable sources, such as New Zealand plantation forests and wood processing sites, is considered greenhouse gas neutral. But the use of biomass for bioenergy in New Zealand is very small. Some of the reasons for this include a lack of information about the future fuel supply and delivered cost. This thesis aims to provide a methodology to estimate biomass fuel availability and the delivered cost, of a range of forest and wood processing sources within a district, and to analyse the impact of harvest age, harvesting practices, terrain, collection and chipping costs, opportunity cost and transport costs on the availability and delivered cost of biomass for bioenergy. The six biomass streams included were chiplogs, forest landing residues, cutover residues, sawdust, bark and chip. The methodology was developed based on an area in Canterbury, and tested on an area in the Nelson/Marlborough region. It utilises forest growth models, Geographic Information Systems and Microsoft Excel. Growth models allow the analysis to be customised to a particular area or region, while the use of GIS allows the model to take spatial aspects (for example slope and transport distance) into consideration. Developing the overall framework within Excel allows easy analysis of the results and changes to the underlying assumptions. Opportunity costs make up a large proportion of the total cost of delivery for the chiplog, sawdust, bark and chip biomass and need to be included in any estimate of cost for these biomass streams. The logistic system chosen for collecting and chipping the forest residues has a large impact on their delivered cost as do the transport costs. However transport cost is not the most significant influence on the delivered cost of other biomass streams. The use of biomass for electricity generation only is not currently economic in either of the areas analysed. The use of biomass for heat production is currently economic if compared to the electricity purchase price.

Abstract The REPA spatial price equilibrium model developed in Chapter 4 is used to investigate the regional welfare impacts of a quota on exports of Canadian softwood lumber to the U.S. In the model, Canada is divided into seven regions and the U.S. into five regions, with the rest of the world constituting a 13th region; the model is calibrated to the bilateral trade flows that existed in 2016 when there was free trade in lumber. Various quota levels are examined in terms of their impact on producers and consumers in both countries. Canadian producers are found to be better off with a hard quota compared with free trade, although the quota leads to a reduction in market share while driving a wedge between Canadian and U.S. prices, both of which are aggravated with harder quotas. Overall, the loss of export sales to the U.S. is not recouped with sales to the rest of the world. The REPA model is also used to examine the impact of EU demand for wood pellets to generate electricity. Results indicate that pellet prices will approximately double.

Abstract The REPA spatial price equilibrium model developed in Chapter 4 is used to investigate the regional welfare impacts of a quota on exports of Canadian softwood lumber to the U.S. In the model, Canada is divided into seven regions and the U.S. into five regions, with the rest of the world constituting a 13th region; the model is calibrated to the bilateral trade flows that existed in 2016 when there was free trade in lumber. Various quota levels are examined in terms of their impact on producers and consumers in both countries. Canadian producers are found to be better off with a hard quota compared with free trade, although the quota leads to a reduction in market share while driving a wedge between Canadian and U.S. prices, both of which are aggravated with harder quotas. Overall, the loss of export sales to the U.S. is not recouped with sales to the rest of the world. The REPA model is also used to examine the impact of EU demand for wood pellets to generate electricity. Results indicate that pellet prices will approximately double.

AbstractThe forest-based bioeconomy relies on using forests as a source of raw material for producing materials and energy, as well as for a variety of other ecosystem services. The uses of forests and wood are many and, to some extent, competing. Can a limited resource simultaneously and sustainably provide raw materials for products, feedstock for energy production, and other ecosystem services? Over one-third of the land area in the EU is covered by forests, but there are large differences between the member states regarding both forest area and growing stock of wood. The harvesting of roundwood has been steadily increasing. In addition to roundwood, other tree parts, as well as residues from forest industries and post-consumer wood, are being used for both materials and energy production. There are non-negligible uncertainties regarding the future availability of forest biomass in the context of climate change, as well as difficulties to concern all the relevant constraints on biomass supply in relation to availability assessments and the difficult-to-predict effects of policies. Despite the above, it can be concluded that there is still potential to increase the utilisation of forest biomass in most of the EU regions, but this might affect the provisioning of other important ecosystem services.

AbstractForests and wood use can contribute to climate-change mitigation by enhancing carbon sinks through afforestation, reforestation and improved forest management, by maintaining carbon stocks through natural or anthropogenic disturbance prevention, by increasing offsite carbon stocks, and through material and energy substitution by changing the industry production structure and enhancing resource efficiency. As forests grow fairly slowly in Europe, increasing the wood harvesting intensity decreases the carbon stocks in aboveground biomass, at least in the short to medium term (0–50 years) compared to a baseline harvest regime. The key issue is the time frame in which the decreased carbon stock in forests can be compensated for by improved forest growth resulting from improved forest management and the benefits related to wood utilisation. Thus, there is a need to address potential trade-offs between the short- to medium-term and the long-term (50+ years) net emissions. An optimal strategy needs to be tailored based also on regional specificities related to, for example, local climatic and site conditions, the state of the forests, the institutional setting and the industry structures. This chapter presents a way to assess the effectiveness of forest-sector climate-change mitigation strategies across different contexts and time horizons, combining the climate impacts of forests and the wood utilisation of the technosphere. We identify potential ‘no-regret’ mitigation pathways with minimum trade-offs, and conclude with the research and policy implications.

AbstractForest-based products––often referred to as harvested-wood products (HWPs)––can influence the climate through two separate mechanisms. Firstly, when wood is harvested from forests, the carbon contained in the wood is stored in the HWP for months to decades. If the amount of wood entering the market exceeds the amount of wood being discarded annually, this can lead to a HWP sink impact. Secondly, HWPs typically have a lower fossil carbon footprint than alternative products, so, for example, using wood in construction can lower fossil emissions by reducing the production of cement and steel, resulting in a substitution impact. The international greenhouse gas (GHG) reporting conventions and the related Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change guidance covers the HWP sink impact, but not the substitution impacts. The HWP sink impact is restricted to tracing biogenic carbon flows, whereas the substitution impact typically covers fossil carbon flows exclusively. Importantly, the substitution and HWP sink impacts do not represent the climate- change mitigation impact of wood use, as such. Instead, they are important pieces of the broader puzzle of GHG flows related to the forest sector. This chapter presents the state-of-the-art approaches for determining the HWP sink and substitution impacts, and concludes with the policy and research implications.

Past work has demonstrated the feasibility of pyrolyzing biomass and condensing the resulting vapor to form a low quality combustible liquid. The product, often termed pyrolysis oil, bio-oil, or bio-crude, can be refined to a transportation grade fuel. Because the pyrolysis process is comparatively simple, we speculate that a mobile pyrolysis system might be able to process the biomass at the site of harvest, generating a dense liquid for transportation. This would be expected to result in improved transportation economics compared to transporting the raw biomass fuel. This technology is being considered for northern New Mexico forests that are presently managed by periodic thinning efforts with little utilization of the products. We have designed a bench-scale system and pyrolyzed biomass pellets, which function in these tests as surrogate material for the forest trimmings. The system features controllable furnace temperatures, augur feed, gas recirculation, and multi-stage condensation. We have analyzed gases, chars, and liquids resulting from various operating conditions and report product quantities and qualities through various standard chemical methods. Good liquid mass yields of over 50% of the original material are typically found, with varying product quality and quantity depending on the operating temperature. Our results suggest the current configuration gives better yields and functions more optimally at pyrolysis temperatures around 525°C. For a practical system, combustion of the non-condensable fuel gases may be able to replace the electrically heated furnace used in these tests.

In the current energy environment, with an expected increase in energy consumption in the face of depletion of fossil fuel reserves, more attention is being paid to renewable energy sources for electricity generation. One of the most attractive alternatives is biomass, which can be effectively used to generate electricity, as well as heat using cogeneration technologies that increase the efficiency of the entire energy conversion process. The North-western region of the Russian Federation is a region with recognized potential for electricity and heat production, using primary forest biomass and waste from the forest industry, among which wood chips are distinguished for their ease of obtaining, processing and drying, as well as for their good and stable behavior during combustion or gasification. However, in order to use the available resources efficiently, that is, to minimize the material and technical requirements to reduce the energy required for the electricity generation process, biomass obtained in the conditions of logging enterprises must be used locally in order to comply with sustainable forest management methods. This article is aimed at describing various technological alternatives for converting wood chips into electricity and heat, as well as comparing these technologies for use in logging enterprises.

Wastes from forest and agricultural industry are still insufficiently used. One of the ways of their preprocessing is a pyrolysis process. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the energetic properties of biochar made of walnut shells, forest wood chips and willow chips. The studies were performed according to standards. The moisture contents of the material, the ash contents, the net and gross calorific values were determined. Low moisture and ash content were found in each of the biochar species. For all tested samples the ash contents were lower than 6% and for forest wood chips it was 1.5% only. The way of processing the biomass in the pyrolysis process significantly increased the calorific value of the raw materials. It was found that the net calorific values of the tested materials were high and reached the amount of 26.58 MJ‧kg-1 for biochar made of walnut shells, 22.29 MJ‧kg-1 for biochar made of forest wood chips and 24.59 MJ‧kg-1 for biochar made of willow chips. Due to the good physical properties of biochar produced from waste and biological materials, it was found that these solid fuels can be used for energy purposes.

In 2017, the global population stands at about 7.6 billion. Due to the medium variant of the population projections, developed by the UN, the world population will grow to nearly 10 billion by the middle of this century. As a consequence, the worldwide demand for wood will increase. Therefore, the forest sector has to develop concepts in order to cope with the increasing demand for wood, the altering environmental conditions and the challenge of climate change. Modified silvicultural treatment programs may contribute to solving these questions. Appropriate measures are the conversion of pure stands into mixed stands, the promotion of natural regeneration instead of artificial regeneration and the creation of structured forests consisting of indigenous or foreign tree species, which are better adapted to climate change and/or are growing faster. Mixed stands often exceed the volume as well as the biomass productivity of pure stands and increase the biodiversity of forest landscapes. Forest simulation models are a prerequisite for the management of mixed stands. They provide enhanced opportunities of planning for forest conversion and facilitate the decision support in forest practice. These model approaches support the development of goal oriented thinning programs and make it possible to test and optimize alternative silvicultural concepts without the establishment of experimental plots. The Bavarian State Forest Enterprise (Bayerische Staatsforsten) is managing 808731 ha of forest area in the southern part of Germany. Since 2005 this enterprise is converting pure, coniferous stands (> 200000 ha of forest area) into mixed, uneven-aged forests. A simulation program (single tree simulator) is used in order to achieve this goal.

An economic and technical analysis of the use of separated wood biomass as a feedstock for gasification for a 3 MW power plant was conducted for the Miramar Landfill, located in San Diego County, CA. The method to generate combustible gas from the biomass is based on a dual-fluidized bed gasification process which operates at atmospheric pressure with air and produces a high quality producer gas with little nitrogen. The objective of the study was to determine the economic feasibility of the proposed biomass power system in terms of the potential revenue streams and costs. Major economic considerations in the analysis include feedstock, capital, and operating costs. Regulatory issues, inclusive of production credits, renewable energy incentives, and feed-in tariffs are addressed as significant economic inputs. The Miramar landfill, in San Diego County, CA is representative of a typical existing urban landfill, with corresponding feedstock and some market for separated wood biomass. The economic analysis of the proposed 3MW gasification power plant indicates that it would not have a net positive NPV under the current urban scenario. More likely successful candidates are landfill sites in more rural areas or urban sites, where new landfills are being developed or where the landfill is no longer operational but has become a transfer station. In all cases waste heat sales are a critical element in determining economic viability.

The Southeast Coast Network (SECN) conducts long-term terrestrial vegetation monitoring as part of the nationwide Inventory and Monitoring Program of the National Park Service (NPS). The vegetation community vital sign is one of the primary-tier resources identified by SECN park managers, and monitoring is currently conducted at 15 network parks (DeVivo et al. 2008). Monitoring plants and their associated communities over time allows for targeted understanding of ecosystems within the SECN geography, which provides managers information about the degree of change within their parks’ natural vegetation. 2019 marks the first year of conducting this monitoring effort on four SECN parks, including Fort Pulaski National Monument (FOPU). Twelve vegetation plots were established at Fort Pulaski National Monument in August. Data collected in each plot included species richness across multiple spatial scales, species-specific cover and constancy, species-specific woody stem seedling/sapling counts and adult tree (greater than 10 centimeters [3.9 inches {in}]) diameter at breast height (DBH), overall tree health, landform, soil, observed disturbance, and woody biomass (i.e., fuel load) estimates. This report summarizes the baseline (year 1) terrestrial vegetation data collected at Fort Pulaski National Monument in 2019. Data were stratified across two dominant broadly defined habitats within the park (Maritime Tidal Wetlands and Maritime Upland Forests and Shrublands). Noteworthy findings include: Sixty-six vascular plant taxa were observed across 12 vegetation plots, including six taxa not previously known from the park. Plots were located on both Cockspur and McQueen’s Island. The most frequently encountered species in each broadly defined habitat included: Maritime Tidal Wetlands: smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora), perennial saltmarsh aster(Symphyotrichum enuifolium), and groundsel tree (Baccharis halimifolia) Maritime Upland Forests and Shrublands: yaupon (Ilex vomitoria), southern/eastern red cedar (Juniperus silicicola + virginiana), and cabbage palmetto (Sabal palmetto). Four non-native species identified as invasive by the Georgia Exotic Pest Plant Council (GA-EPPC 2018) were found during this monitoring effort. These species (and their overall frequency of occurrence within all plots) included: Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica; 17%), bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum; 8%), Vasey’s grass (Paspalum urvillei; 8%), and European common reed (Phragmites australis; 8%). Two rare plants tracked by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources (GADNR 2013) were found during this monitoring effort. These include Florida wild privet (Forestiera segregata) and Bosc’s bluet (Oldenlandia boscii). Southern/eastern red cedar and cabbage palmetto were the most dominant species within the tree stratum of the maritime Upland Forest and Shrubland habitat type. Species that dominated the sapling and seedling strata of this type included yaupon, cabbage palmetto, groundsel tree, and Carolina laurel cherry (Prunus caroliniana). The health status of sugarberry (Celtis laevigata)—a typical canopy species in maritime forests of the South Atlantic Coastal Plain--observed on park plots appeared to be in decline, with most stems experiencing elevated levels of dieback and low vigor. Over the past decade, this species has been experiencing unexplained high rates of dieback and mortality throughout its range in the Southeastern United States; current research is focusing on what may be causing these alarming die-off patterns. Duff and litter made up the majority of downed woody biomass (fuel loads) across FOPU vegetation plots.

The Southeast Coast Network (SECN) conducts long-term terrestrial vegetation monitoring as part of the nationwide Inventory and Monitoring Program of the National Park Service (NPS). The vegetation community vital sign is one of the primary-tier resources identified by SECN park managers, and it is currently conducted at 15 network parks (DeVivo et al. 2008). Monitoring plants and their associated communities over time allows for targeted understanding of ecosystems within the SECN geography, which provides managers information about the degree of change within their parks’ natural vegetation. 2019 marks the first year of conducting this monitoring effort at four SECN parks, including Fort Matanzas National Monument (FOMA). Nine vegetation plots, located on Anastasia and Rattlesnake Islands, were established at Fort Matanzas National Monument in June. Data collected in each plot included species richness across multiple spatial scales, species-specific cover and constancy, species-specific woody stem seedling/sapling counts and adult tree (greater than 10 centimeters [3.9 inches {in}]) diameter at breast height (DBH), overall tree health, landform, soil, observed disturbance, and woody biomass (i.e., fuel load) estimates. This report summarizes the baseline (year 1) terrestrial vegetation data collected at Fort Matanzas National Monument in 2019. Data were stratified across two dominant broadly defined habitats within the park (Maritime Upland Forests/Shrublands and Maritime Open Uplands). Noteworthy findings include: Eighty-two vascular plant taxa (species or lower) were observed across nine vegetation plots, including eight species not previously documented within the park. The most frequently encountered species in each broadly defined habitat included: Maritime Upland Forests and Shrublands: saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), yaupon (Ilex vomitoria), southern/eastern red cedar (Juniperus silicicola + virginiana), American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana), and American burnweed (Erectites hieraciifolius). Maritime Open Uplands: sea oats (Uniola paniculata), earleaf greenbriar (Smilax auriculata), and dixie sandmat (Euphorbia bombensis). ne non-native species, Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolia), categorized as invasive by the Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council (FLEPPC 2019) was encountered in one Maritime Upland Forest and Shrubland plot during this monitoring effort. There were not any rare plants tracked by the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (FDACS 2020) found during this monitoring effort. All plants located in these monitoring plots are fairly common throughout Florida, as well as across the Southeast Coast. Three species observed, however, are on the FDACS 2020 list of commercially exploited plants within the state. These include saw palmetto, cinnamon fern (Osmundastrum cinnamomeum), and coontie (Zamia integrifolia var. umbrosa). Southern/eastern red cedar and cabbage palmetto (Sabal palmetto) were the most dominant species within the tree stratum of the Maritime Upland Forest and Shrubland habitat type. Species that dominated the sapling and seedling strata of this type included yaupon and cabbage palmetto. More than 75% of the trees measured in the parks Maritime Upland Forest and Shrubland habitat type were alive and experiencing healthy vigor. Of the 22 trees that were dead, more than 50% of those were southern/eastern red cedar. Most of those individuals that were observed with moderate or severe decline and greater than 50% dieback were southern/eastern red cedars. Although red bay (Persea borbonia) was identified as one of the “principal understory tree” species within Fort Matanzas National Monument’s maritime forests in 2004 (Zomlefer et al. 2004), tree-sized individuals were rarely detected on plots during this monitoring effort. This may be in part due to the detection of laurel wilt disease within St. Johns County in 2006 (USDA 2021). Based on the low detection...

The Southeast Coast Network (SECN) conducts long-term terrestrial vegetation monitoring as part of the nationwide Inventory and Monitoring Program of the National Park Service (NPS). The vegetation community vital sign is one of the primary-tier resources identified by SECN park managers, and it is currently conducted on 15 network parks (DeVivo et al. 2008). Monitoring plants and their associated communities over time allows for targeted understanding of ecosystems within the SECN geography, which provides managers information about the degree of change within their parks’ natural vegetation. 2019 marks the first year of conducting this monitoring effort on four SECN parks, including Timucuan Ecological and Historic Preserve (TIMU). A total of 23 vegetation plots were established in the park in May and June. Data collected in each plot include species richness across multiple spatial scales, species-specific cover and constancy, species-specific woody stem seedling/sapling counts and adult tree (greater than 10 centimeters [3.9 inches (in)]) diameter at breast height (DBH), overall tree health, landform, soil, observed disturbance, and woody biomass (i.e., fuel load) estimates. This report summarizes the baseline (year 1) terrestrial vegetation data collected at Timucuan Ecological and Historic Preserve in 2019. Data were stratified across three dominant broadly defined habitats within the park (Coastal Plain Nonalluvial Wetlands, Coastal Plain Open Uplands and Woodlands, and Maritime Upland Forests and Shrublands) and three land parcels (Cedar Point, Theodore Roosevelt, and Thomas Creek). Noteworthy findings include: A total of 157 vascular plant taxa (species or lower) were observed across 23 vegetation plots, including nine species not previously known from the park. Three plots were located in the footprint of the Yellow Bluff Fire, and were sampled only two weeks following the fire event. Muscadine (Muscadinia rotundifolia), cat greenbrier (Smilax glauca), water oak (Quercus nigra), and swamp tupelo (Nyssa biflora) were the most frequently encountered species in Coastal Plain Nonalluvial Wetland habitat; saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), slash pine (Pinus elliottii), and gallberry (Ilex glabra) were the most frequently encountered species in Coastal Plain Open Upland and Woodland habitat; and Darlington oak (Quercus hemisphaerica), Spanish moss (Tillandsia usenoides), and red bay (Persea borbonia) were the most frequently encountered species in Maritime Upland Forests and Shrublands. There were no exotic species of the Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council list of invasive plants (FLEPPC 2020) observed on any of these plots. Both red bay and swamp bay (Persea palustris) were largely absent from the tree stratum in these plots; however, they were present (occasionally in high abundance) in the seedling and sapling strata across all habitat types. Buckthorn bully (Sideroxylon lycioides)—listed as Endangered in the state of Florida by the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (FDACS 2020)—was observed in three Maritime Upland Forest and Shrubland plots. The tree strata in each broadly defined habitat were dominated by the following species: Coastal Plain Nonalluvial Wetlands-loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus) Coastal Plain Open Uplands and Woodlands-longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) Maritime Upland Forests and Shrublands-oaks (Quercus sp.) Most stems within the tree strata exhibited healthy vigor and only moderate dieback across all habitat types. However, there was a large amount of standing dead trees in plots within Maritime Upland Forests and Shrublands. Downed woody biomass (fuel loads) were highest in the Cedar Point and Thomas Creek land parcels.

The Southeast Coast Network (SECN) conducts long-term terrestrial vegetation monitoring as part of the nationwide Inventory and Monitoring Program of the National Park Service (NPS). The vegetation community vital sign is one of the primary-tier resources identified by SECN park managers, and it is currently conducted at 15 network parks (DeVivo et al. 2008). Monitoring plants and their associated communities over time allows for targeted understanding of ecosystems within the SECN geography, which provides managers information about the degree of change within their parks’ natural vegetation. 2020 marks the first year of conducting this monitoring effort at Cumberland Island National Seashore (CUIS). Fifty-six vegetation plots were established throughout the park from May through July. Data collected in each plot included species richness across multiple spatial scales, species-specific cover and constancy, species-specific woody stem seedling/sapling counts and adult tree (greater than 10 centimeters [3.9 inches {in}]) diameter at breast height (DBH), overall tree health, landform, soil, observed disturbance, and woody biomass (i.e., fuel load) estimates. This report summarizes the baseline (year 1) terrestrial vegetation data collected at Cumberland Island National Seashore in 2020. Data were stratified across three dominant broadly defined habitats within the park, including Coastal Plain Upland Open Woodlands, Maritime Open Upland Grasslands, and Maritime Upland Forests and Shrublands. Noteworthy findings include: 213 vascular plant taxa (species or lower) were observed across 56 vegetation plots, including 12 species not previously documented within the park. The most frequently encountered species in each broadly defined habitat included: Coastal Plain Upland Open Woodlands: longleaf + pond pine (Pinus palustris; P. serotina), redbay (Persea borbonia), saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), wax-myrtle (Morella cerifera), deerberry (Vaccinium stamineum), variable panicgrass (Dichanthelium commutatum), and hemlock rosette grass (Dichanthelium portoricense). Maritime Open Upland Grasslands: wax-myrtle, saw greenbrier (Smilax auriculata), sea oats (Uniola paniculata), and other forbs and graminoids. Maritime Upland Forests and Shrublands: live oak (Quercus virginiana), redbay, saw palmetto, muscadine (Muscadinia rotundifolia), and Spanish moss (Tillandsia usneoides) Two non-native species, Chinaberry (Melia azedarach) and bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum), categorized as invasive by the Georgia Exotic Pest Plant Council (GA-EPPC 2018) were encountered in four different Maritime Upland Forest and Shrubland plots during this monitoring effort. Six vascular plant species listed as rare and tracked by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources (GADNR 2022) were observed in these monitoring plots, including the state listed “Rare” Florida swampprivet (Forestiera segregata var. segregata) and sandywoods sedge (Carex dasycarpa) and the “Unusual” green fly orchid (Epidendrum conopseum). Longleaf and pond pine were the most dominant species within the tree stratum of Coastal Plain Upland Open Woodland habitat types; live oak was the most dominant species of Maritime Upland Forest and Shrubland types. Saw palmetto and rusty staggerbush (Lyonia ferruginea) dominated the sapling stratum within Maritime Upland Forest and Shrubland habitat types. Of the 20 tree-sized redbay trees measured during this monitoring effort only three were living and these were observed with severely declining vigor, indicating the prevalence and recent historical impact of laurel wilt disease (LWD) across the island’s maritime forest ecosystems. There was an unexpectedly low abundance of sweet grass (Muhlenbergia sericea) and saltmeadow cordgrass (Spartina patens) within interdune swale plots of Maritime Open Upland habitats on the island, which could be a result of grazing activity by feral horses. Live oak is the dominant tree-sized species across...