Academic literature on the topic 'Food labelling laws'

The EU has approved Regulation 1169/2011 that sets out mandatory labeling for foods and for alcoholic beverages. This law has augmented previous legislation and also prescribed country of origin labeling as compulsory. The UK government has refused to implement this legislation when it becomes effective in 2015 and instead opted for optional traffic signposting for food products to provide the farmers and retailers extra protection in devising their own alternatives to compulsory labeling. There is a heavy onus on the food sellers to adhere to the plank of legislation that protects the consumer from unfair practices. The European Parliament's recommendations that impacts on the food market is to augment its regulation by forming a new task force to monitor the food and retail sector in terms of compliance with the fair trade practices. There is an increasing focus on the food sector in the EU and there are efforts to streamline the diversity of national laws for the upcoming Single Market Act II that will be promulgated in 2015 to align the commercial outlets to harmonise into one framework of rules in governing the protection of the consumer.

This article examines aspects of EU food labelling requirements, explaining how under current law, consumers can still be deceived, misled and confused. It assesses whether this has arisen because of the primacy accorded to other competing policies, asserting that consumers would not be best protected by the introduction of yet further amending legislation. Instead, what needs consideration is the strategic direction of the policy promulgated by existing laws. This article traces the development of EU food labelling laws from the early vertical legislation setting compositional requirements for specific products, through to the most recent, and possible future, horizontal requirements for all foodstuffs. Against this background, the article concentrates on the implementation of particular laws designed to address food–related health concerns, such as the use of additives and the proliferation of obesity related issues. It is concluded that Member States are shackled both by the evolution of current consumer law and the scope afforded to implement new laws relating to the promotion of healthy food, and questions whether the free movement of goods should still be accorded its traditional primacy.

Since nutrition labelling is obligatory for all packed food circulating across the European Union (EU), out-eating people demand, ever more often, to be provided with proper nutrition information on food they are eating through the restaurant menu. Given that, at present, no EU laws and regulations mandate nutritional menu labelling, this study aimed to explore a possible relationship between the perception of the need for menu and packed food labelling in a group of Hospitality Management students (n=324; out of which 84 men and 240 women). To that end, a comprehensive three-section questionnaire comprising demographic data, the perception of the need for menu labelling and questions about packed food labelling was developed. The perception of the need for menu labelling was assessed using a five-point Likert scale, the answers thereby scoring from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (fully agree). The students of both genders consider menu-delivered nutritional information important (3.59±0.95) for making healthier food choices (3.96±0.98) and achieving better caloric intake control (3.81±1.07). Health impact of menu labelling is more appreciated by female as compared to male students. Students did not perceive menu labelling as a significant cost for the restaurant management (2.67±1.17). The results confirmed that in students of both genders there exists a significant correlation between their habit of reading nutrition labels and a positive perception of menu labelling (p=0.001), the perception of menu labelling health impact (p<0.001) and the perception of menu labelling as a means to an end of better energy intake control (p<0.001). However, when it comes to energy value labelling, a significant correlation was seen solely among female students. The results of multiple regression analysis confirmed that, unlike male students, female students perceive food labelling as a strong predictor of menu labelling intention (nutrition label reading habit, β=0.17; p=0.008; energy value label reading habit, β =0.23; p<0.001. These findings suggest that hospitality managers could act as valuable promoters of this innovative foodservice approach.

Sustainable consumption and production (SCP) is largely influenced by dynamics in the market system. Hence, this study adopts the systems thinking approach as a tool to understand the non-linearity and complexity of sustainable practices. The food delivery business has accelerated the plastic waste problem, especially during COVID-19 where restaurant dine-in was limited. This study aims to identify high leverage points, which contribute to system intervention strategies to improve Thailand’s single-use plastics (SUP) waste situation caused by the food delivery sector. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with relevant stakeholders (n = 14). A qualitative system dynamics model analysis and thematic analysis suggest that the key leverage points include (1) benefit alignment among all stakeholders, (2) cost minimization and profit maximization, (3) laws and regulations, (4) postconsumption waste management systems, and (5) research and development. In addition, to stimulate policy initiatives, this study suggests that system intervention strategies should include behavioral instruments (setting default and eco-labelling), market-based instruments (green-packaging procurement and subsidies), and system and infrastructure provision (waste management systems and deposit return models). Partnerships, research and development, and laws and regulations are proposed as supporting measures.

AbstractObjectiveThe present study aimed to (i) describe the availability of nutrition information in major chain restaurants, (ii) document the energy and nutrient levels of menu items, (iii) evaluate relationships with restaurant characteristics, menu labelling and trans fat laws, and nutrition information accessibility, and (iv) compare energy and nutrient levels against industry-sponsored and government-issued nutrition criteria.DesignDescriptive statistics and multivariate regression analysis of the energy, total fat, saturated fat, trans fat, sodium, carbohydrate and protein levels of 28 433 regular and 1833 children's menu items.SettingEnergy and nutrition information provided on restaurant websites or upon request, and secondary databases on restaurant characteristics.SubjectsThe top 400 US chain restaurants by sales, based on the 2009 list of the Restaurants & Institutions magazine.ResultsComplete nutrition information was reported for 245 (61 %) restaurants. Appetizers had more energy, fat and sodium than all other item types. Children's menu specialty beverages had more fat, saturated fat and carbohydrates than comparable regular menu beverages. The majority of main entrées fell below one-third of the US Department of Agriculture's estimated daily energy needs, but as few as 3 % were also within limits for sodium, fat and saturated fat. Main entrées had significantly more energy, fat and saturated fat in family-style restaurants than in fast-food restaurants. Restaurants that made nutrition information easily accessible on websites had significantly lower energy, fat and sodium contents across menu offerings than those providing information only upon request.ConclusionsThe paper provides a comprehensive view of chain restaurant menu nutrition prior to nationwide labelling laws. It offers baseline data to evaluate how restaurants respond after laws are implemented.

This paper examines the history of GM laws within four time bands of pre-1997, 1997, 1998–2002 and the 2003–4 reforms. Its first aim is a seemingly modest, though technically difficult one of piecing together the jigsaw that is the regulatory framework for GM food. In the second part of the paper the authors offer a summary of the law immediately prior to the 2003 reforms with a particular emphasis on issues of tracing and labelling that are vital to our theme of consumer choice. This is followed by a third section, and a discussion of the latest round of reforms under the 2003 Regulations, comparing regulatory safeguards before and after the adoption of these regulations. In the fourth and final section of the paper, they assess the extent to which GM regulation, including the latest reforms, can be said to support consumer sovereignty. The authors conclude by questioning whether the highly complex regulatory interventions on tracing and labelling are actually necessary, or whether market incentives to boost sales by making claims about the non-GM status of food might not prove more effective in a European consumer market that is highly aware of the GM issue and prepared to buy or to boycott in accordance with GM content.

In the European Union, fats and oils in foods are regulated by laws mainly set at the Union level. EU rules on nutrition and health claims are particularly relevant for some fatty acids. Contrary to structure-function claims in the US, in the EU, such claims have to be authorized before use; in the case of omega-3, along with a nutrition claim, a remarkable number of health claims have been authorised based on the essentiality of such fatty acids. Claims related to environmental, social or ethical concerns are not regulated in detail at the EU level. While claims are voluntary information, mandatory rules on labelling also apply to fatty acids, and sometimes create challenges for food businesses. Another piece of legislation, the novel food regulation, is important for new sources of oils and fats. Its scope includes determining the novel food status of foods, and, if required, submitting an application in order to obtain authorisation. Several sources of fatty acids have been authorized as novel foods. Benefits of a novel food application include legal certainty and protection of data, while costs and particularly the length of the process are the main barriers. An assessment of novel food status should also concern new technologies, such as new delivery mechanisms. While several provisions of EU law concern oils and fats, a 2019 regulation not only imposes a 2 g limit (per 100 g of fat) for trans fats not naturally occurring in animal fats, but also creates an obligation to transfer information in the supply chain.

Legal regulation shapes the form and content of food labels. Whether in developed or developing countries, national laws outline obligations for labelling that reflect a combination of safety, commercial, and proprietary objectives based on a country's unique circumstances. This dissertation mines one particular dimension of the interplay between national and international law. While focusing on the narrow issue of food labelling legislation, it canvasses the national and international obligations affecting food labels that arise from intellectual property law, trade regulation and consumer protection. National food labelling regimes share some similar legislative provisions. French, Canadian, and Ghanaian law all recognize three categories of food labelling elements for pre-packaged foods: (1) mandatory labelling elements; (2) prohibited elements; and (3) reserved elements. As well, failure to comply with food labelling laws can result in criminal or civil liability, although implementation varies from country to country, with "food-centred" cultures more apt to vigorously enforce food labelling laws. Yet, it not simply national law that dictates the final form of food labels. International legal obligations increasingly play a pivotal role. While early international agreements were driven by States' desires to harmonize certain commercial and intellectual property laws, a shift occurred with the GATT 1947. This Agreement did not look to harmonize private law regimes amongst trading partners, but rather it set out general obligations that prohibited certain national measures which inhibited trade. The pendulum has swung even further with the establishment of the WTO. National governments, in light of their WTO obligations, must now (a) undertake positive law reform; (b) make national measures WTO-compatible; and (c) submit to compulsory trade dispute resolution, all of which can affect national food labelling laws. Clear international obligations established to address commercial or health concerns permit States to maintain national measures while still pursuing trade liberalization. However, international obligations applied to discipline national measures like the marking of food quality and the provision of new consumer information tread on national cultural sensitivities. Until further consensus evolves concerning how international obligations should be applied to such national food labelling measures, significant conflicts between national and international obligations will continue.

Magistro baigiamojo darbo tikslas - ištirti maisto produktų ženklinimo ir vartotojų teisių apsaugos teisino reglamentavimo ypatumus. Tam, kad būtų pasiektas numatytas tikslas, darbe buvo iškelti šie pagrindiniai uždaviniai: išanalizuoti maisto produktų ženklinimo teisinio reglamentavimo ypatumus Europos Sąjungos ir Lietuvos teisės aktuose; išnagrinėti reikalavimų ženklinant ekologiškus ir maisto priedų turinčius maisto produktus teisinį reguliavimą; išnagrinėti vartotojo galimybes neteisminiu keliu realizuoti savo teises maisto produktų ženklinimo srityje. Vienas iš Europos Sąjungos maisto saugos politikos tikslų – užtikrinti, kad maisto produktai būtų ženklinami. Todėl pirmame darbo skyriuje išanalizavus maisto produktų ženklinimo teisinį reglamentavimą galima teigti, jog šios srities ženklinimas Europos Sąjungoje yra reglamentuojamas horizontaliais ir vertikaliais teisės aktais. Naujuoju Europos Parlamento ir Tarybos 2011 m. spalio 25 d. reglamentu Nr. 1169/2011 siekiama sujungti šiuo metu galiojančius teisės aktus dėl maisto produktų ženklinimo, juos konsoliduoti bei supaprastinti. Pagrindiniu teisiniu dokumentu, reglamentuojančiu maisto produktų ženklinimą Lietuvos Respublikoje, yra laikoma Lietuvos higienos norma HN 119:2002 „Maisto produktų ženklinimas“. Plečiantis tiek ekologiškų, tiek maisto priedų turinčių maisto produktų rinkai, antrame darbo skyriuje nagrinėjami teisės aktų keliami reikalavimai šių produktų ženklinimui. Teisės aktų, reglamentuojančių ekologiškų... [toliau žr. visą tekstą]
The goal of this master thesis is to complete a research on the legal regulation peculiarities of food labelling and consumer protection. In order to achieve the set goal, following tasks were formed in this thesis: to analyze the legal regulation peculiarities of food labelling in legislation of European Union and Lithuania; to analyze legal regulation of requirements for labelling organic food and products that contain food additives; to provide insights regarding possibilities for consumers to implement their rights in the sphere of food labelling. One of the goals of the European Union food safety policy is to ensure the labelling of food. Therefore, after analysing the legal regulation of food labelling in the first section of the thesis, a proposition can be made that, the labelling of this sphere in the European Union is regulated by horizontal and vertical legislation. The new regulation No. 1169/2011, issued by the European Parliament and Council on the 25th of October, seeks to join, consolidate and simplify currently valid legislation regarding food labelling. The main legal document which regulates food labelling in the Republic of Lithuania is Lithuanian Hygiene Norm HN 119:2002 “Food Labelling”. While the market of both organic food and products that contain additives continues to develop, the second section of the thesis analyzes the requirements set by legislation for labelling such products. The analysis of legislation that regulates the labelling of... [to full text]

L’obiettivo del presente lavoro di ricerca è quello di porre in luce la cosiddetta “dimensione relazionale” dell’informazione fornita ai consumatori di alimenti tramite l’etichettatura nutrizionale e salutistica, intesa quale strumento normativo per l’attuazione delle politiche nutrizionali perseguite dall'Unione Europea. Il presente scritto analizza come le funzioni dell’etichettatura alimentare siano mutate durante i decenni, a partire dalla fine degli anni settanta del secolo scorso, quando essa era sì concepita come strumento informativo, ma il cui scopo principale rimaneva tuttavia quello di appianare le varie difformità legislative o regolamentari esistenti tra i vari Stati Membri – potendo queste rappresentare un ostacolo alla creazione di un mercato comune – sino ai giorni nostri, che vedono l’etichetta come una protagonista attiva in seno ad un più ampio programma di politica nutrizionale; più precisamente, attraverso un’adeguata etichettatura alimentare, le istituzioni dell’Unione Europea ambiscono a plasmare le abitudini alimentari dei consumatori, indirizzandoli verso percorsi nutrizionali più salutari. In tale contesto, il Regolamento sulle indicazioni nutrizionali e sulla salute fornite sugli alimenti rappresenta un ambizioso e, al tempo stesso, controverso tassello del diritto alimentare europeo, le cui premesse ispiratrici erano indubbiamente lodevoli, ma che è stato vittima, successivamente, di un’attuazione che ha generato notevole scontento ed incertezza sia tra i consumatori che nell'industria, al punto tale che da più parti si nutrono dubbi in merito alla sua efficacia e validità. Il presente lavoro di ricerca ambisce quindi a fornire una profonda analisi del Regolamento sulle indicazioni nutrizionali e sulla salute, offrendo una panoramica di esso in chiave storica, sociale, ed economica, imprescindibile al fine di una corretta e completa comprensione delle scelte normative e delle loro implicazioni di mercato. In ossequio a tale intento, in ogni apertura di paragrafo è offerto un inquadramento di taglio storico-normativo, mentre, in conclusione, si tenta di fornire qualche spunto critico da cui potrebbe, o avrebbe potuto, derivare una migliore attuazione del Regolamento. Dopo una breve introduzione, la ricerca entra nel suo vivo attraverso l’analisi di ogni aspetto del Regolamento (CE) n. 1924/2006, soffermandosi, in particolar modo, su quello che è l’aspetto cruciale e problematico relativo alla sua attuazione: il ruolo della scienza e, più precisamente, la valutazione circa la fondatezza scientifica dei claims, procedimento che, in assenza di chiare definizioni normative ed operative, è di fatto rimesso alla discrezionalità interpretativa dell’EFSA, avallata (implicitamente o esplicitamente) dalla Commissione Europea e dalla Corte di Giustizia dell’Unione Europea, generando così reazioni critiche tra pratici ed accademici che accusano una illegittima applicazione del principio di precauzione in un ambito che gli è estraneo, vale a dire quello dell’informazione alimentare al consumatore finale. Il lavoro prosegue poi con una riflessione sull'esito finale di un siffatto adagiamento sul processo di validazione scientifica condotto dall’EFSA, che ha ridotto la più parte della conoscenza nutrizionale a poco più di 200 indicazioni sulla salute autorizzate, la cui formulazione letterale, tra l’altro, si dubita assai possa essere agevolmente compresa dal cosiddetto consumatore medio. Inoltre, il Regolamento lascia irrisolti e aperte molti dilemmi e questioni, che devono urgentemente trovare un positivo interessamento al fine di non vanificare gli apprezzabili sforzi di spinta alla ricerca innovativa e di garanzia di una leale ed effettiva concorrenza nell'industria alimentare; il riferimento corre, tra gli altri, ai cosiddetti “claims botanici” ed ai “probiotici”, in relazione ai quali è ad oggi impedito reclamizzare in etichetta un’indicazione salutistica, sull’assunto per cui non è ancora stato raggiunto un livello accettabile di consenso scientifico relativamente alla loro sicurezza d’uso ed efficacia. Di conseguenza, se lo stato dell’arte è connotato da un simile proibizionismo, gli operatori del settore alimentare si trovano nella situazione di dover ricorrere a diverse strategie commerciali, quali l’utilizzo di claims suggestivi che, proposti attraverso messaggi non testuali, come nel caso del food design, si rivelano cionondimeno in grado di veicolare un messaggio salutistico, senza però la soggezione allo stretto rigore scientifico richiesto dall’EFSA. Infine, il presente lavoro, seppur prevalentemente rivolto alla descrizione dello scenario regolativo europeo, non dimentica di fornire una utile prospettiva del tema anche in chiave comparata, spaziando dalle linee guida predisposte dal Codex Alimentarius agli accordi vigenti in ambito OMC applicabili all’etichettatura degli alimenti, alimentando, per l’appunto, perplessità circa la compatibilità del Regolamento (CE) n° 1924/2006 con le obbligazioni gravanti sull’Unione Europea imposte dalla sua appartenenza al WTO.
The topic of the present research is to highlight the relational dimension of the information provided to consumers via food labelling, intended as a legal tool for the implementation of the nutrition policy carried out by the EU institutions since the establishment of the European Economic Community. The present work analyses how the function of food labelling has changed during the decades, since the late Seventies of the past century, when it was merely conceived as a mean of information whose main purpose was the harmonisation of the different national legislations, which could constitute an unnecessary obstacle to the realization of the common internal market, to the most recent days, when food labelling is thought as a tool of active nutrition policy; more precisely, through an adequate labelling, the EU institutions try to shape consumers’ behaviours, driving them toward a healthier eating. In this regulatory scenario, the Regulation on Nutrition and Health Claims made on foods is an ambitious and controversial piece of European food law, whose premises were undoubtedly laudable, but which has been during the years (partially) implemented in a manner which has caused much more discontent and confusion among both consumers and manufacturers, so that nowadays many doubts are still arising for what concerns its efficacy and its validity. This research represents a deep analysis of the Regulation on Nutrition and Health Claims, also taken into consideration from the historical, sociological, and economic perspective, which must be necessarily intertwined for a complete and critical comprehension of the legal framework and its implications for the various stakeholders. For this reason, each paragraph begins with a sort of normative background, and concludes with a critical analysis of the existing situation, providing some hints for a better implementation of the NHCR. After a brief introduction, the core of the research is completely and deeply focused on each and every aspect of the Regulation, with a central part which takes into consideration the very crucial aspect of its partial and problematic ongoing implementation: the role of science and, more precisely, the requirement of the scientific substantiation of the claims, whose assessment is demanded to the EFSA that, in the absence of definitions and clear guidelines on how to conduct such an evaluation, has de facto given its personal interpretation of the normative provisions of the Regulation, on which also the Commission and the European Court of Justice (implicitly or explicitly) rely, causing discontent among operators and legal scholars who see this as an illegitimate application of the precautionary principle to the field of food information, and a possible departure from the traditional categories of the risk assessment, risk management, and legal interpretation. The analysis proceeds then by criticizing the results of the total reliance on the scientific evaluation carried out by the EFSA, which reduced most of the knowledge about nutrition science in few more than 200 approved health claims, whose wording is probably incomprehensible for the average consumer. Moreover, there are also many other open issues in the Regulation on Nutrition and Health Claims which need to be urgently addressed in order not to vanish the laudable purpose of stimulating innovation and competition in the food sector, namely the botanical claims and probiotics, which are now prevented from bearing health claims on the consideration that a complete scientific consensus about their safety and efficacy has not yet been reached. But if this is the largely prohibitive state of the art, manufacturers are of course encouraged to find different escape routes, one of which is recurring to implied health claims, adopted through non-textual messages, or, to rephrase, through a smart food design, which can convey the same representation of healthiness without being subject to the strict scientific boundaries standardised by the EFSA. In addition, and as a conclusion, the present work, although mainly focused on the European Union regulatory environment, tries to give a comparative view on what the international arena offers on the topic, from the Codex Alimentarius Commission to the various WTO Agreements pertaining to food labelling, instilling doubts about the NHCR compatibility with the obligations that the EU must fulfil in the international trade law relations.

This thesis explores the worth of using food Geographical Indications (GIs) on food products to make an origin claim in the context of a sui generis food GI system. It assesses the value of using a sui generis food GI system to protect the connection between Australian regional food and origin and to protect the assets that Australia has in Australian regional names as identifiers of authentic regional food products that have a clear and strong connection with Australian regions. This assessment is made against a background of significant and original fieldwork carried out in Italy and South Australia. Since 1992, Italy has operated under a sui generis food GI system as provided for in the European Union Regulation EU No. 1151/2012 of the European Parliament and Council of 21 November 2012 on quality schemes for agricultural products and foodstuffs (EU–Italian food GI system). Italy currently has 294 food GI registrations, the highest number of food GI registrations in the European Union (EU). Therefore, Italy was the ideal case study to determine the worth of a food GI system. Interviews were conducted with a variety of food producers and agricultural industry-based organisations and GI Consortiums as part of the Italian fieldwork. The overall aim and objective of the Italian fieldwork was to determine the effectiveness of the EU–Italian food GI system in protecting the connection between food and origin and the lessons that could be learned from the EU–Italian food GI system in considering implementation of a sui generis food GI system in Australia. The Italian fieldwork revealed that a sui generis food GI system was an effective legal framework to protect the connection between food and origin. It provided valuable insight into the elements required for a successful food GI system. The overall aim and objective of the South Australian fieldwork was to determine whether the interviewees considered that Australia should implement a sui generis food GI system. Interviews were conducted with regional food producers based in the South Australian regions of the Barossa Valley and Adelaide Hills, as well as other representatives of the South Australian food industry, as part of the South Australian fieldwork. The South Australian fieldwork revealed that regional food producers based in the Barossa Valley and the Adelaide Hills were interested in a sui generis food GI system. The South Australian fieldwork provided valuable insight into the elements that the regional food producers considered necessary for a successful Australian food GI system. Against the backdrop of this significant and original fieldwork, this thesis recommends that Australia implement a sui generis food GI system to overcome the deficiencies of current consumer protection, passing off and trademark laws that inadequately regulate the connection between food and origin. This thesis explains that a sui generis food GI system is not only important for Australia at a national level, it is also crucial at an international level.
Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, Adelaide Law School, 2018

Food labelling serves to (a) inform consumers about the attributes of a food product so that they can make rational and well-informed choices; (b) assist manufacturers in marketing their product; and (c) warn consumers about the inherent risks of certain products, or ingredients in the product. The costs of labelling products fully and informatively are borne by consumers, but the benefits of labelling outweigh the costs. To understand the role of labelling in an regulatory system it is vital to consider the arrangement of the provisions protecting consumers generally before considering food laws and the labelling regulations. Furthermore, due to food being an international product, it is necessary to consider foreign countries and the manner they go about in protecting consumers. The United Nations, under the auspices of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the \Vorld Health Organization (WHO), established a Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme, called "Codex Alimentarius". The aim of the programme is to establish standards that can be used internationally to narrow the gap between developed countries and developing countries. To establish a standard various organs of the Codex Alimentarius are consulted. In addition, the standards have to comply with a prescribed format and follow a specified procedure. For the standard to be observed the member country has to incorporate the standard into its domestic laws. One of the advantages of the Codex Alimentarius is that the procedure to establish a standard is flexible. Australia, United Kingdom and the United States of America are member of the Codex Alimentarius. Australia, a federation of states, protects consumers by legislating either state and/or Commonwealth laws. Often there is a combination of statutes. Examples of subjects that are governed by both Commonwealth and states include false or misleading trade practices, and weights and measures. Commonwealth laws only deal with the freedom of information. Food laws are governed exclusively by state legislation. A significant area for future reform is uniformity of the state food laws. There are also other areas for future reform (eg date marking). England and Wales protect consumers by enacting statutes that relate to private and public rights. The important Acts that protect public rights are the Trade Descriptions Act, Weights and Measures Act, Consumer Protection Act, Fair Trading Act and Food Act. One of the provisions of the Criminal Courts Act is to protect personal rights when a consumer suffers personal injury, loss or damage as a result of the offender committing an criminal offence. Food labelling is governed by regulations, that are progressive. A fundamental criticism of the legislation and regulations is the lack of appropriate enforcement of the laws. The enforcement of most of the above Acts is delegated to the local weights and measures authorities. A further complication is the United Kingdom's membership of the European Economic Community. The United States of America enacts federal and state legislation. In protecting consumers in respect of food, it enacts federal legislation. The important Acts include the Fair Packaging and Labelling Act, the Meat Inspection Act, the Poultry and Poultry Products Inspection Act and the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act. The United States government also encourages openness, with regards to its public agencies, by creating the Freedom of Information Act. The class action is an innovative remedy established in terms of the Civil Procedure Act. The enforcement of food laws is delegated to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The protection afforded by the United States government is complex and sophisticated. Its laws serve as model for many countries. The common law of South Africa has limited value in safeguarding consumers. Consumer protection arise mostly by way of legislation and regulations. Consumers are protected generally by the Measuring Units and National Measuring Standards Act, Trade Metrology Act, Trade Practices Act and Harmful Business Practices Act, Standards Act, Dairy Industries Act and the Marketing Act. Consumers are protected against harmful and injurious foodstuffs by the Foodstuffs, Cosmetics and Disinfectants Act, and the regulations promulgated in terms of the Act. There are several problems with the laws, eg lack of enforcement, lack of consumer awareness and education, and so on. An analysis of the foreign countries discussed in Part II result in the indication of twel ve themes. Part III examine the twelve themes and present solutions. Some of the solutions are based on comparisons with foreign countries discussed in Part 11. The main issues that need to be addressed in the short-term are the lack of consumer education and problems of enforcement of consumer protection. Long-term issues include the feasibility of introducing a department of consumer affairs and the provision of statutory civil remedies for consumers.
Thesis (LL.M.)-University of Natal, Durban,1990.

This thesis deals with the legal regulation of the food law in the Czech Republic and abroad, focusing on EU food law. Its aim is not only to provide an introduction to overall issue of food law by introducing the legal sources and their recent important amendments but also to focus on food labelling, legal aspects of nutrition and the food law in France. Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

Summary of the doctoral thesis ‘Legal Aspects of Alcoholic Beverages Information to Consumers’ Alcoholic beverages play an important economic, political and cultural role. On the other hand, high consumption of alcoholic beverages in the European Union generates a number of social and health problems. Both the EU and the national legislators introduce specific restrictions on economic freedom in the area of alcoholic beverages which aim to eliminate negative consequences of excessive consumption of these products. Such restrictions regard also the information given to consumers about alcoholic beverages. In the era of information society more and more attention is paid to the fact how the consumer is informed about the product: whether the information provided is sufficient to make a decision about the purchase of the product. This doctoral dissertation is devoted to the legal aspects of alcoholic beverages information to consumers. Detailed search of available literature on this topic showed that the examinee issue so far did not received any comprehensive study. The main aim of the dissertation is to examine whether the rules on alcoholic beverages information to consumers are consistent with the objectives of food law: the protection of public health, the consumer protection, and whether unduly limit economic freedom. The doctoral dissertation aims to show that the principle of proportionality should be applied to the regulations governing alcoholic beverages information to consumers. The aim of the dissertation is also to examine whether the existing regulations on labelling and advertising of alcoholic beverages are proportionate to the objectives of food law and whether there is a need to modify them. The doctoral dissertation consists of seven chapters. In the first chapter the current sources of European Union law and national law on alcoholic beverages information to consumers are presented. The second chapter discusses the definitions related to alcoholic beverages information to consumers. The third chapter is devoted to the objectives of the alcoholic beverages information to consumers, which are set at the level of European Union law and their hierarchy: the protection of consumers’ health and their interests, the free movement of food, protection of the legitimate interests of food producers and supporting the production of quality products. In the fourth chapter the constitutional rights and freedoms related to the alcoholic beverages information to consumers are analyzed. It was pointed out that the objectives set at EU level related to the alcoholic beverages information to consumers correspond to the rights, freedoms and principles set out in the Polish Constitution - the principle of consumer protection, the right to health, economic freedom. It is analyzed the possibility and the scope of introducing restrictions on economic freedom, including freedom of commercial speech, which are justified by protection of consumers’ health, and their economic interests. In the fifth, sixth and seventh chapter, the existing regulations regarding alcoholic beverages information to consumers are analyzed for their compatibility with the objectives of food law and the rights, freedoms and principles pointed out in the Polish Constitution. In the fifth chapter, the analyze concentrates on labelling requirements for alcoholic beverages and the characteristics of the labelling of these products. In addition, there are analyzed the health warning labels and the legitimacy of introduction such requirement on the basis of national legislation. In the sixth chapter the regulations regarding quality indications (geographical indications, designations of origin, traditional terms) of alcoholic beverages are analyzed. An attempt was made to assess whether these regulations are consistent with the objectives of food law and whether comply with the principle of proportionality. In the seventh chapter the issue of advertising of alcoholic beverages is discussed. The analyze concentrates on limiting the advertising of alcoholic beverages under the law of the European Union and ways of implementing these regulations in EU countries (Germany, UK, Spain, Italy). In this context, there are analyzed Polish regulations on the advertising of alcoholic beverages. Additionally, the solutions adopted in the US law are presented. It is also an assessment whether the Polish regulations regarding this issue comply with the principle of proportionality present both in EU law and Polish law.
Streszczenie pracy doktorskiej pt. „Aspekty prawne przekazywania konsumentom informacji o napojach alkoholowych” w języku polskim: Napoje alkoholowe odgrywają istotne znaczenie ekonomiczne, gospodarcze, polityczne i kulturowe. Z drugiej strony, wysokie spożycie napojów alkoholowych generuje w Unii Europejskiej wiele problemów społecznych i zdrowotnych. Zarówno unijny jak i krajowy prawodawca wprowadza określone ograniczenia wolności gospodarczej w zakresie napojów alkoholowych mające na celu niwelowanie negatywnych skutków nadmiernego spożywania tych produktów. Takie ograniczenia dotyczącą również informacji przekazywanej konsumentowi o napojach alkoholowych. W dobie społeczeństwa informacyjnego coraz większą wagę przywiązuje się do tego, w jaki sposób konsument jest informowany o produkcie, co zawiera dany przekaz, czy przekazywane informacje są wystarczające do podjęcia przez konsumenta świadomej decyzji o nabyciu produktu. Niniejsza praca doktorska jest poświęcona aspektom prawnym przekazywania konsumentom informacji o napojach alkoholowych. Szczegółowe poszukiwania dostępnej w tym temacie literatury wykazały, że badanemu zagadnieniu nie poświęcono dotychczas żadnego opracowania. Głównym celem pracy doktorskiej jest zbadanie czy przepisy dotyczące przekazywania konsumentom informacji o napojach alkoholowych są zgodne z celami prawa żywnościowego, uwzględniają ochronę zdrowia publicznego, ochronę konsumenta, a jednocześnie czy nie ograniczają nadmiernie wolności gospodarczej. Praca ma na celu wykazanie, że przy tworzeniu i ocenie regulacji dotyczących przekazywania konsumentom informacji o napojach alkoholowych należy stosować zasadę proporcjonalności. Celem rozprawy doktorskiej jest również zbadanie, czy obowiązujące obecnie regulacje w zakresie oznakowania i reklamy napojów alkoholowych są proporcjonalne do celów wyznaczonych przepisami prawa żywnościowego, a także czy istnieje potrzeba ich modyfikacji. Rozprawa doktorska składa się z siedmiu rozdziałów. W pierwszym rozdziale wskazano na obecnie obowiązujące źródła prawa Unii Europejskiej oraz prawa krajowego dotyczące informowania konsumentów o napojach alkoholowych. W drugim rozdziale omówiono zagadnienia teoretycznoprawne związane z przekazywaniem konsumentom informacji o napojach alkoholowych. Trzeci rozdział pracy został poświęcony celom przekazywania konsumentom informacji o napojach alkoholowych, które określono na poziomie prawa Unii Europejskiej oraz ich hierarchii, tj. ochronie zdrowia i interesów konsumentów żywności, zapewnieniu swobodnego przepływu żywności, ochronie słusznych interesów producentów żywności oraz wspieraniu wytwarzania produktów odpowiedniej jakości. W czwartym rozdziale dokonano analizy konstytucyjnych praw i wolności związanych z przekazywaniem konsumentom informacji o napojach alkoholowych. Wskazano, że cele wyznaczone na poziomie Unii Europejskiej w odniesieniu do informacji przekazywanej konsumentowi o napojach alkoholowych korespondują z prawami, wolnościami i zasadami określonymi w Konstytucji RP – zasadą ochrony konsumenta, prawem do ochrony zdrowia, wolnością gospodarczą. Przeanalizowano możliwości wprowadzania ograniczeń wolności gospodarczej, w tym swobody wypowiedzi komercyjnej, uzasadnionych ochroną konsumenta, jego zdrowia oraz interesów ekonomicznych. W piątym, szóstym i siódmym rozdziale pracy dokonano analizy obecnie obowiązujących przepisów w zakresie przekazywania konsumentom informacji o napojach alkoholowych pod kątem ich zgodności z celami wyznaczonymi w prawie żywnościowym oraz prawami, wolnościami i zasadami wynikającymi z Konstytucji RP. W piątym rozdziale pracy analizie zostały poddane wymogi dotyczące oznakowania napojów alkoholowych oraz cechy charakterystyczne oznakowania tych produktów. Ponadto, przeanalizowano zagadnienie znakowania napojów alkoholowych ostrzeżeniami o szkodliwości alkoholu dla zdrowia i zasadności jego wprowadzenia na gruncie przepisów krajowych. Pomocniczo zostały zaprezentowane rozwiązania przyjęte na gruncie prawa amerykańskiego. W szóstym rozdziale analizowano wymogi dotyczące oznaczeń wyróżniających napoje alkoholowe tj. regulacje z zakresu ochrony oznaczeń geograficznych, nazw pochodzenia oraz określeń tradycyjnych. Dokonano próby oceny czy systemy oznaczeń wyróżniających napojów alkoholowych są zgodne z celami wyznaczonymi przepisami prawa żywnościowego. Natomiast w siódmym rozdziale pracy omówiono zagadnienie reklamy napojów alkoholowych. Analizowano ograniczenia reklamy napojów alkoholowych wynikające z prawa Unii Europejskiej oraz sposoby implementacji powyższych regulacji w wybranych krajach Unii Europejskiej (Niemczech, Wielkiej Brytanii, Hiszpanii, we Włoszech). W tym kontekście przeanalizowane zostały polskie regulacje dotyczące reklamy napojów alkoholowych. Pomocniczo zostały zaprezentowane rozwiązania przyjęte na gruncie prawa amerykańskiego. Podjęto próbę oceny czy polskie regulacje dotyczące reklamy napojów alkoholowych są zgodne z zasadą proporcjonalności obecną zarówno w prawie Unii Europejskiej jak i prawie polskim.

The relationship between international regimes regulating intellectual property, traditional knowledge and biodiversity has received much attention in recent times. Of the many complex and controversial issues in contemporary international legal discourse on this matter, the protection of traditional knowledge (TK) stands out as a significant challenge. Choices abound in the search for modalities to regulate rights to use and control TK systems and their underlying biodiversity. In recent times, the protection of geographical indications (GIs) has emerged as an option for protecting TK. Despite the considerable enthusiasm over it, there is appreciable research dearth on how far and in what context GIs can be used as a protection model. Indeed, not only is the concept of GIs itself widely misunderstood. As well, analyses as to their applicability for protecting TK often reflect underlying cultural differences in the nature, scope and the jurisprudence regarding GIs across jurisdictions. This thesis examines the relationship between GIs and TK, focusing on the responsiveness of GIs to the needs and desires of indigenous peoples and local communities (ILCs). The thesis posits that the search for a model to protect TK should involve identifying different modalities, including those based on intellectual property, to fit to the nature and uses of TK in particular contexts. The analysis conceptualizes GIs as a form of IP that are structurally and functionally suitable to protect aspects of TK in traditional knowledge-based agricultural products (TKBAPs). Substantively, the thesis draws attention to the conceptual underpinnings of GIs as encompassing cultural and economic objectives in the protection of TK. As such, it is argued that stronger protection of GIs should be achieved by integrating the negotiations and discussion concerning GIs and TK at the international level. Further, the case is made for the determination of immediate challenges and long-term opportunities in choosing a legal means for protecting GIs at the national level. In this connection, the thesis suggests that the potential of GIs to meet national and local imperatives to protect TK be assessed, inter alia, based on their instrumentality for economic, biodiversity, cultural and food security objectives in protecting TKBAPs.

Food labelling 166 Functional foods and nutraceuticals 174 Nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics 178 Food supplements 182 Food labelling in the UK is currently controlled by the Food Labelling Regulations of 1996, subsequent amendments to these regulations, and also by European laws. Legally these regulations fall under the Food Safety Act of 1990. In the UK foods sold loose are exempt from many labelling regulations....

Introduction: The 2018 Farm Bill changed the legal status of cannabis plants that meet the definition of industrial hemp and allowed for the rapid expansion of hemp-based products into commercial spaces. With an emphasis on industrial hemp as the source of naturally-occurring cannabinoid compounds, a niche market for cannabidiol (CBD)-containing products was quickly established in pharmacies and grocery stores. Although the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has retained oversight of all cannabis-based products, labelling of hemp-derived products for retail markets remains largely unregulated. Under federal law, CBD cannot be added to foods, beverages, sold as a dietary supplement or marketed for a therapeutic benefit, however the perceived health benefits of CBD as an acceptable and safe ingredient contribute to the growing market for these health products. Objective: The objective of this study was to evaluate the range of over-the-counter (OTC) hemp- and CBD-based products available to consumers and determine the prevalence of other pharmacologically active agents identified as ingredients in these products. Labels were scored for the presence of: active and inactive ingredients, percent CBD, full-spectrum hemp, full-spectrum CBD or CBD isolate. Methods: Two large pharmacy chains and one medium-sized grocery store located in the Pacific Northwest were surveyed between May 2020 and February 2021 and OTC hemp-derived products on display were recorded. Identification of pharmacologically active ingredients on the product label was validated using the National Medicines Comprehensive Database. Products that were noted to have CBD or hemp ingredients were included in the study, while any products that did not accurately report the amount of CBD in the product were excluded. Products that did not list the total weight of the product were excluded from the analysis. Results: Thirty-three unique products were recorded from 19 different manufacturers. 39% of product labels indicated the presence of Full-Spectrum Hemp as part of the base product, while 66% of products listed Hemp Extract as the base product. Text labels on CBD-containing products, on average, indicated more than 3 additional pharmacologically active ingredients were contained in each product. Topical CBD products were more likely to have other ingredients such as arnica montana, menthol and camphor, whereas products for oral ingestion were more likely to have only CBD as the primary active ingredient. Text labels on 52% of topical CBD products listed the presence of 10% menthol. Average concentrations of CBD in OTC products was found to be 1.12% ± 1.48 %, based on dry weight. Conclusion: Product text labels on OTC hemp-and CBD-containing preparations is varied and presented in a non-standardized format. Topical CBD products were more likely to contain other pharmacologically active natural products that can be used for the treatment of pain symptoms. Concentrations of arnica montana, menthol and camphor were as much as 10-fold higher than the proportion of CBD contained in these products. The absence of a standard format for labelling of OTC hemp- and CBD-derived products and the frequent presence of other active ingredients has the potential to create confusion and risk for the consumer.