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Al Ardha, Muchamad Arif, Nurhasan, Rizky Muhammad Sidik, Dan O'Donnell, Matt Hunter, Sujarwanto, David Agus Prianto, I. Dewa Made Aryananda Wijaya Kusuma, Sauqi Sawa Bikalawan, and Kukuh Pambuka Putra. "Research Trends in Football Training for Young Players in the Last 15 Years: Bibliographic Analysis." Physical Education Theory and Methodology 23, no. 6 (December 22, 2023): 963–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.17309/tmfv.2023.6.20.
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The objective of this paper is to evaluate the research trends in football training for young players under 18 years old in the last 15 years. Materials and methods. This was a bibliometric analysis and systematic review study. Articles published since 2008 were searched for by the keywords “Football Training” and “Football Exercise” using a comprehensive strategy on SCOPUS research journal databases. There were 1,053 articles with 4802 citations mined on October 17th, 2023. Thereafter, 217 articles were selected for further analysis by using VOS Viewer computer software. Results. The United Kingdom (67), The United States (60), and Spain (41) were the three countries that had the most publications in football training. There were 6 keyword clusters that reflected various research focuses on football training for younger players. Based on the top 10 most cited references in football training for younger players, there were several major themes that covered various aspects of the research trend and development in the last 15 years, i.e. (1) Factors in the Development of Young Football Players, (2) Tactical Analysis and Collective Behavior in Small-Sided Games, (3) Game Intensity and Activity Profile in Young Football Players, (4) Plyometric Training and Its Effects on Preadolescent Players, and (5) Injury Prevention and Neuromuscular Training in Adolescent Football Players. Conclusions. Football research for under-18 players has grown rapidly. This research trend shows that football requires not only physical and technical skills, but also social and mental aspects. Further research can be directed toward understanding and integrating holistic aspects of football coaching, including the development of non-physical skills, such as leadership, teamwork, and conflict resolution. Further investigation into the use of technology in football coaching, such as video analysis, sensor-based performance measurement, and artificial intelligence applications to provide deeper insight into player progress.
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Munk, Dana, Ramona Cox, Martha E. Ewing, and Peggy McCann. "Negative Societal Reactions to Women Professional Football Athletes in the United States." Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal 22, no. 2 (October 2014): 100–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/wspaj.2014-0006.
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There has been quite a surge of women’s professional football teams in the United States; however, football is rarely offered for girls at the youth sport, middle school, high school, or intercollegiate levels. While this lack of participation can be easily attributed to the contact sport exemption clause in Title IX, researchers have shown that litigation has changed the course for women by legally opening doors for opportunities in tackle football. Today, it is more likely the lack of opportunities for females in traditional male sports is because of stereotypical beliefs linked to their gender. Using qualitative methodology, researchers in this study explored stereotypical, discrepant, societal messages encountered by current professional female football players. Findings suggested societal reactions were linked to stereotypical beliefs about women in sports and included a lack of social support, discriminatory messages, and skepticism over girl’s ability to play contact sports. Implications for further study also emerged.
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Pitts, Joshua D., and Jon Paul Rezek. "Athletic Scholarships in Intercollegiate Football." Journal of Sports Economics 13, no. 5 (May 18, 2011): 515–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1527002511409239.
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Despite the financial and cultural importance of intercollegiate athletics in the United States, there is a paucity of research into how athletic scholarships are awarded. In this article, the authors empirically examine the factors that universities use in their decision to offer athletic scholarships to high school football players. Using a Zero-Inflated Negative Binomial (ZINB) model, the authors find a player’s weight, height, body mass index (BMI), race, speed, on-the-field performance, and his high school team’s success often have large and significant impacts on the number of scholarship offers he receives. There is also evidence of a negative relationship between academic performance and scholarship offers. In addition, the authors find evidence of a scholarship premium for players from Florida and Texas. The results also show that running backs, wide receivers, and defensive backs appear to generate the most attention from college football coaches, other things equal.
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Bellamkonda, Srinidhi, Samantha J. Woodward, Eamon Campolettano, Ryan Gellner, Mireille E. Kelley, Derek A. Jones, Amaris Genemaras, et al. "Head Impact Exposure in Practices Correlates With Exposure in Games for Youth Football Players." Journal of Applied Biomechanics 34, no. 5 (October 1, 2018): 354–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jab.2017-0207.
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This study aimed to compare head impact exposures between practices and games in football players ages 9 to 14 years, who account for approximately 70% of all football players in the United States. Over a period of 2 seasons, 136 players were enrolled from 3 youth programs, and 49,847 head impacts were recorded from 345 practices and 137 games. During the study, individual players sustained a median of 211 impacts per season, with a maximum of 1226 impacts. Players sustained 50th (95th) percentile peak linear acceleration of 18.3 (46.9) g, peak rotational acceleration of 1305.4 (3316.6) rad·s−2, and Head Impact Technology Severity Profile of 13.7 (24.3), respectively. Overall, players with a higher frequency of head impacts at practices recorded a higher frequency of head impacts at games (P < .001,r2 = .52), and players who sustained a greater average magnitude of head impacts during practice also recorded a greater average magnitude of head impacts during games (P < .001). The youth football head impact data quantified in this study provide valuable insight into the player exposure profile, which should serve as a key baseline in efforts to reduce injury.
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Iguchi, Junta, Yosuke Yamada, Misaka Kimura, Yoshihiko Fujisawa, Tatsuya Hojo, Kenji Kuzuhara, and Noriaki Ichihashi. "Injuries in a Japanese Division I Collegiate American Football Team: A 3-Season Prospective Study." Journal of Athletic Training 48, no. 6 (December 1, 2013): 818–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-48.4.15.
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Context: Previous research on American football injuries in Japan has focused on incidence proportion in terms of the number of injuries divided by the number of players. This is the first study to examine injury rates over several seasons. Objective: To conduct a prospective study of injuries in a Japanese Division I collegiate American football team over the 2007 through 2009 seasons. Design: Cohort study. Setting: Collegiate football team at Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan. Patients or Other Participants: All 289 athletes who played on the collegiate Division I football team during the 2007 through 2009 seasons. Main Outcome Measure(s): A certified athletic trainer kept a daily record of all practice and game injuries. Injury rates were calculated according to season, injury type, body part, severity, and mechanism. Injuries were also analyzed according to position of player, school year, and playing experience. Results: The game injury rate (GIR; 32.7 injuries/1000 athlete-exposures) was higher than the practice injury rate (PIR; 10.9 injuries/1000 athlete-exposures) over the 3 seasons (P < .05). The PIR was higher among Japanese players than the comparable United States collegiate football injury rates (5.8–7.0 injuries/1000 athlete-exposures). Ankle and foot injuries occurred more frequently during games, whereas thigh and gluteal injuries occurred more frequently during practices. Conclusions: Our data show differences between games and practices in terms of injury rates, body parts injured, and positions of players injured. The high PIR in Japan may be due to the increased contact during practices and length of practices compared with the United States. Further research involving multiple teams is recommended to validate the trends noted in this study. The expanded data set could assist in the development of safety regulations and preventive interventions for Japanese football.
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Carter, Elizabeth A., Beverly J. Westerman, and Katherine L. Hunting. "Risk of Injury in Basketball, Football, and Soccer Players, Ages 15 Years and Older, 2003–2007." Journal of Athletic Training 46, no. 5 (September 1, 2011): 484–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-46.5.484.
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Context: A major challenge in the field of sports injury epidemiology is identifying the appropriate denominators for injury rates. Objective: To characterize risk of injury from participation in basketball, football, and soccer in the United States, using hours of participation as the measure of exposure, and to compare these rates with those derived using population estimates in the denominator. Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Setting: United States, 2003–2007. Participants: People ages 15 years and older who experienced an emergency department–treated injury while playing basketball, football, or soccer. Main Outcome Measure(s): Rates of emergency department–treated injuries resulting from participation in basketball, football, or soccer. Injury rates were calculated for people ages 15 and older for the years 2003–2007 using the U.S. population and hours of participation as the denominators. The risk of injury associated with each of these sports was compared for all participants and by sex. Results: From 2003 through 2007, annual injury rates per 1000 U.S. population were as follows: 1.49 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.30, 1.67) in basketball, 0.93 (95% CI = 0.82, 1.04) in football, and 0.43 (95% CI = 0.33, 0.53) in soccer. When the denominator was hours of participation, the injury rate in football (5.08 [95% CI = 4.46, 5.69]/10 000 hours) was almost twice as high as that for basketball (2.69 [95% CI = 2.35, 3.02]/10 000 hours) and soccer (2.69 [95% CI = 2.07, 3.30]/10 000 hours). Conclusions: Depending on the choice of denominator, interpretation of the risk of an emergency department–treated injury in basketball, football, or soccer varies greatly. Using the U.S. population as the denominator produced rates that were highest in basketball and lowest in soccer. However, using hours of participation as a more accurate measure of exposure demonstrated that football had a higher rate of injury than basketball or soccer for both males and females.
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Newman, Jacob, Andrew Sumsion, Shad Torrie, and Dah-Jye Lee. "Automated Pre-Play Analysis of American Football Formations Using Deep Learning." Electronics 12, no. 3 (February 1, 2023): 726. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics12030726.
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Annotation and analysis of sports videos is a time-consuming task that, once automated, will provide benefits to coaches, players, and spectators. American football, as the most watched sport in the United States, could especially benefit from this automation. Manual annotation and analysis of recorded videos of American football games is an inefficient and tedious process. Currently, most college football programs focus on annotating offensive formations to help them develop game plans for their upcoming games. As a first step to further research for this unique application, we use computer vision and deep learning to analyze an overhead image of a football play immediately before the play begins. This analysis consists of locating individual football players and labeling their position or roles, as well as identifying the formation of the offensive team. We obtain greater than 90% accuracy on both player detection and labeling, and 84.8% accuracy on formation identification. These results prove the feasibility of building a complete American football strategy analysis system using artificial intelligence. Collecting a larger dataset in real-world situations will enable further improvements. This would likewise enable American football teams to analyze game footage quickly.
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Lens, Joshua. "Loans and Marketing Guarantees in Athlete Agent Recruiting." Texas A&M Law Review 7, no. 3 (May 2020): 543–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.37419/lr.v7.i3.2.
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Athlete agents use various means to recruit prospective clients. Controversial yet common methods include offering loans and marketing guarantees to prospective clients. In each transaction, the agent provides his client with money, in some cases amounting to millions of dollars. The agent typically expects repayment of the loan whereas the marketing guarantee is an advance on future marketing income that the agent will arrange for the athlete. While both National Football League Players Association (“NFLPA”) agent regulations and state athlete agent laws prohibit agents from offering inducements to prospective clients, neither authority considers loans or marketing guarantees illicit or prohibits them. This Article details the use of loans and marketing guarantees in the football agent recruiting process. The Article also explores both NFLPA and state athlete agent law, which is based on the Uniform Athlete Agents Act or its revised version’s prohibitions on athlete agents providing inducements to prospective clients. It describes the fiduciary relationship between athlete agents and their clients and the duties that result under agency law. Next, the Article applies agency law to the provision of loans and marketing guarantees by athlete agents to their clients, determining that agency law seeks to prohibit such transactions. The Article then discusses the application of attorney ethics regulations to attorneys who serve as athlete agents and provide loans and marketing guarantees, finding that attorney-agents who engage in this activity violate ethics regulations. The Article concludes by explaining why both athlete agents and athletes should be leery of these dealings and by urging the NFLPA and individual states to expressly prohibit them.
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Shankar, Prasad R., Sarah K. Fields, Christy L. Collins, Randall W. Dick, and R. Dawn Comstock. "Epidemiology of High School and Collegiate Football Injuries in the United States, 2005-2006." American Journal of Sports Medicine 35, no. 8 (August 2007): 1295–303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0363546507299745.
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Background Football, one of the most popular sports among male high school students in the United States, is a leading cause of sports-related injuries, with an injury rate almost twice that of basketball, the second most popular sport. Hypothesis Injury patterns will vary between competition and practice exposures and between levels of play (ie, high school vs. National Collegiate Athletic Association [NCAA]). Study Design Descriptive epidemiology study. Methods Football-related injury data were collected over the 2005-2006 school year from 100 nationally representative high schools via High School RIO™ (Reporting Information Online) and from 55 Division I, II, and III colleges via the NCAA Injury Surveillance System. Results Nationally, an estimated 517 726 high school football-related injuries (1881 unweighted injuries) occurred during the 2005-2006 season. The rate of injury per 1000 athlete-exposures was greater during high school competitions (12.04) than during practices (2.56). The rate of injury per 1000 athlete-exposures was also greater during collegiate competitions (40.23) than during practices (5.77). While the overall rate of injury per 1000 athlete-exposures was greater in the NCAA (8.61) than in high school (4.36), high school football players sustained a greater proportion of fractures and concussions. Running plays were the leading cause of injury, with running backs and linebackers being the positions most commonly injured. Conclusion Patterns of football injuries vary, especially by type of exposure and level of play. Future studies should continue to compare differences in injury patterns in high school and collegiate football, with particular emphasis placed on high-risk plays (running plays) and positions (running backs and linebackers).
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Menger, Richard, Austin Menger, and Anil Nanda. "Rugby headgear and concussion prevention: misconceptions could increase aggressive play." Neurosurgical Focus 40, no. 4 (April 2016): E12. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/2016.1.focus15615.
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OBJECTIVE Multiple studies have illustrated that rugby headgear offers no statistically significant protection against concussions. However, there remains concern that many players believe rugby headgear in fact does prevent concussions. Further investigation was undertaken to illustrate that misconceptions about concussion prevention and rugby headgear may lead to an increase in aggressive play. METHODS Data were constructed by Internet survey solicitation among United States collegiate rugby players across 19 teams. Initial information given was related to club, age, experience, use of headgear, playing time, whether the rugger played football or wrestling in high school, and whether the player believed headgear prevented concussion. Data were then constructed as to whether wearing headgear would increase aggressive playing style secondary to a false sense of protection. RESULTS A total of 122 players responded. All players were male. The average player was 19.5 years old and had 2.7 years of experience. Twenty-three of 122 players (18.9%) wore protective headgear; 55.4% of players listed forward as their primary position. Overall, 45.8% (55/120) of players played 70–80 minutes per game, 44.6% (54/121) played football or wrestled in high school, 38.1% (45/118) believed headgear prevented concussions, and 42.2% (51/121) stated that if they were using headgear they would be more aggressive with their play in terms of running or tackling. Regression analysis illustrated that those who believed headgear prevented concussions were or would be more likely to engage in aggressive play (p = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS Nearly 40% of collegiate rugby players surveyed believed headgear helped to prevent concussions despite no scientific evidence that it does. This misconception about rugby headgear could increase aggressive play. Those who believed headgear prevented concussion were, on average, 4 times more likely to play with increased aggressive form than those who believed headgear did not prevent concussions (p = 0.001). This can place all players at increased risk without providing additional protection. Further investigation is warranted to determine if headgear increases the actual measured incidence of concussion among rugby players in the United States.
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Peterson, Andrew R., Adam J. Kruse, Scott M. Meester, Tyler S. Olson, Benjamin N. Riedle, Tyler G. Slayman, Todd J. Domeyer, Joseph E. Cavanaugh, and M. Kyle Smoot. "Youth Football Injuries: A Prospective Cohort." Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 5, no. 2 (February 1, 2017): 232596711668678. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2325967116686784.
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Background: There are approximately 2.8 million youth football players between the ages of 7 and 14 years in the United States. Rates of injury in this population are poorly described. Recent studies have reported injury rates between 2.3% and 30.4% per season and between 8.5 and 43 per 1000 exposures. Hypothesis: Youth flag football has a lower injury rate than youth tackle football. The concussion rates in flag football are lower than in tackle football. Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: Three large youth (grades 2-7) football leagues with a total of 3794 players were enrolled. Research personnel partnered with the leagues to provide electronic attendance and injury reporting systems. Researchers had access to deidentified player data and injury information. Injury rates for both the tackle and flag leagues were calculated and compared using Poisson regression with a log link. The probability an injury was severe and an injury resulted in a concussion were modeled using logistic regression. For these 2 responses, best subset model selection was performed, and the model with the minimum Akaike information criterion value was chosen as best. Kaplan-Meier curves were examined to compare time loss due to injury for various subgroups of the population. Finally, time loss was modeled using Cox proportional hazards regression models. Results: A total of 46,416 exposures and 128 injuries were reported. The mean age at injury was 10.64 years. The hazard ratio for tackle football (compared with flag football) was 0.45 (95% CI, 0.25-0.80; P = .0065). The rate of severe injuries per exposure for tackle football was 1.1 (95% CI, 0.33-3.4; P = .93) times that of the flag league. The rate for concussions in tackle football per exposure was 0.51 (95% CI, 0.16-1.7; P = .27) times that of the flag league. Conclusion: Injury is more likely to occur in youth flag football than in youth tackle football. Severe injuries and concussions were not significantly different between leagues. Concussion was more likely to occur during games than during practice. Players in the sixth or seventh grade were more likely to suffer a concussion than were younger players.
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Rugg, Adam. "Working Out Their Future: The NFL’s Play 60 Campaign and the Production of Adolescent Fans and Players." Journal of Sport and Social Issues 43, no. 1 (January 13, 2019): 69–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0193723518823332.
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This article critically examines the National Football League’s (NFL) extensive “Play 60” campaign that operates in more than 73,000 schools in the United States. The year-round program—marketed as a campaign to end childhood obesity—now holds significance influence over school curriculums and operations, public constructions of health and diet, and governmental recommendations and policies on health and exercise. This article argues that the emergence of the Play 60 campaign as a major influence in these areas reflects the increasing privatization of physical education and wellness in U.S. schools. Furthermore, the program serves the commercial and political interests of the league by instilling familiarity with the labor and verbiage of football in program participants and advocating for the role of athletes (and the leagues they are a part of) in influencing youth ideas regarding nutrition and health. Most importantly, the program situates football as a safe and healthy practice for children amid increasing societal awareness and concern over the substantial health risks associated with playing youth football.
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Sebastian, Kali M., Reuben F. Burch V, and Preston “Stick” Rogers. "Brain Injuries in American Football: Understanding the Injury, Difficulty in Helmet Optimization, and Current Communication Practices – A Narrative Review." International Journal of Kinesiology and Sports Science 8, no. 4 (October 31, 2020): 34. http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijkss.v.8n.4p.34.
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Background: Over 2.7 million people suffer traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) annually in the United States. TBI involves the application and generation of external forces and impulse loads respectively to the head whereby the brain moves relative to the skull. Despite numerous studies, further understanding of TBIs is necessary, requiring consistent attention. Objective: The purpose of this article is to investigate the history of American football helmets and provide an academic and practitioner review as it relates to TBIs. This study is a literature review that also considers perspectives from an autoethnographic frame. Method: An extensive literature review was performed to assess the history of TBI as it relates to American football. This article evaluates helmet design optimization and American football safety as well as an exploration into the sports’ education methods for players and staff alike. Results: Despite developing helmet designs that can better attenuate impact forces, reducing linear and rotational movement, the skull and brain move very differently relative to one another. Helmet designs and tools for measuring forces require further validation techniques to determine resultant forces and movement for the brain. Current biomechanics research lacks sufficient methodology for defining TBI thresholds, making helmet optimization difficult. Conclusion: According to past research, no helmet can eliminate all TBI risk; however, processes are in place lead by the National Football League (NFL) and NFL Players Association to educate players, coaches, and staff at all levels of competition of the protective capabilities of available helmet options.
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Severo-Silveira, Lucas, Carolina Gassen Fritsch, Bruno Manfredini Baroni, Vanessa Bernardes Marques, and Maurício Pinto Dornelles. "Isokinetic Performance of Knee Flexor and Extensor Muscles in American Football Players from Brazil." Brazilian Journal of Kinanthropometry and Human Performance 19, no. 4 (November 7, 2017): 426. http://dx.doi.org/10.5007/1980-0037.2017v19n4p426.
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5007/1980-0037.2017v19n4p426 The isokinetic performance of thigh muscles has been related to athletic performance and risk for non-contact injuries, such as anterior cruciate ligament ruptures and hamstring strains. Although isokinetic profile of American football players from United States (USA) is widely described, there is a lack of studies comprising players acting outside the USA. The primary objective of this study was to describe the isokinetic performance of thigh muscles in elite American football players in Brazil. Secondarily, we aimed to compare the playing positions and compare the Brazilian players with high-level athletes from USA. Knee extensor (KE) and flexor (KF) muscles of 72 Brazilian players were assessed through isokinetic tests at 60°·s-1. KE concentric peak torque was 276±56 N·m, while KF had concentric and eccentric peak torques of 151±37 N·m and 220±40 N·m, respectively. Offensive linemen players presented greater peak torque values than defensive lineman, halfbacks, and wide receivers (all comparisons are provided in the article). Brazilian players had lower scores than USA athletes for KE and KF peak torque values. In addition, a conventional torque ratio (concentric/concentric) lower than 0.6 was found in 76-83% of athletes, and a functional ratio (eccentric/eccentric) below to 1.0 in 94%. Bilateral asymmetry greater than 10% was verified in 26% and 43% of athletes for KE and KF muscles, respectively. Elite players in Brazil present high incidence of strength imbalance in thigh muscles, and they are below USA players in relation to torque production capacity of KE and KF muscles.
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L. Lavoie, Matthew, and Paul D. Berger. "Evaluating College Quarterbacks As They Enter the National Football League Draft." Journal of Business Theory and Practice 3, no. 1 (June 24, 2015): 53. http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/jbtp.v3n1p53.
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<p><em>The National football League (NFL) in the United States has become a quarterback-centric league, where an elite quarterback is needed to win a Super Bowl. This paper will aim to provide statistical insight into how to project which college quarterback prospects will have the most successful NFL careers. We specifically focus on two quarterbacks, Jameis Winston and Marcus Mariotta, who, respectively, were the first and second choice in the first round of the NFL draft recently, in May, 2015. However, our methodology is applicable to other quarterback draftees, and, with modest adaptation, to evaluating players at other positions. </em></p>
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Chandran, Avinash, Sarah N. Morris, Jacob R. Powell, Adrian J. Boltz, Hannah J. Robison, and Christy L. Collins. "Epidemiology of Injuries in National Collegiate Athletic Association Men's Football: 2014–2015 Through 2018–2019." Journal of Athletic Training 56, no. 7 (July 1, 2021): 643–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-447-20.
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Context Football is among the most popular collegiate sports in the United States, and participation in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) football has risen in recent years. Background Continued monitoring of football injuries is important for capturing the evolving burden of injuries in NCAA football. The purpose of this study was to describe the epidemiology of football-related injuries among men's NCAA football players during the 2014–2015 through 2018–2019 academic years. Methods Exposure and injury data collected in the NCAA Injury Surveillance Program were analyzed. Injury counts, rates, and proportions were used to describe injury characteristics, and injury rate ratios were used to examine differential injury rates. Results The overall injury rate was 9.31 per 1000 athlete-exposures. Most injuries occurred during general play (17.5%), blocking (15.8%), and tackling (14.0%). Concussions (7.5%), lateral ligament complex tears (6.9%), and hamstring tears (4.7%) were the most commonly reported injuries. Conclusions Results of this study were generally consistent with previous findings, though changes over time in rates of commonly reported injuries warrant attention. Continued monitoring of injury incidence is needed to appraise the effectiveness of recently implemented rules changes.
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Kucera, Kristen L., Rebecca K. Yau, Johna Register-Mihalik, Stephen W. Marshall, Leah C. Thomas, Susanne Wolf, Robert C. Cantu, Frederick O. Mueller, and Kevin M. Guskiewicz. "Traumatic Brain and Spinal Cord Fatalities Among High School and College Football Players — United States, 2005–2014." MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 65, no. 52 (January 6, 2017): 1465–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6552a2.
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Spencer, Elizabeth A., and Anthony M. Limperos. "ESPN’s Coverage of Intimate Partner Violence in the National Football League." Communication & Sport 8, no. 1 (December 25, 2018): 3–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2167479518817759.
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On September 8, 2014, a graphic video showing Ray Rice punch and render his fiancée unconscious was released to the public. This event was a catalyst for discussion into how the media cover intimate partner violence (IPV) committed by National Football League (NFL) players. Media frames can shape the way audiences make sense of an issue. As the “Worldwide Leader in Sports,” Entertainment and Sports Programming Network (ESPN) has a journalistic responsibility to frame and address sociocultural issues related to sports, especially those involving crime, health, and safety. IPV is a pervasive sociocultural issue affecting millions of people in the United States, and media frames can shape the way audiences understand the subject matter and the themes surrounding IPV. This research used qualitative textual analysis to examine ESPN’s website coverage of IPV incidents committed by NFL players 2 years prior to and after the Ray Rice incident. Our findings show that instances of IPV were more episodically than thematically framed before the Ray Rice incident. Framing of IPV was revealed in four themes: focus on the individual player, problem for the team, the NFL’s problem, and missing the point. Further analysis and theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
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Obana, Kyle K., John D. Mueller, Bryan M. Saltzman, Thomas S. Bottiglieri, Christopher S. Ahmad, Robert L. Parisien, and David P. Trofa. "Targeting Rule Implementation Decreases Concussions in High School Football: A National Concussion Surveillance Study." Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 9, no. 10 (October 1, 2021): 232596712110311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/23259671211031191.
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Background: Concussions occur at higher rates in high school football as compared with all other high school sports. In 2014, the National Federation of State High School Associations implemented rules defining illegal contact against a defenseless player above the shoulders to reduce concussions in football players in the United States. To the best of our knowledge, rates of emergency department (ED)—diagnosed concussions of high school football players before and after the 2014 rule implementation have not been compared. Hypothesis: It was hypothesized that (1) there would be lower rates of helmet-to-helmet and helmet-to-body-part concussions after rule implementation and (2) alternative mechanisms of concussion would not differ, as these would be less influenced by rule implementation. Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: Data from the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) were analyzed for high school football players 14 to 18 years old sustaining a concussion from January 1, 2009, to December 31, 2019. Data were collected on mechanism of injury, setting, and loss of consciousness. Raw data were used to calculate national estimates based on the assigned statistical sample weight of each hospital by the NEISS. Results: A total of 4983 (national estimate = 154,221) high school football concussions were diagnosed in US EDs; 58.8% of concussions occurred during competition and 41.2% during practice. Between 2009 and 2013 the rate of concussions diagnosed in EDs rose 10.7% as compared with a 6.2% decrease between 2015 and 2019 ( P = .04). Between 2009 and 2013, the rate of helmet-to-helmet concussions rose 17.6% as compared with a 5.6% decrease between 2015 and 2019 ( P = .03). There were no significant changes between other mechanisms of concussion before and after the 2014 rule implementation. Conclusion: We identified a decreased trend in overall and helmet-to-helmet high school football concussions diagnosed in the ED after implementation of the targeting rule. This study adds to the growing literature regarding the importance and efficacy of rule implementation in reducing sports-related concussions.
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Kelley, Mirellie, Jillian Urban, Derek Jones, Alexander Powers, Christopher T. Whitlow, Joseph Maldjian, and Joel Stitzel. "Football concussion case series using biomechanical and video analysis." Neurology 91, no. 23 Supplement 1 (December 4, 2018): S2.2—S2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000550623.36010.20.
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Approximately 1.1–1.9 million sport-related concussions among athletes ≤18 years of age occur annually in the United States, but there is limited understanding of the biomechanics and injury mechanisms associated with concussions among lower level football athletes. Therefore, the objective of this study was to combine biomechanical head impact data with video analysis to characterize youth and HS football concussion injury mechanisms. Head impact data were collected from athletes participating on 22 youth and 6 HS football teams between 2012 and 2017. Video was recorded, and head impact data were collected during all practices and games by instrumenting players with the Head Impact Telemetry (HIT) System. For each clinically diagnosed concussion, a video abstraction form was completed, which included questions concerning the context in which the injury occurred. Linear acceleration, rotational acceleration, and impact location were used to characterize the concussive event and each injured athlete's head impact exposure on the day of the concussion. A total of 9 (5 HS and 4 youth) concussions with biomechanics and video of the event were included in this study. The mean [range] linear and rotational acceleration of the concussive impacts were 62.9 [29.3–118.4] g and 3,056.7 [1,046.8–6,954.6] rad/s2, respectively. Concussive impacts were the highest magnitude impacts for 6 players and in the top quartile of impacts for 3 players on the day of injury. Concussions occurred in both practices (N = 4) and games (N = 5). The most common injury contact surface was helmet-to-helmet (N = 5), followed by helmet-to-ground (N = 3) and helmet-to-body (N = 1). All injuries occurred during player-to-player contact scenarios, including tackling (N = 4), blocking (N = 4), and collision with other players (N = 1). The biomechanics and injury mechanisms of concussions varied among athletes in our study; however, concussive impacts were among the highest severity for each player and all concussions occurred as a result of player-to-player contact.
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Rockerbie, Duane W. "Revenue Sharing and Collusive Behavior in the Major League Baseball Posting System." Economies 8, no. 3 (September 1, 2020): 71. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/economies8030071.
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This paper uses auction theory to explain the unique design of the 1998–2013 posting system agreed to between Major League Baseball and the Japanese Nippon Professional Baseball League that allowed for the transfer of baseball players from Japan to the United States. It has some similarities and many differences from the transfer system used to obtain players in European football. The unique features of the posting system were a compromise between Major League Baseball clubs and Nippon Professional Baseball clubs with the understanding that the former was a collusive group of club owners. Revenue sharing is a method to enforce a system of side payments to collusive bidders. It is then profit-maximizing to have the bidder with the highest net surplus from the player win the auction. Changes to the revenue sharing system used in Major League Baseball reduced the ability of club owners to bid for Japanese players, hence changes to the bidding rules of the posting system coincided at the same time.
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Dahl, Michael C., Dheera Ananthakrishnan, Gregg Nicandri, Jens R. Chapman, and Randal P. Ching. "Helmet and Shoulder Pad Removal in Football Players with Unstable Cervical Spine Injuries." Journal of Applied Biomechanics 25, no. 2 (May 2009): 119–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jab.25.2.119.
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Football, one of the country’s most popular team sports, is associated with the largest overall number of sports-related, catastrophic, cervical spine injuries in the United States (Mueller, 2007). Patient handling can be hindered by the protective sports equipment worn by the athlete. Improper stabilization of these patients can exacerbate neurologic injury. Because of the lack of consensus on the best method for equipment removal, a study was performed comparing three techniques: full body levitation, upper torso tilt, and log roll. These techniques were performed on an intact and lesioned cervical spine cadaveric model simulating conditions in the emergency department. The levitation technique was found to produce motion in the anterior and right lateral directions. The tilt technique resulted in motions in the posterior left lateral directions, and the log roll technique generated motions in the right lateral direction and had the largest amount of increased instability when comparing the intact and lesioned specimen. These findings suggest that each method of equipment removal displays unique weaknesses that the practitioner should take into account, possibly on a patient-by-patient basis.
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Owora, Arthur H., Brittany L. Kmush, Bhavneet Walia, and Shane Sanders. "A Systematic Review of Etiological Risk Factors Associated With Early Mortality Among National Football League Players." Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 6, no. 12 (December 1, 2018): 232596711881331. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2325967118813312.
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Background: Multiple risks predispose professional football players to adverse health outcomes and, in extreme cases, early death; however, our understanding of etiological risk factors related to early mortality is limited. Purpose: To identify etiological risk factors associated with all-cause and cause-specific mortality among National Football League (NFL) players. Study Design: Systematic review; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: Articles examining all-cause and cause-specific mortality risk factors among previous NFL players were identified by systematically searching: PubMed, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Google Scholar from 1990 to 2017. Study eligibility and quality were evaluated using the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines. Results: A total of 801 nonduplicated studies were identified through our search strategy. Of these, 9 studies examining 11 different risk factors were included in the systematic review. Overall, the risk of all-cause and cause-specific mortality was lower among NFL players than among the general male population in the United States. Nonwhite athletes, those in power positions, and those with a high playing-time body mass index (≥30 kg/m2) were associated with elevated all-cause and cardiovascular mortality risks. Conclusion: Methodological issues associated with the examined all-cause and cause-specific mortality risk factors preclude a definitive conclusion of etiological protective or risk effects. Comparison groups less prone to selection bias (“healthy worker effect”) and a life-course approach to the evaluation of suspected risk factors are warranted to identify etiological factors associated with early mortality among NFL players.
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Zendler, Jessica M., Ron Jadischke, Jared Frantz, Steve Hall, and Grant C. Goulet. "Emergency Department Visits From 2014 to 2018 for Head Injuries in Youth Non-Tackle Football Compared With Other Sports." Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 9, no. 1 (January 1, 2021): 232596712097540. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2325967120975402.
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Background: Non-tackle football (ie, flag, touch, 7v7) is purported to be a lower-risk alternative to tackle football, particularly in terms of head injuries. However, data on head injuries in non-tackle football are sparse, particularly among youth participants. Purpose: To describe the epidemiology of emergency department visits for head injuries due to non-tackle football among youth players in the United States and compare the data with basketball, soccer, and tackle football. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Methods: Injury data from 2014 to 2018 were obtained from the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System database. Injury reports coded for patients aged 6 to 18 years and associated with basketball, football, or soccer were extracted. Data were filtered to include only injuries to the head region, specifically, the head, ear, eyeball, mouth, or face. Football injuries were manually assigned to “non-tackle” or “tackle” based on the injury narratives. Sports & Fitness Industry Association data were used to estimate annual sport participation and calculate annual injury rates per 100,000 participant-years. Results: A total of 26,770 incident reports from 2014 to 2018 were analyzed. For head region injuries in non-tackle football, the head was the most commonly injured body part, followed by the face; the most common diagnosis was a laceration, followed by concussion and internal injury (defined as an unspecified head injury or internal head injury [eg, subdural hematoma or cerebral contusion]). The most common contacting object was another player. The projected national rate of head region injuries was lowest for non-tackle football across the 4 sports. In particular, the projected rate of injuries to the head for non-tackle football (78.0 per 100,000 participant-years) was less than one-fourth the rates for basketball (323.5 per 100,000 participant-years) and soccer (318.2 per 100,000 participant-years) and less than one-tenth the rate for tackle football (1478.6 per 100,000 participant-years). Conclusion: Among youth in the United States aged 6 to 18 years who were treated in the emergency department for injuries related to playing non-tackle football, the most common diagnosis for injuries to the head region was a laceration, followed by a concussion. Head region injuries associated with non-tackle football occurred at a notably lower rate than basketball, soccer, or tackle football.
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MCCLUSKEY, JOHN MICHAEL. "“This Is Ghetto Row”: Musical Segregation in American College Football." Journal of the Society for American Music 14, no. 3 (August 2020): 337–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s175219632000022x.
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AbstractA historical overview of college football's participants exemplifies the diversification of mainstream American culture from the late nineteenth century to the twenty-first. The same cannot be said for the sport's audience, which remains largely white American. Gerald Gems maintains that football culture reinforces the construction of American identity as “an aggressive, commercial, white, Protestant, male society.” Ken McLeod echoes this perspective in his description of college football's musical soundscape, “white-dominated hard rock, heavy metal, and country music—in addition to marching bands.” This article examines musical segregation in college football, drawing from case studies and interviews conducted in 2013 with university music coordinators from the five largest collegiate athletic conferences in the United States. These case studies reveal several trends in which music is used as a tool to manipulate and divide college football fans and players along racial lines, including special sections for music associated with blackness, musical selections targeted at recruits, and the continued position of the marching band—a European military ensemble—as the musical representative of the sport. These areas reinforce college football culture as a bastion of white strength despite the diversity among player demographics.
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Borzunova, N. Yu, K. L. Maksimova, and A. M. Tsechoev. "The Principle of Presumption of Innocence in Criminal Proceedings and Problems of Its Implementation." Sociology and Law, no. 4 (December 31, 2020): 86–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.35854/2219-6242-2020-4-86-91.
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The article deals with the specific features of the presumption of innocence principle and the problems of its implementation in Russia and the United States of America, as well as theoretical issues of this concept. The materials of practice reflecting violations of the principle of presumption of innocence are presented, and various opinions of legal scholars on the implementation of the principle of presumption of innocence are given. Examples from practice are analyzed, including cases that have a high public profile: the criminal case against two football players Pavel Mamaev and Alexander Kokorin, the decision of the Strasbourg European Court of human rights in the case “Fedorenko V. Russia” and the criminal case of the famous American producer Harvey Weinstein. The article analyzes the “plea bargain” that is used in the United States of America. The problems of implementing the principle of presumption of innocence and ways to solve them are outlined.
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Borzunova, N. Yu, K. L. Maksimova, and A. M. Tsechoev. "The Principle of Presumption of Innocence in Criminal Proceedings and Problems of Its Implementation." Sociology and Law, no. 4 (December 31, 2020): 86–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.35854/2219-6242-2020-4-86-91.
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The article deals with the specific features of the presumption of innocence principle and the problems of its implementation in Russia and the United States of America, as well as theoretical issues of this concept. The materials of practice reflecting violations of the principle of presumption of innocence are presented, and various opinions of legal scholars on the implementation of the principle of presumption of innocence are given. Examples from practice are analyzed, including cases that have a high public profile: the criminal case against two football players Pavel Mamaev and Alexander Kokorin, the decision of the Strasbourg European Court of human rights in the case “Fedorenko V. Russia” and the criminal case of the famous American producer Harvey Weinstein. The article analyzes the “plea bargain” that is used in the United States of America. The problems of implementing the principle of presumption of innocence and ways to solve them are outlined.
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Steinfeldt, Jesse, Leslie A. Rutkowski, Thomas J. Orr, and Matthew C. Steinfeldt. "Moral Atmosphere and Masculine Norms in American College Football." Sport Psychologist 26, no. 3 (September 2012): 341–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/tsp.26.3.341.
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This study examined on-field antisocial sports behaviors among 274 American football players in the United States. Results indicated that moral atmosphere (i.e., teammate, coach influence) and conformity to masculine norms were significantly related to participants’ moral behavior on the field (i.e., intimidate, risk injury, cheat, intentionally injure opponents). In other words, the perception that coaches and teammates condone on-field antisocial behaviors—in addition to conforming to societal expectations of traditional masculinity—is related to higher levels of antisocial behaviors on the football field. In addition, conformity to traditional masculine norms mediated the relationship between moral atmosphere and on-field aggressive sports behaviors, suggesting a relationship between social norms and moral atmosphere. Results of this interdisciplinary endeavor are interpreted and situated within the extant literature of both the fields of sport psychology and the psychological study of men and masculinity. Sport psychologists can use results to design interventions that incorporate moral atmosphere and conformity to masculine norms in an effort to decrease aggressive sports behaviors in the violent sport of football.
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Reader, Jenifer, Barbara Gordon, and Natalie Christensen. "Food Insecurity among a Cohort of Division I Student-Athletes." Nutrients 14, no. 21 (November 7, 2022): 4703. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu14214703.
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Background: Though the vulnerability of college students to food insecurity is well established, there is a paucity of studies focusing on the prevalence of food insecurity among student-athletes. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted with collegiate athletes in the northwestern United States via an anonymous online survey. Food security status was assessed using the 10-item US Department of Agriculture Adult Food Security Survey. Results: Participating athletes (45/307, 14%) were primarily White, non-Hispanic (78%) females (73%) who lived and consumed meals off-campus (62% and 69%, respectively). Food insecurity was more prevalent among collegiate athletes than the general university population, 60% vs. 42%, respectively. Being a track or football athlete significantly predicted food security status (p = 0.002, p < 0.001, respectively). The risk for food insecurity was higher among collegiate football players (effect size, η2 = 0.86) compared with track athletes (effect size, η2 = 0.40). Conclusion: A statistically significant risk for food insecurity emerged among members of the football team. Factors contributing to disparate rates of food insecurity among college populations were explored and unique considerations for collegiate athletes discussed.
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Berg, Adam. "Playing the Populist." Journal of Sport History 50, no. 2 (July 1, 2023): 206–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/21558450.50.2.05.
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Abstract From 2015 through 2020, Donald Trump used tackle football to perform the populist persona that allowed him to seize the American presidency. Trump's deployment of tackle football becomes apparent when considering his references to the game within the context of three vital historical elements: football's ideological origins, the Republican Party's Long Southern Strategy (LSS), and the gendered, racial, and religious debates that occurred in and through football just before and during Trump's time (perhaps first term) in office. The United States’ most popular spectator sport stemmed from white supremacist, patriarchal, and muscular Christian roots. In addition, from 1964 to recent years, to break up the Democratic Party's New Deal coalition in the South (and beyond), Republican Party (GOP or Grand Old Party) politicians tactically levied a tripartite of appeals to ameliorate anxieties born from parallel racial, gendered, and religious commitments. Then, in the twenty-first century, public controversies within the gridiron game pertaining to head trauma, celebrity players, and racial justice protests provided platforms for Trump to demonstrate his uniquely unapologetic and strident devotion to the LSS's main principles.
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Campolettano, Eamon T., Steven Rowson, and Stefan M. Duma. "Drill-specific head impact exposure in youth football practice." Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics 18, no. 5 (November 2016): 536–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/2016.5.peds1696.
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OBJECTIVE Although 70% of football players in the United States are youth players (6–14 years old), most research on head impacts in football has focused on high school, collegiate, or professional populations. The objective of this study was to identify the specific activities associated with high-magnitude (acceleration > 40g) head impacts in youth football practices. METHODS A total of 34 players (mean age 9.9 ± 0.6 years) on 2 youth teams were equipped with helmet-mounted accelerometer arrays that recorded head accelerations associated with impacts in practices and games. Videos of practices and games were used to verify all head impacts and identify specific drills associated with each head impact. RESULTS A total of 6813 impacts were recorded, of which 408 had accelerations exceeding 40g (6.0%). For each type of practice drill, impact rates were computed that accounted for the length of time that teams spent on each drill. The tackling drill King of the Circle had the highest impact rate (95% CI 25.6–68.3 impacts/hr). Impact rates for tackling drills (those conducted without a blocker [95% CI 14.7–21.9 impacts/hr] and those with a blocker [95% CI 10.5–23.1 impacts/hr]) did not differ from game impact rates (95% CI 14.2–21.6 impacts/hr). Tackling drills were observed to have a greater proportion (between 40% and 50%) of impacts exceeding 60g than games (25%). The teams in this study participated in tackling or blocking drills for only 22% of their overall practice times, but these drills were responsible for 86% of all practice impacts exceeding 40g. CONCLUSIONS In youth football, high-magnitude impacts occur more often in practices than games, and some practice drills are associated with higher impact rates and accelerations than others. To mitigate high-magnitude head impact exposure in youth football, practices should be modified to decrease the time spent in drills with high impact rates, potentially eliminating a drill such as King of the Circle altogether.
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Hammer, Erin, M. Alison Brooks, Scott Hetzel, Alan Arakkal, and R. Dawn Comstock. "Epidemiology of Injuries Sustained in Boys’ High School Contact and Collision Sports, 2008-2009 Through 2012-2013." Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 8, no. 2 (February 1, 2020): 232596712090369. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2325967120903699.
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Background: Injury epidemiology for boys’ high school contact and collision sport has been described in several overlapping but fragmented studies. Comprehensive comparisons of injuries sustained in boys’ soccer, wrestling, football, ice hockey, and lacrosse are lacking. Purpose: To describe patterns of injury by severity, body site, and diagnosis among high school boys’ contact and collision sports in the United States. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Methods: Injury rates and rate ratios (RRs) were calculated for injuries sustained in boys’ high school soccer, wrestling, football, ice hockey, and lacrosse through use of the High School RIO (Reporting Information Online) surveillance data from 2008-2009 through 2012-2013. Injury patterns were described by site, diagnosis, time loss, and severity. Severe injury was defined as an injury that resulted in 21 days or more of time loss from sport participation. Risk of sustaining a concussion was compared between sports. Results: The risk of sustaining an injury was higher in competition compared with practice overall (RR, 4.01; 95% CI, 3.90-4.12); the same pattern was true for severe injuries (RR, 4.61; 95% CI, 4.34-4.90). Football players experienced the highest injury rate (3.87 per 1000 athlete-exposures [AEs]) and the highest severe injury rate (0.80 per 1000 AEs). Overall, the most commonly injured body site was the head/face (22.5%), and the most prevalent injury diagnosis was ligament sprain not requiring surgery (23.5%). The most frequently injured body site from severe injury was the knee (24.6%), and fracture or avulsion was the most prevalent severe injury diagnosis (37.0%). Football players had a significantly higher risk of sustaining a concussion compared with other contact or collision sport athletes ( P < .05). Conclusion: Injuries rates were higher in competition than those in practice for boys’ high school contact and collision athletes. Football players sustained the highest injury rate, the highest severe injury rate, and the highest concussion rate among the sports included in this analysis. Understanding these patterns of injury can generate policy and rule changes to make sports safer and maintain high levels of participation.
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Christenson, Andrew J., and Douglas J. Casa. "Analysis on the Effect of Ball Pressure on Head Acceleration to Ensure Safety in Soccer." Proceedings 49, no. 1 (June 15, 2020): 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2020049003.
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Soccer/football is one of the most popular sports in the world. Any sport requires continuous adjustments to rules to keep the game safe and engaging. Increased awareness of concussions in the American National Football League (NFL) has consequently raised attention to concussion-related injuries in other sports. One of the first steps the United States Soccer Federation (USSF) has taken to reduce head injuries is to implement age restrictions on heading. This encourages safer play but discourages an important skill until players are a certain age which is not good for player development. An alternative is to ensure mean head acceleration from a header is reduced with minimal rule changes. This paper presents a dynamic model of a player heading a soccer ball to examine the general relationship between ball pressure and mean head acceleration toward the purpose of motivating a more complex and comprehensive analysis of heading in soccer.
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Boden, Barry P., Ken M. Fine, Ilan Breit, Wendee Lentz, and Scott A. Anderson. "Nontraumatic Exertional Fatalities in Football Players, Part 1: Epidemiology and Effectiveness of National Collegiate Athletic Association Bylaws." Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 8, no. 8 (August 1, 2020): 232596712094249. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2325967120942490.
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Background: Football has the highest number of nontraumatic fatalities of any sport in the United States. Purpose: To compare the incidence of nontraumatic fatalities with that of traumatic fatalities, describe the epidemiology of nontraumatic fatalities in high school (HS) and college football players, and determine the effectiveness of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) policies to reduce exertional heat stroke (EHS) and exertional sickling (ES) with sickle cell trait (SCT) fatalities in athletes. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Methods: We retrospectively reviewed 20 academic years (1998-2018) of HS and college nontraumatic fatalities in football players using the National Registry of Catastrophic Sports Injuries (NRCSI). EHS and ES with SCT fatality rates were compared before and after the implementation of the NCAA football out-of-season model (bylaw 17.10.2.4 [2003]) and NCAA Division I SCT screening (bylaw 17.1.5.1 [2010]), respectively. Additionally, we compiled incidence trends for HS and college traumatic and nontraumatic fatalities in football players for the years 1960 through 2018 based on NRCSI data and previously published reports. Results: The risk (odds ratio) of traumatic fatalities in football players in the 2010s was 0.19 (95% CI, 0.13-0.26; P < .0001) lower in HS and 0.29 (95% CI, 0.29-0.72; P = .0078) lower in college compared with that in the 1960s. In contrast, the risk of nontraumatic fatalities in football players in the 2010s was 0.7 (95% CI, 0.50-0.98; P = .0353) in HS and 0.9 (95% CI, 0.46-1.72; P = .7413) in college compared with that in the 1960s. Since 2000, the risk of nontraumatic fatalities has been 1.89 (95% CI, 1.42-2.51; P < .001) and 4.22 (95% CI, 2.04-8.73; P < .001) higher than the risk of traumatic fatalities at the HS and college levels, respectively. During the 20 years studied, there were 187 nontraumatic fatalities (average, 9.4 per year). The causes of death were sudden cardiac arrest (57.7%), EHS (23.6%), ES with SCT (12.1%), asthma (4.9%), and hyponatremia (1.6%). The risk of a nontraumatic fatality was 4.1 (95% CI, 2.8-5.9; P < .0001) higher in NCAA compared with HS athletes. There was no difference in the risk of an EHS fatality in NCAA athletes (0.86 [95% CI, 0.17-4.25]; P = .85) after implementation in 2003 of the NCAA football out-of-season model. The risk of an ES with SCT fatality in Division I athletes was significantly lower after the 2010 NCAA SCT screening bylaw was implemented (0.12 [95% CI, 0.02-0.95]; P = .04). Conclusion: Since the 1960s, the risk of nontraumatic fatalities has declined minimally compared with the reduction in the risk of traumatic fatalities. Current HS and college nontraumatic fatality rates are significantly higher than rates of traumatic fatalities. The 2003 NCAA out-of-season model has failed to significantly reduce EHS fatalities. The 2010 NCAA SCT screening bylaw has effectively prevented ES with SCT fatalities in NCAA Division I football.
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Cranmer, Gregory A., and Sara LaBelle. "Using the Disclosure Decision-Making Model to Understand High School Football Players’ Disclosures of Concussion Symptoms." International Journal of Sport Communication 11, no. 2 (June 1, 2018): 241–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.2017-0120.
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Despite advancements in concussion treatment and management, health and sports professionals largely depend on athletes’ self-reporting of symptoms to begin the process of diagnosis. With this in mind, recent scholarly attention has focused on understanding the barriers and processes of athletes’ self-disclosure of symptoms. The current study applied the disclosure decision-making model to understand high school football players’ disclosure decisions after experiencing symptoms of a concussion. Data obtained from 184 high school football players from across the United States demonstrated 2 significant paths by which players’ disclosures of concussion symptoms during a game can be understood. First, the perceived severity of these symptoms predicted athletes’ self-efficacy to disclose concussions, which subsequently predicted their intentions to disclose concussion symptoms during a game. Second, the felt stigma around disclosing concussion symptoms predicted athletes’ anticipated responses from coaches to such disclosures, which subsequently predicted their intentions to disclose concussion symptoms during a game. Furthermore, the effect of perceived stigma on the anticipated responses from coaches was moderated by the quality of athletes’ relationships with their coaches. These results highlight the importance of convincing athletes to take concussion symptoms seriously and the role of athlete–coach relationships in combatting stigma around concussion disclosures. These findings suggest that scholars and practitioners should acknowledge the social contexts surrounding disclosure of concussion symptom and shift educational efforts to focus on the dangers of concussions and the process by which athletes should report potential symptoms.
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Baugh, Christine M., Emily Kroshus, Daniel H. Daneshvar, and Robert A. Stern. "Perceived Coach Support and Concussion Symptom-Reporting: Differences between Freshmen and Non-Freshmen College Football Players." Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 42, no. 3 (2014): 314–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jlme.12148.
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Concussion is a form of traumatic brain injury that has been defined as a “trauma-induced alteration in mental status that may or may not involve loss of consciousness.” Terms such as getting a “ding” or getting your “bell rung” are sometimes used as colloquialisms for concussion, but inappropriately downplay the seriousness of the injury. It is estimated that between 1.6 and 3.8 million concussions occur annually in the United States as a result of participation in sports or recreational activities. To date, there are no objective, biological markers for concussion; rather, the current diagnosis of concussion is dependent upon symptom reporting by the athlete. In the acute phase, concussions can result in a broad spectrum of symptoms that can be transient or last for days, weeks, or even months. Symptom prolongation is generally referred to as post-concussion syndrome.
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Grundstein, Andrew J., Yuri Hosokawa, and Douglas J. Casa. "Fatal Exertional Heat Stroke and American Football Players: The Need for Regional Heat-Safety Guidelines." Journal of Athletic Training 53, no. 1 (January 1, 2018): 43–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-445-16.
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Context: Weather-based activity modification in athletics is an important way to minimize heat illnesses. However, many commonly used heat-safety guidelines include a uniform set of heat-stress thresholds that do not account for geographic differences in acclimatization. Objective: To determine if heat-related fatalities among American football players occurred on days with unusually stressful weather conditions based on the local climate and to assess the need for regional heat-safety guidelines. Design: Cross-sectional study. Setting: Data from incidents of fatal exertional heat stroke (EHS) in American football players were obtained from the National Center for Catastrophic Sport Injury Research and the Korey Stringer Institute. Patients or Other Participants: Sixty-one American football players at all levels of competition with fatal EHSs from 1980 to 2014. Main Outcome Measure(s): We used the wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT) and a z-score WBGT standardized to local climate conditions from 1991 to 2010 to assess the absolute and relative magnitudes of heat stress, respectively. Results: We observed a poleward decrease in exposure WBGTs during fatal EHSs. In milder climates, 80% of cases occurred at above-average WBGTs, and 50% occurred at WBGTs greater than 1 standard deviation from the long-term mean; however, in hotter climates, half of the cases occurred at near average or below average WBGTs. Conclusions: The combination of lower exposure WBGTs and frequent extreme climatic values in milder climates during fatal EHSs indicates the need for regional activity-modification guidelines with lower, climatically appropriate weather-based thresholds. Established activity-modification guidelines, such as those from the American College of Sports Medicine, work well in the hotter climates, such as the southern United States, where hot and humid weather conditions are common.
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Cooper, Earl R., Michael S. Ferrara, Douglas J. Casa, John W. Powell, Steven P. Broglio, Jacob E. Resch, and Ronald W. Courson. "Exertional Heat Illness in American Football Players: When Is the Risk Greatest?" Journal of Athletic Training 51, no. 8 (August 1, 2016): 593–600. http://dx.doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-51.8.08.
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Context: Knowledge about the specific environmental and practice risks to participants in American intercollegiate football during preseason practices is limited. Identifying risks may mitigate occurrences of exertional heat illness (EHI). Objective: To evaluate the associations among preseason practice day, session number, and wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT) and the incidence of EHI. Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Setting: Sixty colleges and universities representing 5 geographic regions of the United States. Patients or Other Participants: National Collegiate Athletic Association football players. Main Outcome Measure(s): Data related to preseason practice day, session number, and WBGT. We measured WBGT every 15 minutes during the practice sessions and used the mean WBGT from each session in the analysis. We recorded the incidence of EHIs and calculated the athlete-exposures (AEs). Results: A total of 553 EHI cases and 365 810 AEs were reported for an overall EHI rate of 1.52/1000 AEs (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.42, 1.68). Approximately 74% (n = 407) of the reported EHI cases were exertional heat cramps (incidence rate = 1.14/1000 AEs; 95% CI = 1.03, 1.25), and about 26% (n = 146) were a combination of exertional heat syncope and heat exhaustion (incidence rate = 0.40/1000 AEs; 95% CI = 0.35, 0.48). The highest rate of EHI occurred during the first 14 days of the preseason period, and the greatest risk was during the first 7 days. The risk of EHI increased substantially when the WBGT was 82.0°F (27.8°C) or greater. Conclusions: We found an increased rate of EHI during the first 14 days of practice, especially during the first 7 days. When the WBGT was greater than 82.0°F (27.8°C), the rate of EHI increased. Sports medicine personnel should take all necessary preventive measures to reduce the EHI risk during the first 14 days of practice and when the environmental conditions are greater than 82.0°F (27.8°C) WBGT.
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McCunn, Robert, Hugh H. K. Fullagar, Sean Williams, Travis J. Halseth, John A. Sampson, and Andrew Murray. "The Influence of Playing Experience and Position on Injury Risk in NCAA Division I College Football Players." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 12, no. 10 (November 1, 2017): 1297–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2016-0803.
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Purpose: American football is widely played by college student-athletes throughout the United States; however, the associated injury risk is greater than in other team sports. Numerous factors likely contribute to this risk, yet research identifying these risk factors is limited. The present study sought to explore the relationship between playing experience and position on injury risk in NCAA Division I college football players. Methods: Seventy-six male college student-athletes in the football program of an American NCAA Division I university participated. Injuries were recorded over 2 consecutive seasons. Players were characterized based on college year (freshman, sophomore, junior, or senior) and playing position. The effect of playing experience and position on injury incidence rates was analyzed using a generalized linear mixed-effects model, with a Poisson distribution, log-linear link function, and offset for hours of training exposure or number of in-game plays (for training and game injuries, respectively). Results: The overall rates of non-time-loss and time-loss game-related injuries were 2.1 (90% CI: 1.8–2.5) and 0.6 (90% CI: 0.4–0.8) per 1000 plays, respectively. The overall rates of non-time-loss and time-loss training-related injuries were 26.0 (90% CI: 22.6–29.9) and 7.1 (90% CI: 5.9–8.5) per 1000 h, respectively. During training, seniors and running backs displayed the greatest risk. During games, sophomores, juniors, and wide receivers were at greatest risk. Conclusions: Being aware of the elevated injury risk experienced by certain player groups may help coaches make considered decisions related to training design and player selection.
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Kerr, Zachary Y., Gary B. Wilkerson, Shane V. Caswell, Dustin W. Currie, Lauren A. Pierpoint, Erin B. Wasserman, Sarah B. Knowles, Thomas P. Dompier, R. Dawn Comstock, and Stephen W. Marshall. "The First Decade of Web-Based Sports Injury Surveillance: Descriptive Epidemiology of Injuries in United States High School Football (2005–2006 Through 2013–2014) and National Collegiate Athletic Association Football (2004–2005 Through 2013–2014)." Journal of Athletic Training 53, no. 8 (August 1, 2018): 738–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-144-17.
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Context: The advent of Web-based sports injury surveillance via programs such as the High School Reporting Information Online system and the National Collegiate Athletic Association Injury Surveillance Program has aided the acquisition of football injury data.Objective: To describe the epidemiology of injuries sustained in high school football in the 2005–2006 through 2013–2014 academic years and collegiate football in the 2004–2005 through 2013–2014 academic years using Web-based sports injury surveillance.Design: Descriptive epidemiology study.Setting: Online injury surveillance from football teams of high school boys (annual average = 100) and collegiate men (annual average = 43).Patients or Other Participants: Football players who participated in practices and competitions during the 2005–2006 through 2013–2014 academic years in high school or the 2004–2005 through 2013–2014 academic years in college.Main Outcome Measure(s): Athletic trainers collected time-loss injury (≥24 hours) and exposure data. Injury rates per 1000 athlete-exposures (AEs), injury rate ratios (IRRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs), and injury proportions by body site and diagnosis were calculated.Results: The High School Reporting Information Online system documented 18 189 time-loss injuries during 4 539 636 AEs; the National Collegiate Athletic Association Injury Surveillance Program documented 22 766 time-loss injuries during 3 121 476 AEs. The injury rate was higher among collegiate than high school (7.29 versus 4.01/1000 AEs; IRR = 1.82; 95% CI = 1.79, 1.86) athletes. Most injuries occurred during competitions in high school (53.2%) and practices in college (60.9%). The competition injury rate was higher than the practice injury rate among both high school (IRR = 5.62; 95% CI = 5.46, 5.78) and collegiate (IRR = 6.59; 95% CI = 6.41, 6.76) players. Most injuries at both levels affected the lower extremity and the shoulder/clavicle and were diagnosed as ligament sprains and muscle/tendon strains. However, concussion was a common injury during competitions among most positions.Conclusions: Injury rates were higher in college than in high school and higher for competitions than for practices. Concussion was a frequent injury sustained during competitions, which confirms the need to develop interventions to mitigate its incidence and severity.
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Anderson, Shaun M. "United We Stand, Divided We Kneel: Examining Perceptions of the NFL Anthem Protest on Organizational Reputation." Communication & Sport 8, no. 4-5 (December 20, 2019): 591–610. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2167479519893661.
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During a 2016 National Football League (NFL) preseason game, former San Francisco 49er quarterback, Colin Kaepernick sat during the playing of the national anthem in protest of police brutality. His actions prompted national outrage: ultimately calling into question his national identity and patriotism towards the United States. The anthem protest continued throughout the 2016 and through the 2017 season. Consequently, the NFL decided to implement a national anthem policy to discipline players who continued to protest. Thus, this study examined individuals’ perceptions of the NFL’s crisis responsibility in handling the anthem protest and how it affected their reputation. Further, this study examined national identity and patriotism as mediators between crisis responsibility and organizational reputation. Results indicated that national identity did not serve as a mediator and that only one level of patriotism mediated the relationship. A discussion was also forwarded.
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Pfaller, Adam Y., M. Alison Brooks, Scott Hetzel, and Timothy A. McGuine. "Effect of a New Rule Limiting Full Contact Practice on the Incidence of Sport-Related Concussion in High School Football Players." American Journal of Sports Medicine 47, no. 10 (July 15, 2019): 2294–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0363546519860120.
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Background: Sport-related concussion (SRC) has been associated with cognitive impairment, depression, and chronic traumatic encephalopathy. American football is the most popular sport among males in the United States and has one of the highest concussion rates among high school sports. Measured head impacts and concussions are approximately 4 times more common in contact practices compared with noncontact practices. The Wisconsin Interscholastic Athletic Association passed new rules defining and limiting contact during practice before the 2014 football season. Purpose: To determine if the SRC rate is lower after a rule change that limited the amount and duration of full-contact activities during high school football practice sessions. Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 2. Methods: A total of 2081 high school football athletes enrolled and participated in the study in 2012-2013 (before the rule change), and 945 players participated in the study in 2014 (after the rule change). Players self-reported previous concussion and demographic information. Athletic trainers recorded athlete exposures (AEs), concussion incidence, and days lost for each SRC. Chi-square tests were used to compare the incidence of SRC in prerule 2012-2013 seasons with the incidence in the postrule 2014 season. Wilcoxon rank sum tests were used to determine differences in days lost because of SRC. Results: A total of 67 players (7.1%) sustained 70 SRCs in 2014. The overall rate of SRC per 1000 AEs was 1.28 in 2014 as compared with 1.58 in 2012-2013 ( P = .139). The rate of SRC sustained overall in practice was significantly lower ( P = .003) after the rule change in 2014 (15 SRCs, 0.33 per 1000 AEs) as compared with prerule 2012-2013 (86 SRCs, 0.76 per 1000 AEs). There was no difference ( P = .999) in the rate of SRC sustained in games before (5.81 per 1000 AEs) and after (5.74 per 1000 AEs) the rule change. There was no difference ( P = .967) in days lost from SRC before (13 days lost [interquartile range, 10-18]) and after (14 days lost [interquartile range, 10-16]) the rule change. Conclusion: The rate of SRC sustained in high school football practice decreased by 57% after a rule change limiting the amount and duration of full-contact activities, with no change in competition concussion rate. Limitations on contact during high school football practice may be one effective measure to reduce the incidence of SRC.
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Dee, David. "“Personality and Color into Everything He Does”: Henry Rose (1899-1958)—Journalist, Celebrity, and the Forgotten Man of the Munich Disaster." Journal of Sport History 41, no. 3 (October 1, 2014): 425–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/jsporthistory.41.3.425.
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Abstract This article analyzes the life, career, and death of British-Jewish sports journalist Henry Rose (1899-1958), killed in the Munich air disaster of 1958 alongside Manchester United football club officials, players, and several other passengers. Rose may well be the “forgotten” man of the disaster, yet his story illuminates a great deal about contemporary British sport, society, and culture. He was a celebrity of his time, primarily due to his being at the vanguard of a revolution in British sports reporting that saw a more sensationalist and opinionated style successfully imported from the United States into the British press. His achievements were all the more remarkable considering significant levels of anti-Semitism that existed in British society at that time. Rose’s death in 1958 and subsequent disappearance from popular memory, which contrasts starkly with the manner in which Munich has been more actively memorialized in other quarters, is also examined.
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Akenhead, Richard, and George P. Nassis. "Training Load and Player Monitoring in High-Level Football: Current Practice and Perceptions." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 11, no. 5 (July 2016): 587–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2015-0331.
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Training load (TL) is monitored with the aim of making evidence-based decisions on appropriate loading schemes to reduce injuries and enhance team performance. However, little is known in detail about the variables of load and methods of analysis used in high-level football. Therefore, the aim of this study was to provide information on the practices and practitioners’ perceptions of monitoring in professional clubs. Eighty-two high-level football clubs from Europe, the United States, and Australia were invited to answer questions relating to how TL is quantified, how players’ responses are monitored, and their perceptions of the effectiveness of monitoring. Forty-one responses were received. All teams used GPS and heart-rate monitors during all training sessions, and 28 used rating of perceived exertion. The top-5-ranking TL variables were acceleration (various thresholds), total distance, distance covered above 5.5 m/s, estimated metabolic power, and heart-rate exertion. Players’ responses to training are monitored using questionnaires (68% of clubs) and submaximal exercise protocols (41%). Differences in expected vs actual effectiveness of monitoring were 23% and 20% for injury prevention and performance enhancement, respectively (P < .001 d = 1.0−1.4). Of the perceived barriers to effectiveness, limited human resources scored highest, followed by coach buy-in. The discrepancy between expected and actual effectiveness appears to be due to suboptimal integration with coaches, insufficient human resources, and concerns over the reliability of assessment tools. Future approaches should critically evaluate the usefulness of current monitoring tools and explore methods of reducing the identified barriers to effectiveness.
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Pawlak, Zbigniew, and Andrzej Smoleń. "Dylematy etyczne rozwoju sportu zawodowego." Annales. Etyka w Życiu Gospodarczym 13, no. 2 (May 15, 2010): 107–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/1899-2226.13.2.10.
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This paper discusses in detail the ethical issues in the contemporary professional sports and shows how these issues are addressed in the European Union countries and in the United States. From the ethical perspective it was decided that it is disputable to finance companies in competitive sports from a public purse (central and local government purse), to sponsor football clubs by bookmaking companies, to pay compensations (financial equivalents) for the change of membership in clubs by the players (the so called transfers). It was noticed that in the era of deepening sports commercialisation and application of ambush marketing strategies a real problem has become how to protect the interests of sport fans. It was decided that reaching of a certain scale of business operations (e.g. a certain threshold of revenues or profits) by monopolistic sports organisations should be paralleled by their loss of privileged status and/or change of their organisational and legal status (change from voluntary, non-profit organisations into companies operating under commercial law).
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Bohr, Adam D., Jason D. Boardman, and Matthew B. McQueen. "Association of Adolescent Sport Participation With Cognition and Depressive Symptoms in Early Adulthood." Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 7, no. 9 (September 1, 2019): 232596711986865. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2325967119868658.
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Background: Recent studies have associated sport-related concussion with depression and impaired cognitive ability later in life in former professional football players. However, population studies with two 1950s-era cohorts did not find an association between high school football participation and impaired cognition or depressive symptoms in late adulthood. Purpose/Hypothesis: This study assessed whether actual/intended participation in contact sports during adolescence had an adverse effect on participants’ cognition or depressive symptoms in early adulthood. We hypothesized that there would not be an association. Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 2. Methods: This study used a subsample (n = 10,951) from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health), a nationally (United States) representative prospective cohort study following participants through 4 waves of data collection from 1994 through 2008. Participants were categorized as actual/intended participation in no sports, noncontact sports only, and contact sports. We constructed 6 multivariate and logistic regression models predicting word recall, number recall, modified Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, depression diagnosis, suicide ideation, and suicide attempts at wave IV as a function of sport participation during wave I. Sport participation was treated as a factor with the referent category noncontact sports. This analysis was repeated on a males-only sample (n = 5008). In the males-only analysis, participants were classified as actual/intended participation in no sports, noncontact sports, contact sports other than American football, and American football. The referent category remained noncontact sports. Results: Intention to participate in contact sports was not significantly associated with any of the outcomes in the full-sample analysis. Intention to participate in football was significantly associated with a reduced odds of depression diagnosis in adulthood (odds ratio, 0.70; P = .02) when compared with noncontact sports participation in the males-only sample. Football was not significantly associated with impaired cognitive ability, increased depressive symptoms, or increased suicide ideation. Conclusion: Actual/intended participation in contact sports during adolescence did not adversely affect Add Health participants’ cognition or depressive symptoms in young adulthood.
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Emily Laff. "Social Justice in the National Football League: How an Internal Initiative Could Help Dismantle Racism and Promote Player Activism." Sport Social Work Journal 3, no. 1 (February 16, 2023): 13–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.33043/sswj.3.1.13-31.
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Social injustice remains a painfully present issue in American society. The evidence of inequality for people of color in the United States of America is woven throughout history--and is still present today. Despite years of grassroots movements fighting for civil rights and policy reform that have shaped change, there is still an undeniably volatile racial climate in America ignited by years of injustice. Most recently, this injustice can be seen through the lens of iPhones-which have captured the vexing reality of police brutality experienced by people of color, and the absence of justice for those responsible. What should be considered a humanitarian issue has been warped into a divisive political controversy. Though the racial tension is palpable, and arguably inescapable, Americans continuously turn to sports as a reprieve from the world’s problems. Yet, a fair percentage of those athletes and coaches providing the sports entertainment are also living in a reality steeped with racism and social injustice that awaits them outside the bounds of their playing surface. This article presents in detail the history of social justice and civil rights within the confines of sports, offering an internal training initiative aimed at dismantling racism and promoting player activism in the NFL. By dismantling racism and unconscious bias internally team by team, the NFL could support their staff and players of color. In turn, this would allow for more autonomy for players in the realm of social justice advocacy, and utilizing player platforms more effectively through community engagement.
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SHARMA, DR MONIKA. "A CASE STUDY ON GLOBAL BUSINESS OF SPORTS LEAGUE." International Journal Of Multidisciplinary Research And Studies 05, no. 04 (April 26, 2022): 01–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.33826/ijmras/v05i04.3.
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Huge investments have been carried out in sports teams and professional sports leagues all over the world. There are different sports that are popular in different parts of the world. In the United States, it's American Football, in Europe and UK it is Football (soccer); in the Indian sub-continent and Australia, it is Cricket that attracts the largest crowd. The research analyses this business of investments in sports leagues around the world. The paper looks at the potential interest in investing in clubs and team franchises of sports leagues. The aim of this paper was to find out the attractiveness and risks, economically and financially, involved in the Global business of sports leagues and the Involvement of business in the field of sports and critically analyze different business models used in the field of sports leagues for conducting business globally. The research utilized the primary data through questionnaires, case studies, and secondary data through government agencies like the census bureau, information compiled for sale by commercial vendors, data published by universities, government, equity research, reports, trade association newsletter, etc. The research concluded sports have always been a unique game of business for players and investing organizations. However, the research recommended the franchise business model used for the business is the appropriate model for conducting business in the field of sports leagues.
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SHARMA, DR MONIKA. "A CASE STUDY ON GLOBAL BUSINESS OF SPORTS LEAGUE." International Journal Of Multidisciplinary Research And Studies 05, no. 04 (April 26, 2022): 01–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.33826/ijmras/v05i04.3.
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Huge investments have been carried out in sports teams and professional sports leagues all over the world. There are different sports that are popular in different parts of the world. In the United States, it's American Football, in Europe and UK it is Football (soccer); in the Indian sub-continent and Australia, it is Cricket that attracts the largest crowd. The research analyses this business of investments in sports leagues around the world. The paper looks at the potential interest in investing in clubs and team franchises of sports leagues. The aim of this paper was to find out the attractiveness and risks, economically and financially, involved in the Global business of sports leagues and the Involvement of business in the field of sports and critically analyze different business models used in the field of sports leagues for conducting business globally. The research utilized the primary data through questionnaires, case studies, and secondary data through government agencies like the census bureau, information compiled for sale by commercial vendors, data published by universities, government, equity research, reports, trade association newsletter, etc. The research concluded sports have always been a unique game of business for players and investing organizations. However, the research recommended the franchise business model used for the business is the appropriate model for conducting business in the field of sports leagues.
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Duvall, Spring-Serenity. "Too Famous to Protest: Far-Right Online Community Bonding Over Collective Desecration of Colin Kaepernick, Fame, and Celebrity Activism." Journal of Communication Inquiry 44, no. 3 (March 19, 2020): 256–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0196859920911650.
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In 2016, National Football League (NFL) quarterback Colin Kaepernick began a high-profile protest of police brutality and mass incarceration that prompted outrage among far-right communities and media. Given the prominence and significance of Kaepernick’s protest, it is vital to study the far-right social media backlash that propelled boycotts of the NFL, drove news cycles, and positioned celebrity athletes as too privileged to protest oppression. My research is grounded in celebrity studies theory, sport media scholarship, and critical race theory. In this article, I establish the history of systemic racism in the United States that lingers in the microcosm of the NFL and sports media’s racist treatment of players; I then explore scholarship on celebrity, race, and power that provide a foundation for analyzing Kaepernick’s protest and the effort to desecrate his celebrity. Analysis of online far-right communities shows that Kaepernick functions as a target for collective far-right outrage, a focal point around which commenters could explore and define their common values, grievances, and identities.