Journal articles: 'Flower development biology'

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COEN, E. "Flower development." Current Opinion in Cell Biology 4, no. 6 (December 1992): 929–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0955-0674(92)90120-2.

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Botta, Roberto, Grazia Vergano, Giovanni Me, and Rosalina Vallania. "Floral Biology and Embryo Development in Chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.)." HortScience 30, no. 6 (October 1995): 1283–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.30.6.1283.

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Floral biology of chestnut, from sporogenesis to mature embryo, is described. Microsporogenesis in flowers of unisexual catkins occurred in the first week of June 1991. Anthesis started in mid-June (≈70 days after budbreak) and lasted 2 weeks. In mid-June, in each pistillate flower, six to eight styles began to emerge, and 4 to 7 days later, they were extended fully (i.e., full bloom). In each flower, 10 to 16 anatropous ovules developed from the ovary axis. The megaspore mother cell had formed by the end of bloom. The mature ovule consisted of two integuments and a long, narrow nucellus with a small embryo sac of the Polygonum type. Zygotes were found 15 to 20 days after pistillate flower full bloom. Embryo development followed the Onagrad type, Trifolium variation. Seeds attained full size in mid-September, and fruit were mature in early November. The embryonal axis averaged 4.5 mm long × 2.1 mm wide. An apical meristem and the radicle were evident at opposite ends of the axis.

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HANDAYANI, TRI. "Flower morphology, floral development and insect visitors to flowers of Nepenthes mirabilis." Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity 18, no. 4 (October 7, 2017): 1624–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d180441.

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Handayani T. 2017. Flower morphology, floral development and insect visitors to flowers of Nepenthes mirabilis. Biodiversitas 18: 1624-1631. Nepenthes mirabilis Druce is a commercial ornamental pitcher plant belonging to the Nepenthaceae. This species is often used as a parent plant in artificial crossbreeding. The plant is also used in traditional medicine, rope-making, handicraft, and bouquets. Flower development and pollen maturity are important factors in pitcher plant crossbreeding. However, information about its flowering is still lacking. This study aimed to record the flower morphology, flower development, and faunal visitors to male inflorescences of N. mirabilis planted in Bogor Botanic Gardens, West Java, Indonesia. Twelve racemes of flowers were taken as a sample for observing the process of inflorescence development, while ten flowers on each raceme were observed for investigating the flowering pattern of individual flowers. The morphology of flowers, the process of inflorescence development, the flowering pattern for individual flowers, the number of open flowers, the longevity of anthesis, and the appearance of insect (and/or other faunal) visitors to flowers were observed and recorded, using naked eyes, a hand lens, and a camera. Six phases of inflorescence development were identified: inflorescence bud phase, raceme phase, the opening of the raceme-protecting sheath phase, inflorescence-stalk and flowerstalk growth phase, open flower phase and pollen maturity phase. Four phases of flower development were observed: growth of flower bud, the opening of tepals, pollen maturation, and flower senescence. The pattern of anthesis within an inflorescence was acropetal. The number of flowers per raceme was 56 to 163. The peak duration of anthesis of a flower was 11 days (30.7% of flowers). The length of the raceme-stalks was 17-31 cm. The length of the racemes was 23-38 cm. The most common visitors to the flowers were stingless bees, Trigona apicalis.

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Luo, Yan, Bang-Zhen Pan, Lu Li, Chen-Xuan Yang, and Zeng-Fu Xu. "Developmental basis for flower sex determination and effects of cytokinin on sex determination in Plukenetia volubilis (Euphorbiaceae)." Plant Reproduction 33, no. 1 (January 6, 2020): 21–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00497-019-00382-9.

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Key message Cytokinin might be an important factor to regulate floral sex at the very early stage of flower development in sacha inchi. Abstract Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis, Euphorbiaceae) is characterized by having female and male flowers in a thyrse with particular differences. The mechanisms involved in the development of unisexual flowers are very poorly understood. In this study, the inflorescence and flower development of P. volubilis were investigated using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. We also investigated the effects of cytokinin on flower sex determination by exogenous application of 6-benzyladenine (BA) in P. volubilis. The floral development of P. volubilis was divided into eight stages, and the first morphological divergence between the male and female flowers was found to occur at stage 3. Both female and male flowers can be structurally distinguished by differences in the shape and size of the flower apex after sepal primordia initiation. There are no traces of gynoecia in male flowers or of androecia in female flowers. Exogenous application of BA effectively induced gynoecium primordia initiation and female flower development, especially at the early flower developmental stages. We propose that flower sex is determined earlier and probably occurs before flower initiation, either prior to or at inflorescence development due to the difference in the position of the female and male primordia in the inflorescence and in the time of the female and male primordia being initiated. The influence of cytokinin on female primordia during flower development in P. volubilis strongly suggests a feminization role for cytokinin in sex determination. These results indicate that cytokinin could modify the fate of the apical meristem of male flower and promote the formation of carpel primordia in P. volubilis.

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Chen, Q., A. Atkinson, D. Otsuga, T. Christensen, L. Reynolds, and G. N. Drews. "The Arabidopsis FILAMENTOUS FLOWER gene is required for flower formation." Development 126, no. 12 (June 15, 1999): 2715–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.126.12.2715.

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A screen for mutations affecting flower formation was carried out and several filamentous flower (fil) alleles were identified. In fil mutants, floral primordia occasionally give rise to pedicels lacking flowers at their ends. This defect is dramatically enhanced in fil rev double mutants, in which every floral primordium produces a flowerless pedicel. These data suggest that the FIL and REV genes are required for an early step of flower formation, possibly for the establishment of a flower-forming domain within the floral primordium. The FIL gene is also required for establishment of floral meristem identity and for flower development. During flower development, the FIL gene is required for floral organ formation in terms of the correct numbers and positions; correct spatial activity of the AGAMOUS, APETALA3, PISTILLATA and SUPERMAN genes; and floral organ development.

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Blázquez, Miguel A. "Flower development pathways." Journal of Cell Science 113, no. 20 (January 1, 2000): 3547–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jcs.113.20.3547.

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Hoque, MA. "Floral biology of indigenous pummelo genotypes." Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Research 40, no. 2 (August 20, 2015): 177–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bjar.v40i2.24556.

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Flower morphology and bud development of pummelo accessions CG-1, CG-18 and CG-151 were studied at the Pummelo Orchard of Regional Agricultural Research Station, BARI, Akbarpur, Moulvibazar and the Horticulture Laboratory of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University during 2008-2009. Pummelo flowers were bisexual, bore singly on leaf axils or in clusters with or without leaf on stem in all accessions, and colour were white. Calyx diameter varied from 0.94 in CG-1 to 1.02 in CG-18. Number of petals per flower ranged from 4.0 to 4.5. Anthers were yellow in colour and only CG- 151 produced few rudimentary styles. Diameter of stigma varied from 0.39 mm to 0.49 mm. Number of locules per ovary was in between 14.6 to16.0 and number of ovules per locules varied from 4.0 to 9.0. Stages of floral bud development from initiation to anthesis were divided into 9 distinct stages. In pummelo, a total of 27.7 to 31.2 days were required from a bud initiation to reach its fully developed stage. Suitable time for emasculation of pummelo flowers was found within 26 days from flower bud initiation. Between 3:00am to 5:00am, about 76% flowers were found to be opened and between 4:00pm to 5:00pm in all the three accessions, dehiscence of pollens was recorded. Abscission of stamen, petal and style started after 50.8, 76.4 and 162.3 hrs and completed after 128.4, 137.9 and 228.3 hrs of anthesis, respectively.Bangladesh J. Agril. Res. 40(2): 177-188, June 2015

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Coen, Enrico S., Sandra Doyle, Jose M. Romero, Robert Elliott, Ruth Magrath, and Rosemary Carpenter. "Homeotic genes controlling flower development in Antirrhinum." Development 113, Supplement_1 (January 1, 1991): 149–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.113.supplement_1.149.

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In order to study genes controlling flower development, we have carried out an extensive transposon-mutagenesis experiment in Antirrhinum majus. More than 15 independent homeotic mutations were obtained, allowing three categories of genes to be defined. The first includes floricaula (flo), a primary gene required for the initiation of the floral developmental pathway. In the absence of the wild-type flo product, proliferating inflorescence meristems arise in place of flowers. The flo gene has been isolated and shown to be expressed transiently in a subset of organ primordia in the floral meristem. The second category includes genes that affect the identity, and also sometimes the number, of whorls of organs in the flower. These genes act in overlapping domains so that each whorl has a distinct combination of gene functions, suggesting a model for the genetic control of whorl identity and number. Genes of the third category control differences between organs In the same whorl and hence the overall symmetry of the flower. We discuss how the basic plan of the flower and inflorescence may arise through the interactions between the three categories of genes.

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Dornelas, Marcelo C., and Adriana P. M. Rodriguez. "A genomic approach to elucidating grass flower development." Genetics and Molecular Biology 24, no. 1-4 (December 2001): 69–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s1415-47572001000100011.

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In sugarcane (Saccharum sp) as with other species of grass, at a certain moment of its life cycle the vegetative meristem is converted into an inflorescence meristem which has at least two distinct inflorescence branching steps before the spikelet meristem terminates in the production of a flower (floret). In model dicotyledonous species such successive conversions of meristem identities and the concentric arrangement of floral organs in specific whorls have both been shown to be genetically controlled. Using data from the Sugarcane Expressed Sequence Tag (EST) Project (SUCEST) database, we have identified all sugarcane proteins and genes putatively involved in reproductive meristem and flower development. Sequence comparisons of known flower-related genes have uncovered conserved evolutionary pathways of flower development and flower pattern formation between dicotyledons and monocotyledons, such as some grass species. We have paid special attention to the analysis of the MADS-box multigene family of transcription factors that together with the APETALA2 (AP2) family are the key elements of the transcriptional networks controlling plant reproductive development. Considerations on the evolutionary developmental genetics of grass flowers and their relation to the ABC homeotic gene activity model of flower development are also presented.

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Bossinger, G., and D. R. Smyth. "Initiation patterns of flower and floral organ development in Arabidopsis thaliana." Development 122, no. 4 (April 1, 1996): 1093–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.122.4.1093.

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Sector boundary analysis has been used to deduce the number and orientation of cells initiating flower and floral organ development in Arabidopsis thaliana. Sectors were produced in transgenic plants carrying the Ac transposon from maize inserted between the constitutive 35S promoter and the GUS reporter gene. Excision of the transposon results in a blue-staining sector. Plants were chosen in which an early arising sector passed from vegetative regions into the inflorescence and through a mature flower. The range of sector boundary positions seen in mature flowers indicated that flower primordia usually arise from a group of four cells on the inflorescence flank. The radial axes of the mature flower are apparently set by these cells, supporting the concept that they act as a structural template. Floral organs show two patterns of initiation, a leaf-like pattern with eight cells in a row (sepals and carpels), or a shoot-like pattern with four cells in a block (stamens). The petal initiation pattern involved too few cells to allow assignment. The numbers of initiating cells were close to those seen when organ growth commenced in each case, indicating that earlier specification of floral organ development does not occur. By examining sector boundaries in homeotic mutant flowers in which second whorl organs develop as sepal-like organs rather than petals, we have shown that their pattern of origin is position dependent rather than identity dependent.

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van der Kooi, Casper J., Peter G. Kevan, and Matthew H. Koski. "The thermal ecology of flowers." Annals of Botany 124, no. 3 (June 17, 2019): 343–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcz073.

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Abstract Background Obtaining an optimal flower temperature can be crucial for plant reproduction because temperature mediates flower growth and development, pollen and ovule viability, and influences pollinator visitation. The thermal ecology of flowers is an exciting, yet understudied field of plant biology. Scope This review focuses on several attributes that modify exogenous heat absorption and retention in flowers. We discuss how flower shape, orientation, heliotropic movements, pubescence, coloration, opening–closing movements and endogenous heating contribute to the thermal balance of flowers. Whenever the data are available, we provide quantitative estimates of how these floral attributes contribute to heating of the flower, and ultimately plant fitness. Outlook Future research should establish form–function relationships between floral phenotypes and temperature, determine the fitness effects of the floral microclimate, and identify broad ecological correlates with heat capture mechanisms.

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van der Krol, Alexander R., and Nam-Hai Chua. "Flower Development in Petunia." Plant Cell 5, no. 10 (October 1993): 1195. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3869773.

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Saedler, Heinz, and Peter Huijser. "Molecular biology of flower development in Antirrhinum majus (snapdragon)." Gene 135, no. 1-2 (December 1993): 239–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0378-1119(93)90071-a.

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Meyerowitz, Elliot M. "Genes directing flower development in." Cell Differentiation and Development 27 (August 1989): 7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0922-3371(89)90062-2.

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Carlsson, Jenny, Matti Leino, Joel Sohlberg, Jens F. Sundström, and Kristina Glimelius. "Mitochondrial regulation of flower development." Mitochondrion 8, no. 1 (January 2008): 74–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mito.2007.09.006.

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Li, Xiang, Rui Han, Kewei Cai, Ruixue Guo, Xiaona Pei, and Xiyang Zhao. "Characterization of Phytohormones and Transcriptomic Profiling of the Female and Male Inflorescence Development in Manchurian Walnut (Juglans mandshurica Maxim.)." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 10 (May 13, 2022): 5433. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms23105433.

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Flowers are imperative reproductive organs and play a key role in the propagation of offspring, along with the generation of several metabolic products in flowering plants. In Juglans mandshurica, the number and development of flowers directly affect the fruit yield and subsequently its commercial value. However, owing to the lack of genetic information, there are few studies on the reproductive biology of Juglans mandshurica, and the molecular regulatory mechanisms underlying the development of female and male inflorescence remain unclear. In this study, phytohormones and transcriptomic sequencing analyses at the three stages of female and male inflorescence growth were performed to understand the regulatory functions underlying flower development. Gibberellin is the most dominant phytohormone that regulates flower development. In total, 14,579 and 7188 differentially expressed genes were identified after analyzing the development of male and female flowers, respectively, wherein, 3241 were commonly expressed. Enrichment analysis for significantly enriched pathways suggested the roles of MAPK signaling, phytohormone signal transduction, and sugar metabolism. Genes involved in floral organ transition and flowering were obtained and analyzed; these mainly belonged to the M-type MADS-box gene family. Three flowering-related genes (SOC1/AGL20, ANT, and SVP) strongly interacted with transcription factors in the co-expression network. Two key CO genes (CO3 and CO1) were identified in the photoperiod pathway. We also identified two GA20xs genes, one SVP gene, and five AGL genes (AGL8, AGL9, AGL15, AGL19, and AGL42) that contributed to flower development. The findings are expected to provide a genetic basis for the studies on the regulatory networks and reproductive biology in inflorescence development for J. mandshurica.

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Reitz, Stuart R., Yulin Gao, William D. J. Kirk, Mark S. Hoddle, Kirsten A. Leiss, and Joe E. Funderburk. "Invasion Biology, Ecology, and Management of Western Flower Thrips." Annual Review of Entomology 65, no. 1 (January 7, 2020): 17–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-011019-024947.

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Western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis, first arose as an important invasive pest of many crops during the 1970s–1980s. The tremendous growth in international agricultural trade that developed then fostered the invasiveness of western flower thrips. We examine current knowledge regarding the biology of western flower thrips, with an emphasis on characteristics that contribute to its invasiveness and pest status. Efforts to control this pest and the tospoviruses that it vectors with intensive insecticide applications have been unsuccessful and have created significant problems because of the development of resistance to numerous insecticides and associated outbreaks of secondary pests. We synthesize information on effective integrated management approaches for western flower thrips that have developed through research on its biology, behavior, and ecology. We further highlight emerging topics regarding the species status of western flower thrips, as well as its genetics, biology, and ecology that facilitate its use as a model study organism and will guide development of appropriate management practices.

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Bowman, J. L., H. Sakai, T. Jack, D. Weigel, U. Mayer, and E. M. Meyerowitz. "SUPERMAN, a regulator of floral homeotic genes in Arabidopsis." Development 114, no. 3 (March 1, 1992): 599–615. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.114.3.599.

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We describe a locus, SUPERMAN, mutations in which result in extra stamens developing at the expense of the central carpels in the Arabidopsis thaliana flower. The development of superman flowers, from initial primordium to mature flower, is described by scanning electron microscopy. The development of doubly and triply mutant strains, constructed with superman alleles and previously identified homeotic mutations that cause alterations in floral organ identity, is also described. Essentially additive phenotypes are observed in superman agamous and superman apetala2 double mutants. The epistatic relationships observed between either apetala3 or pistillata and superman alleles suggest that the SUPERMAN gene product could be a regulator of these floral homeotic genes. To test this, the expression patterns of AGAMOUS and APETALA3 were examined in superman flowers. In wild-type flowers, APETALA3 expression is restricted to the second and third whorls where it is required for the specification of petals and stamens. In contrast, in superman flowers, APETALA3 expression expands to include most of the cells that would normally constitute the fourth whorl. This ectopic APETALA3 expression is proposed to be one of the causes of the development of the extra stamens in superman flowers. The spatial pattern of AGAMOUS expression remains unaltered in superman flowers as compared to wild-type flowers. Taken together these data indicate that one of the functions of the wild-type SUPERMAN gene product is to negatively regulate APETALA3 in the fourth whorl of the flower. In addition, superman mutants exhibit a loss of determinacy of the floral meristem, an effect that appears to be mediated by the APETALA3 and PISTILLATA gene products.

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Ming, Xin, Yan-Bin Tao, Qiantang Fu, Mingyong Tang, Huiying He, Mao-Sheng Chen, Bang-Zhen Pan, and Zeng-Fu Xu. "Flower-Specific Overproduction of Cytokinins Altered Flower Development and Sex Expression in the Perennial Woody Plant Jatropha curcas L." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21, no. 2 (January 18, 2020): 640. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms21020640.

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Jatropha curcas L. is monoecious with a low female-to-male ratio, which is one of the factors restricting its seed yield. Because the phytohormone cytokinins play an essential role in flower development, particularly pistil development, in this study, we elevated the cytokinin levels in J. curcas flowers through transgenic expression of a cytokinin biosynthetic gene (AtIPT4) from Arabidopsis under the control of a J. curcas orthologue of TOMATO MADS BOX GENE 6 (JcTM6) promoter that is predominantly active in flowers. As expected, the levels of six cytokinin species in the inflorescences were elevated, and flower development was modified without any alterations in vegetative growth. In the transgenic J. curcas plants, the flower number per inflorescence was significantly increased, and most flowers were pistil-predominantly bisexual, i.e., the flowers had a huge pistil surrounded with small stamens. Unfortunately, both the male and the bisexual flowers of transgenic J. curcas were infertile, which might have resulted from the continuously high expression of the transgene during flower development. However, the number and position of floral organs in the transgenic flowers were well defined, which suggested that the determinacy of the floral meristem was not affected. These results suggest that fine-tuning the endogenous cytokinins can increase the flower number and the female-to-male ratio in J. curcas.

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Zik, Moriyah, and Vivian F. Irish. "Flower Development: Initiation, Differentiation, and Diversification." Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 19, no. 1 (November 2003): 119–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.19.111301.134635.

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Abad, Ursula, Massimiliano Sassi, and Jan Traas. "Flower development: from morphodynamics to morphomechanics." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 372, no. 1720 (March 27, 2017): 20150545. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0545.

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The shoot apical meristem (SAM) is a small population of stem cells that continuously generates organs and tissues. We will discuss here flower formation at the SAM, which involves a complex network of regulatory genes and signalling molecules. A major downstream target of this network is the extracellular matrix or cell wall, which is a local determinant for both growth rates and growth directions. We will discuss here a number of recent studies aimed at analysing the link between cell wall structure and molecular regulation. This has involved multidisciplinary approaches including quantitative imaging, molecular genetics, computational biology and biophysics. A scenario emerges where molecular networks impact on both cell wall anisotropy and synthesis, thus causing the rapid outgrowth of organs at specific locations. More specifically, this involves two interdependent processes: the activation of wall remodelling enzymes and changes in microtubule dynamics. This article is part of the themed issue ‘Systems morphodynamics: understanding the development of tissue hardware’.

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Park, Chang Ha, Hyeon Ji Yeo, Ye Jin Kim, Bao Van Nguyen, Ye Eun Park, Ramaraj Sathasivam, Jae Kwang Kim, and Sang Un Park. "Profiles of Secondary Metabolites (Phenolic Acids, Carotenoids, Anthocyanins, and Galantamine) and Primary Metabolites (Carbohydrates, Amino Acids, and Organic Acids) during Flower Development in Lycoris radiata." Biomolecules 11, no. 2 (February 9, 2021): 248. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biom11020248.

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This study aimed to elucidate the variations in primary and secondary metabolites during Lycorisradiata flower development using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOFMS). The result showed that seven carotenoids, seven phenolic acids, three anthocyanins, and galantamine were identified in the L. radiata flowers. Most secondary metabolite levels gradually decreased according to the flower developmental stages. A total of 51 metabolites, including amines, sugars, sugar intermediates, sugar alcohols, amino acids, organic acids, phenolic acids, and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle intermediates, were identified and quantified using GC-TOFMS. Among the hydrophilic compounds, most amino acids increased during flower development; in contrast, TCA cycle intermediates and sugars decreased. In particular, glutamine, asparagine, glutamic acid, and aspartic acid, which represent the main inter- and intracellular nitrogen carriers, were positively correlated with the other amino acids and were negatively correlated with the TCA cycle intermediates. Furthermore, quantitation data of the 51 hydrophilic compounds were subjected to partial least-squares discriminant analyses (PLS-DA) to assess significant differences in the metabolites of L. radiata flowers from stages 1 to 4. Therefore, this study will serve as the foundation for a biochemical approach to understand both primary and secondary metabolism in L. radiata flower development.

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Smyth, David R., John L. Bowman, and Elliot M. Meyerowitz. "Early Flower Development in Arabidopsis." Plant Cell 2, no. 8 (August 1990): 755. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3869174.

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Okamuro, Jack K., Bart G. W. den Boer, and K. Diane Jofuku. "Regulation of Arabidopsis Flower Development." Plant Cell 5, no. 10 (October 1993): 1183. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3869772.

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Weigel, Detlef. "Flower development: Repressing reproduction." Current Biology 7, no. 6 (June 1997): R373—R375. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0960-9822(06)00178-3.

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Bowman, J. L., J. Alvarez, D. Weigel, E. M. Meyerowitz, and D. R. Smyth. "Control of flower development in Arabidopsis thaliana by APETALA1 and interacting genes." Development 119, no. 3 (November 1, 1993): 721–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.119.3.721.

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Mutations in the APETALA1 gene disturb two phases of flower development, flower meristem specification and floral organ specification. These effects become manifest as a partial conversion of flowers into inflorescence shoots and a disruption of sepal and petal development. We describe the changes in an allelic series of nine apetala1 mutants and show that the two functions of APETALA1 are separable. We have also studied the interaction between APETALA1 and other floral genes by examining the phenotypes of multiply mutant plants and by in situ hybridization using probes for several floral control genes. The results suggest that the products of APETALA1 and another gene, LEAFY, are required to ensure that primordia arising on the flanks of the inflorescence apex adopt a floral fate, as opposed to becoming an inflorescence shoot. APETALA1 and LEAFY have distinct as well as overlapping functions and they appear to reinforce each other's action. CAULIFLOWER is a newly discovered gene which positively regulates both APETALA1 and LEAFY expression. All functions of CAULIFLOWER are redundant with those of APETALA1. APETALA2 also has an early function in reinforcing the action of APETALA1 and LEAFY, especially if the activity of either is compromised by mutation. After the identity of a flower primordium is specified, APETALA1 interacts with APETALA2 in controlling the development of the outer two whorls of floral organs.

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Kayes, J. M., and S. E. Clark. "CLAVATA2, a regulator of meristem and organ development in Arabidopsis." Development 125, no. 19 (October 1, 1998): 3843–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.125.19.3843.

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Mutations at the CLAVATA2 (CLV2) locus of Arabidopsis result in enlarged shoot and flower meristems, as well as alterations in the development of the gynoecia, flower pedicels, and stamens. The shoot and flower meristem phenotypes of clv2 mutants are similar to weak clv1 and clv3 mutants. We present genetic analysis that CLV2 may function in the same pathway as CLV1 and CLV3 in the regulation of meristem development, but function separately in the regulation of organ development. We also present evidence that clv2 phenotypes are altered when the mutants are grown under short-day light conditions. These alterations include flower-to-shoot transformations, as well as a nearly complete suppression of the flower phenotypes, indicating that the requirement for CLV2 changes in response to different physiological conditions. The stm-1 mutation dominantly suppresses clv2, and clv2 mutations suppress the strong stm-1 allele, but not the weak stm-2 allele.

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Zachgo, S., E. d. Silva, P. Motte, W. Trobner, H. Saedler, and Z. Schwarz-Sommer. "Functional analysis of the Antirrhinum floral homeotic DEFICIENS gene in vivo and in vitro by using a temperature-sensitive mutant." Development 121, no. 9 (September 1, 1995): 2861–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.121.9.2861.

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Flowers of the temperature-sensitive DEFICIENS (DEF) mutant, def-101, display sepaloid petals and carpelloid stamens when grown at 26 degrees C, the non-permissive temperature. In contrast, when cultivated under permissive conditions at 15 degrees C, the morphology of def-101 flowers resembles that of the wild type. Temperature shift experiments during early and late phases of flower development revealed that second and third whorl organ development is differentially sensitive to changes in DEF expression. In addition, early DEF expression seems to control the spatially correct initiation of fourth whorl organ development. Reduction of the def-101 gene dosage differentially affects organogenesis in adjacent whorls: at the lower temperature development of petals in the second whorl and initiation of carpels in the centre of the flower is not affected while third whorl organogenesis follows the mutant (carpelloid) pattern. The possible contribution of accessory factors to organ-specific DEF functions is discussed. In situ analyses of mRNA and protein expression patterns during def-101 flower development at 15 degrees C and at 26 degrees C support previously proposed combinatorial regulatory interactions between the MADS-box proteins DEF and GLOBOSA (GLO), and provide evidence that the autoregulatory control of DEF and GLO expression by the DEF/GLO heterodimer starts after initiation of all organ primordia. Immunolocalisation revealed that both proteins are located in the nucleus. Interestingly, higher growth temperature affects the stability of both the DEF-101 and GLO proteins in vivo. In vitro DNA binding studies suggest that the temperature sensitivity of the def-101 mutant is due to an altered heterodimerisation/DNA-binding capability of the DEF-101 protein, conditioned by the deletion of one amino acid within the K-box, a protein region thought to be involved in protein-protein interaction. In addition, we introduce a mutant allele of GLO, glo-confusa, where insertion of one amino acid impairs the hydrophobic carboxy-terminal region of the MADS-box, but which confers no strong phenotypic changes to the flower. The strong mutant phenotype of flowers of def-101/glo-conf double mutants when grown in the cold represents genetic evidence for heterodimerisation between DEF and GLO in vivo. The potential to dissect structural and functional domains of MADS-box transcription factors is discussed.

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Bożek, Małgorzata, and Justyna Wieniarska. "Blooming biology and sugar efficiency of two cultivars of Lonicera kamtschatica (Sevast.) Pojark." Acta Agrobotanica 59, no. 1 (2012): 177–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.5586/aa.2006.018.

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The studies on the period and abundance of blooming, flower development, as well as nectar productivity of two cultivars of <i>Lonicera kamtschatica</i> (Sevast.) Pojark. were carried out in 2004-2005 in Lublin. The investigated plants bloomed between the third decade of April and the middle of May. The life span of protogynous flowers was about 4-5 days. The mean amount of sugars secreted by 10 flowers of the examined cultivars ranged from 17.77 mg to 28.31 mg. The sugars yield amounted to from 44.08 to 67.81 kg.ha<sup>-1</sup>. Flowers of the investigated plants were a good nectar source for honeybees and bumblebees.

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Li, Mengyao, Shanshan Tan, Guofei Tan, Ya Luo, Bo Sun, Yong Zhang, Qing Chen, et al. "Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Important Transcription Factor Families and Reproductive Biological Processes of Flower Development in Celery (Apium graveolens L.)." Agronomy 10, no. 5 (May 4, 2020): 653. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10050653.

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There are few reports on the reproductive biology of celery, which produces small flowers in a long flowering period. Anther development was analyzed by paraffin sectioning and related genes were examined by transcriptome sequencing and qPCR. The development process was divided into nine stages based on the significant changes in the cell and tissue morphologies. These stages included: archesporial stage, sporogenous cell stage, microspore mother cell stage, dyad and tetrad stage, mononuclear microspore stage, late uninucleate microspore stage, binuclear cell stage, mature pollen stage, and dehiscence stage. A total of 1074 differentially expressed genes were identified by transcriptome sequencing in the early flower bud, middle flower bud, and early flowering period. Functional annotation indicated that these genes were involved in physiological and biochemical processes such as ribosomes metabolism, sugar metabolism, and amino acid metabolism. Transcription factors such as C2H2, AP2/ERF, bZIP, WRKY, and MYB played key regulatory roles in anther development and had different regulatory capabilities at various stages. The expression patterns based on qPCR and transcriptome data of the selected transcription factor genes showed consistency, suggesting that these genes played an important role in different flower development stages. These results provide a theoretical basis for molecular breeding of new celery varieties with pollen abortion. Furthermore, they have enriched research on the reproductive biology of celery and the Apiaceae family.

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Wang, Wanxu, Ting Shi, Xiaopeng Ni, Yanshuai Xu, Shenchun Qu, and Zhihong Gao. "The role of miR319a and its target gene TCP4 in the regulation of pistil development in Prunus mume." Genome 61, no. 1 (January 2018): 43–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/gen-2017-0118.

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The microRNAs (miRNAs) comprise a broad class of non-coding small endogenous RNAs that are associated with many biological processes through the regulation of target genes, such as leaf morphogenesis and polarity, biotic and abiotic stress responses, and root and flower development. We identified a miRNA that affects flower development, miR319a, in Prunus mume. The Pm-miR319a target, Pm-TCP4, was validated by 5′RACE. The higher expression of Pm-TCP4 in imperfect flowers showed that Pm-TCP4 might promote pistil abortion. Further experiments showed that Pm-miR319a negatively regulates the expression of Pm-TCP4 mRNAs and affected pistil development. Sixteen downstream genes of Pm-TCP4 related to flower development were predicted. Previous studies have shown that they have an impact on the development of pistils. In this study it was established that Pm-miR319a indirectly regulates the development of pistils by regulating its target gene Pm-TCP4.

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Prunet, Nathanaël, and Keith Duncan. "Imaging flowers: a guide to current microscopy and tomography techniques to study flower development." Journal of Experimental Botany 71, no. 10 (May 8, 2020): 2898–909. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jxb/eraa094.

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Abstract Developmental biology relies heavily on our ability to generate three-dimensional images of live biological specimens through time, and to map gene expression and hormone response in these specimens as they undergo development. The last two decades have seen an explosion of new bioimaging technologies that have pushed the limits of spatial and temporal resolution and provided biologists with invaluable new tools. However, plant tissues are difficult to image, and no single technology fits all purposes; choosing between many bioimaging techniques is not trivial. Here, we review modern light microscopy and computed projection tomography methods, their capabilities and limitations, and we discuss their current and potential applications to the study of flower development and fertilization.

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Chanon, Ann M., Pablo S. Jourdan, and Joseph C. Scheerens. "(233) Comparison of Inflorescence Morphology, Anthesis and Floral Sex Expression in Bottlebrush and Red Buckeye." HortScience 41, no. 4 (July 2006): 1020B—1020. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.41.4.1020b.

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As a prelude to interspecific hybridization, we compared the floral biology of bottlebrush buckeye (Aesculus parviflora) and red buckeye (A. pavia) by examining inflorescence morphology, pattern of floral anthesis, sex expression, and the effects of panicle decapitation on complete flower development. Inflorescences of both species (n = 1606) were randomly selected and analyzed for length, total number of flowers and complete flower number and location. The pattern of anthesis was observed in four genotypes using 10–30 inflorescences per plant. For each flower, its date of anthesis, position on both the rachis and cincinnus, and sex were recorded. For studies of panicle decapitation, sets of panicles were selected and one member was severed in half early in development in an attempt to increase the number of complete flowers. More than one-fourth of all panicles observed were completely staminate. For both species, the ratio of complete flowers to male flowers (C:M) within mixed panicles was about 5%. Complete flowers were observed in the basal portion of A. pavia inflorescences and in the apical portion of A. parviflora inflorescences. Anthesis progressed from base to tip over a period of 6–11 days. Complete flowers are present in A. pavia from the beginning of anthesis but do not appear in A. parviflora until the fifth day of anthesis. Staminate flowers are present throughout anthesis in both species. Severing panicles in half increased the potential for differentiating complete flowers. In conclusion, the frequency of complete flowers in both species was quite low, but could be increased by panicle decapitation to increase opportunities for controlled hybridization.

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Li, Qiang, Lin Chai, Na Tong, Hongjun Yu, and Weijie Jiang. "Potential Carbohydrate Regulation Mechanism Underlying Starvation-Induced Abscission of Tomato Flower." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 4 (February 10, 2022): 1952. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms23041952.

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Tomato flower abscission is a critical agronomic problem directly affecting yield. It often occurs in greenhouses in winter, with the weak light or hazy weather leading to insufficient photosynthates. The importance of carbohydrate availability in flower retention has been illustrated, while relatively little is understood concerning the mechanism of carbohydrate regulation on flower abscission. In the present study, we analyzed the responding pattern of nonstructural carbohydrates (NSC, including total soluble sugars and starch) and the potential sugar signal pathway involved in abscission regulation in tomato flowers under shading condition, and their correlations with flower abscission rate and abscission-related hormones. The results showed that, when plants suffer from short-term photosynthesis deficiency, starch degradation in flower organs acts as a self-protection mechanism, providing a carbon source for flower growth and temporarily alleviating the impact on flower development. Trehalose 6-phosphate (T6P) and sucrose non-fermenting-like kinase (SnRK1) signaling seems to be involved in adapting the metabolism to sugar starvation stress through regulating starch remobilization and crosstalk with IAA, ABA, and ethylene in flowers. However, a continuous limitation of assimilating supply imposed starch depletion in flowers, which caused flower abscission.

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Meyerowitz, Elliot M., John L. Bowman, Laura L. Brockman, Gary N. Drews, Thomas Jack, Leslie E. Sieburth, and Detlef Weigel. "A genetic and molecular model for flower development in Arabidopsis thaliana." Development 113, Supplement_1 (January 1, 1991): 157–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.113.supplement_1.157.

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Cells in developing organisms do not only differentiate, they differentiate in defined patterns. A striking example is the differentiation of flowers, which in most plant families consist of four types of organs: sepals, petals, stamens and carpels, each composed of characteristic cell types. In the families of flowering plants in which these organs occur, they are patterned with the sepals in the outermost whorl or whorls of the flower, with the petals next closest to the center, the stamens even closer to the center, and the carpels central. In each species of flowering plant the disposition and number (or range of numbers) of these organs is also specified, and the floral ‘formula’ is repeated in each of the flowers on each individual plant of the species. We do not know how cells in developing plants determine their position, and in response to this determination differentiate to the cell types appropriate for that position. While there have been a number of speculative proposals for the mechanism of organ specification in flowers (Goethe, 1790; Goebel, 1900; Heslop-Harrison, 1964; Green, 1988), recent genetic evidence is inconsistent with all of them, at least in the forms in which they were originally presented (Bowman et al. 1989; Meyerowitz et al. 1989). We describe here a preliminary model, based on experiments with Arabidopsis thaliana. The model is by and large consistent with existing evidence, and has predicted the results of a number of genetic and molecular experiments that have been recently performed.

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Rizkyma, Nurul Fadhila, Nunik Sri Ariyanti, and Dorly. "Fenologi Fase Pembungaan dan Perbuahan serta Produksi Polen pada Tanaman Kacang Panjang Kultivar Sabrina." Jurnal Sumberdaya Hayati 9, no. 2 (June 27, 2023): 87–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.29244/jsdh.9.2.87-95.

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Yardlong beans (Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis (L.) Verdc.) is a vegetable source of vitamins and minerals which are quite widely cultivated in Indonesia. Phenology study the phases that occur in a plant that is provides benefits in agriculture, but information on the phenology of legumes crops in Indonesia is still scarce. This study aims to observe the reproductive phenology and pollen production of the yardlong bean cultivar Sabrina. A phenological study was carried on 7 plants to obtain information on the timing and duration of the reproductive period, inflorescence and fruiting phases, peak flowering time, and flower biology. Pollen production was observed in 5 samples of flowers. Pollen microscopic preparations were made using the acetolysis method. The results showed that the flowering and fruiting phases took 21-29 days; including flower initiation phase 7-10 days, small bud phase 1day, large bud phase 1 day, anthesis phase 1-2 days, and fruit development phase 11-15 days. Flower initiation occurred 36 days after planting (DAP), and flower blooming occurred 49 DAP. The peak of flowering occurred at 56-62 DAP. The flowers of the Sabrina cultivar have purplish-white corollas, producing about 276±23.58 pollen/anther.

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Bowman, John L., David R. Smyth, and Elliot M. Meyerowitz. "Genes Directing Flower Development in Arabidopsis." Plant Cell 1, no. 1 (January 1989): 37. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3869060.

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Dennis, Liz, and Jim Peacock. "Genes Directing Flower Development in Arabidopsis." Plant Cell 31, no. 6 (April 29, 2019): 1192–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1105/tpc.19.00276.

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Borghi, Monica, and Alisdair R. Fernie. "From flowers to seeds: how the metabolism of flowers frames plant reproduction." Biochemist 43, no. 3 (May 10, 2021): 14–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/bio_2021_134.

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Flowers are characterized by a plenitude of primary and secondary metabolites and flower-specific biosynthetic pathways that all concur to promote plant reproduction and the initial stages of embryo development. The floral secondary metabolites of flowers contribute to scent and colour, which are used by flowers to attract pollinators. Besides, many metabolites responsible for the conferral of colour also serve as photo-protectants towards the damaging effects of UV solar radiation. The whole metabolism of flowers is sustained by a network of primary metabolites that provide metabolic precursors for the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites and support flower development. Moreover, many primary metabolites are channelled into nectar, the food of pollinators. However, this complex metabolic network is susceptible to environmental constraints such as heat and drought, which can hamper plant reproduction by destabilizing the whole metabolism of flowers. Here, we provide a short overview of the different metabolic pathways of flowers and how they support pollination and fertilization.

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Xu, Shouling, and Lilan Hong. "Navigating flower development with a new atlas." Developmental Cell 56, no. 4 (February 2021): 399–400. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.devcel.2021.02.001.

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Wollmann, Heike, and Detlef Weigel. "Small RNAs in flower development." European Journal of Cell Biology 89, no. 2-3 (February 2010): 250–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejcb.2009.11.004.

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Baskorowati, L., M. W. Moncur, J. C. Doran, and P. J. Kanowski. "Reproductive biology of Melaleuca alternifolia (Myrtaceae) 1. Floral biology." Australian Journal of Botany 58, no. 5 (2010): 373. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt10035.

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Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden & Betche) Cheel is commercially important as the source of essential oil for the Australian tea tree-oil industry. Information on reproductive biology of M. alternifolia is important to the Australian breeding program directed at improving the quality and quantity of tea tree oil. Flowering in three geographically separated sites – two planted seed orchards and one managed natural population, all in NSW – was observed in the present study, with supporting data obtained from glasshouse-grown plants in Canberra. The majority of the work was conducted from 2004 to 2007, although the study also drew on some prior observations. M. alternifolia has spikes of flowers that open acropetally over a 6-day period. No strong separation of male and female phases was found in any individual flower; pollen was shed by 1.4 days after anthesis and the stigma reached peak receptivity 3–5 days after anthesis. Dichogamy and acropetal floral development may lead to geitonogamy. Flowering occurred during the months of October–November, with the peak in November, and was synchronous across all three sites. Flowering intensity and success in producing capsules appeared to be associated with total spring rainfall. Initiation of flowering in M. alternifolia appears to be correlated with daylength, or an environmental parameter closely correlated with daylength. Flowering intensity varied considerably among the years surveyed, sites and families, and appears to be promoted by a period of winter minimum temperatures below 5°C. In M. alternifolia, the morphological development of buds, flowers and fruit leading to the development of mature seed takes place over a period 16–18 months from flowering. M. alternifolia differed significantly in the number of viable seeds per capsule from individual trees, from 26 ± 3.8 to 57 ± 3.8 germinants.

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Oriani, Aline, Paulo T. Sano, and Vera L. Scatena. "Pollination biology of Syngonanthus elegans (Eriocaulaceae - Poales)." Australian Journal of Botany 57, no. 2 (2009): 94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt08119.

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Studies on the pollination biology of Eriocaulaceae are scarce although particularly interesting because of its inclusion in the Poales, a predominantly wind-pollinated order. The pollination biology of Syngonanthus elegans (Bong.) Ruhland was studied during two annual flowering periods to test the hypothesis that insect pollination was its primary pollination system. A field study was carried out, including observations of the morphology and biology of the flowers, insect visits and pollinator behaviour. We also evaluated seed set, seed germination and seedling development for different pollination modes. Although seeds were produced by self-pollination, pollination by small insects contributed most effectively to the reproductive success of S. elegans, resulting in the greatest seed set, with the highest germination percentage and optimum seedling vigour. The floral resources used by flower visitors were pollen and nectar that was produced by staminate and pistillate flowers. Self-pollination played a minor role and its consequence was inbreeding depression.

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Pohl, Alicja, Aneta Grabowska, Andrzej Kalisz, and Agnieszka Sękara. "Biostimulant Application Enhances Fruit Setting in Eggplant—An Insight into the Biology of Flowering." Agronomy 9, no. 9 (August 26, 2019): 482. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9090482.

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Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) is a warm climate crop. Its cultivation extends to temperate regions where low temperatures can affect the course of the generative phase, which is primarily sensitive to abiotic stress. The novelty of the present investigation consisted of characterising the heterostyly, pollination, and fertilisation biology of eggplants in field cultivations, which provided a basis for explaining the effect of a protective biostimulant on these processes. We aimed to investigate the flowering biology of three eggplant hybrids treated with Göemar BM-86®, containing Ascophylum nodosum extract, to determine the crucial mechanisms behind the increased flowering and fruit set efficiency and the final effect of increased yield. The flower phenotype (long, medium or short styled), fruit setting, and the number of seeds per fruit were recorded during the two vegetation periods. The numbers of pollen tubes and fertilised ovules in ovaries were evaluated during the generative stage of development to characterise the course of pollination and fertilisation for all types of flowers depending on the cultivar and biostimulant treatment. The expression of heterostyly depended on the eggplant genotype, age of the plant, fruit load, and biostimulant treatment. Domination by long-styled flowers was observed, amounting to 41%, 42%, and 55% of all flowers of “Epic” F1, “Flavine” F1, and “Gascona” F1, respectively. This flower phenotype contained the highest number of pollen tubes in the style and the highest number of fertilised ovules. The biostimulant had a positive effect on the flower and fruit set numbers, as well as on the pollination efficiency in all genotypes. Ascophylum nodosum extract could be used as an efficient stimulator of flowering and fruit setting for eggplant hybrids in field conditions in a temperate climatic zone.

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Ferrandiz, C., Q. Gu, R. Martienssen, and M. F. Yanofsky. "Redundant regulation of meristem identity and plant architecture by FRUITFULL, APETALA1 and CAULIFLOWER." Development 127, no. 4 (February 15, 2000): 725–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.127.4.725.

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The transition from vegetative to reproductive phases during Arabidopsis development is the result of a complex interaction of environmental and endogenous factors. One of the key regulators of this transition is LEAFY (LFY), whose threshold levels of activity are proposed to mediate the initiation of flowers. The closely related APETALA1 (AP1) and CAULIFLOWER (CAL) meristem identity genes are also important for flower initiation, in part because of their roles in upregulating LFY expression. We have found that mutations in the FRUITFULL (FUL) MADS-box gene, when combined with mutations in AP1 and CAL, lead to a dramatic non-flowering phenotype in which plants continuously elaborate leafy shoots in place of flowers. We demonstrate that this phenotype is caused both by the lack of LFY upregulation and by the ectopic expression of the TERMINAL FLOWER1 (TFL1) gene. Our results suggest that the FUL, AP1 and CAL genes act redundantly to control inflorescence architecture by affecting the domains of LFY and TFL1 expression as well as the relative levels of their activities.

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Linke, Bettina, and Thomas Börner. "Mitochondrial effects on flower and pollen development." Mitochondrion 5, no. 6 (December 2005): 389–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mito.2005.10.001.

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Sumner, Michael J., William R. Remphrey, and Richard Martin. "Pollen development in relation to phenological stages of inflorescence expansion in Amelanchier alnifolia (saskatoon), with a comparison with buds forced out of dormancy." Canadian Journal of Botany 77, no. 2 (July 27, 1999): 262–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/b98-211.

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A relationship was developed between phenological stages of inflorescence expansion and the internal development of pollen within the anther of Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt. flowers. The major microscopic events associated with microsporogenesis and microgametogenesis were correlated with seven stages of external inflorescence development in both natural buds and those forced from dormancy in different concentrations of gibberellin at various times of the year. In fall and early spring, it was found that gibberellin at a concentration of 2.5 mg/L forced buds to produce inflorescences that most resembled those from natural field populations. However, it was not possible to force flower buds to develop all the way to anthesis. Flower bud development stopped when the pollen was at the binucleate stage. Despite this limitation, the ability to force buds increases the time frame for the study of many aspects of the reproductive biology of A. alnifolia.Key words: microsporogenesis, microgametogenesis, gibberellin, GA, flowering.

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Schultz, E. A., and G. W. Haughn. "Genetic analysis of the floral initiation process (FLIP) in Arabidopsis." Development 119, no. 3 (November 1, 1993): 745–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.119.3.745.

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Within the Arabidopsis inflorescence, two distinct developmental phases exist. The early inflorescence phase is characterized by nodes bearing coflorescences and leaves, and the late inflorescence phase by nodes bearing flowers. Four genes, TERMINAL FLOWER 1, LEAFY, APETALA1 and APETALA2 are necessary to initiate the switch from formation of early to formation of late inflorescence nodes at the appropriate time. We have investigated the relative roles of these genes in development by isolating and characterizing new alleles of TERMINAL FLOWER 1, LEAFY and APETALA1, and by constructing double mutants to test gene interactions. We suggest that the TERMINAL FLOWER 1 gene product is part of a mechanism that controls the timing of phase- switching in Arabidopsis. We propose that this mechanism involves factor(s) whose activity changes in response to shoot development and environmental variation. TERMINAL FLOWER 1 influences phase transitions in Arabidopsis, and appears to regulate the timing of expression of LEAFY, APETALA1 and APETALA2. LEAFY, APETALA1 and APETALA2 have partially redundant functions in initiating the floral program. In the absence of any one of the three genes, there is a gradual transition from coflorescence to flower-like lateral shoots. This suggests that (1) LEAFY, APETALA1 and APETALA2 are required in combination to ensure that the floral program is initiated rapidly and completely and (2) in the absence of one of the three genes, the others are activated slowly in response to the mechanism controlling timing of phase switching. Besides their role in establishing the floral program, phenotypes of flower-like lateral shoots in mutant inflorescences suggest that all three, LEAFY, APETALA1 and APETALA2, influence expression of whorl identity genes. Loss of LEAFY results in decreased Class B gene expression, as well as altered expression patterns of Class A and Class C genes. In the absence of either APETALA2 or APETALA1, reproductive organs develop in the perianth whorls, suggesting that both genes should be considered Class A organ identity genes, restricting Class C gene expression to inner whorls.

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Vijayraghavan, Usha. "Genetic regulation of flower development." Journal of Biosciences 21, no. 3 (May 1996): 379–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02703096.

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Ma, Xianjin, Yifan Yu, Zhikang Hu, Hu Huang, Sijia Li, and Hengfu Yin. "Characterizations of a Class-I BASIC PENTACYSTEINE Gene Reveal Conserved Roles in the Transcriptional Repression of Genes Involved in Seed Development." Current Issues in Molecular Biology 44, no. 9 (September 7, 2022): 4059–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cimb44090278.

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The developmental regulation of flower organs involves the spatio-temporal regulation of floral homeotic genes. BASIC PENTACYSTEINE genes are plant-specific transcription factors that is involved in many aspects of plant development through gene transcriptional regulation. Although studies have shown that the BPC genes are involved in the developmental regulation of flower organs, little is known about their role in the formation of double-flower due. Here we characterized a Class I BPC gene (CjBPC1) from an ornamental flower—Camellia japonica. We showed that CjBPC1 is highly expressed in the central whorls of flowers in both single and doubled varieties. Overexpression of CjBPC1 in Arabidopsis thaliana caused severe defects in siliques and seeds. We found that genes involved in ovule and seed development, including SEEDSTICK, LEAFY COTYLEDON2, ABSCISIC ACID INSENSITIVE 3 and FUSCA3, were significantly down-regulated in transgenic lines. We showed that the histone 3 lysine 27 methylation levels of these downstream genes were enhanced in the transgenic plants, indicating conserved roles of CjBPC1 in recruiting the Polycomb Repression Complex for gene suppression.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Flower development biology'

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