Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Floral visitors'

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior
As flores podem exibir mecanismos estruturais complexos de separaÃÃo das funÃÃes sexuais, que auxiliam a polinizaÃÃo cruzada e o fluxo gÃnico. Dentre esses mecanismos destaca-se a heterostilia, um polimorfismo floral geneticamente controlado e frequentemente associado à incompatibilidade genÃtica, encontrado em duas condiÃÃes diferentes: distilia e tristilia. Esse trabalho teve como objetivo conhecer os mecanismos reprodutivos de duas espÃcies do gÃnero Erythroxylum (Erythroxylaceae), atravÃs da avaliaÃÃo dos aspectos da biologia floral e reprodutiva e da ecologia da polinizaÃÃo. O estudo foi realizado na Reserva Particular do PatrimÃnio Natural Serra das Almas no municÃpio de CrateÃs â CE, no perÃodo de fevereiro/2014 a abril/ 2015. Foi feito o acompanhamento mensal da fenologia de Erythroxylum bezerrae Plowman e E. laetevirens O.E.Schulz, nesse perÃodo botÃes florais e flores foram coletados e armazenados em Ãlcool 70% para anÃlise da morfomertia floral e polÃnica. Quatro testes de sistema reprodutivo foram realizados. Os visitantes florais foram coletados, etiquetados e identificados. A emissÃo dos botÃes florais em E. laetevirens teve inÃcio em fevereiro e estendeu-se atà inÃcio de abril, com pico no mÃs de marÃo. Os botÃes florais de E. bezerrae comeÃaram a surgir em dezembro/2014 e o pico de floraÃÃo ocorreu em janeiro/2015. A razÃo pÃlen/Ãvulo e a viabilidade polÃnica de ambas as espÃcies foram consideradas altas, sendo classificadas como xenogÃmicas. Nas duas espÃcies, os grÃos de pÃlen dos morfos brevistilos sÃo maiores que os dos morfos longistilos. Erythroxylum bezerrae e E. laetevirens nÃo apresentam reciprocidade exata e foram consideradas distÃlicas tÃpicas, pois suas populaÃÃes sÃo isoplÃticas. E. laetevirens à auto e intramorfo incompatÃvel. As flores das espÃcies foram visitadas por insetos das ordens Hymenoptera, Diptera e Lepidoptera.
Flowers can show complex structural mechanisms of sexual segregation, allowing cross pollination and genetic flow. One of these mechanisms is heterostyly, a floral polymorphism under genetic control frequently linked to genetic incompatibility, being found in two different conditions: distyly e tristyly. This study aimed to know the reproductive mechanisms of two species Erythroxylum (Erythroxylaceae), by assessing the aspects of floral and reproductive biology and pollination ecology. The study was conducted in the Private Natural Heritage Reserve Serra das Almas in the municipality of CrateÃs - CE, from february / 2014 to april / 2015. It was made the monthly monitoring of the phenology of Erythroxylum bezerrae Plowman and E. laetevirens O.E. Schulz, this period flower buds and flowers were collected and stored in ethanol 70% (v/v) for analysis of floral morphology and pollen. It was done four tests of reproductive system. The floral visitors were collected, labeled and identified. In the data achievement period, the emission of floral buttons in E. laetevirens initiated in february and extended up april beginning, with peak in march. The floral buttons of E. bezerrae first apPeared in december/2014 and the flowering peak was in january/2015. The pollen/ovule rate and pollen viability of the species were high, which were classified as xenogamous. In both species, the S-morph pollen grains were bigger than L-morph ones. Taking into account the morphs rate, distylous populations were isoplethic. Erythroxylum bezerrae and E. laetevirens did not show an exact reciprocity and they were considered typical distylous species, once their populations are isoplethics and E. laetevirens is intra- and self-incompatible. The flowers of the species were visited by Hymenoptera, Diptera and Lepidoptera insects.

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CAPES
Vernonia polyanthes Less. popularly known as ?assa-peixe?, ?assa-peixe branco? or ?cambar??, belongs to the ?Asteraceae? family and it?s very used by the popular medicine on the treatment of coughs, bronchitis, bruises, hemorrhoids, colds and uterine infections. V. polyanthes is very visited by many species of bees, principally by native ones, that look for food resources. Besides the native bees that are responsible for even 90% of pollination of the native vegetables, Apis mellifera looks for food resources in those vegetables too. This specie, was introduced in Brazil during the colonial period. We don?t known yet about the consequences of the introduction of this specie over the native bees communities, once there is little work accomplished with that purpose. This work has an objective of knowing the principal flora visitors of V. polyanthes and the interactions between the bees communities. The work was done in Valen?a municipal district-RJ, in an area with 15 beehives of A. mellifera. Four collections were accomplished with entomological net with 10 minutes of duration in each hour from 08 a.m to 04 p.m, once a week from June to August 2009. It were collected 771 bees from 03 families and 22 species. The more abundant species were A. mellifera, T. spinipes and S. quadripunctata. The social bees represented 98% of the total in relation to lonely ones with only 2%. From the 22 species, A. mellifera and T. spinipes were dominant in the exploration of resources over the other bee species. A great similarity about the exploration of food resources happened between A. mellifera, T. spinipes and S. quadripunctata, possibly for being happening a competition between those species. The low diversity of bees could be influenced by abundant quantity of A.mellifera. This work has found one of the biggest number of melipon?neos species collected in the state of Rio de Janeiro.
Vernonia polyanthes Less. conhecida popularmente por assa-peixe, assa-peixe-branco, cambar?, pertence ? fam?lia Asteraceae e ? muito utilizada pela medicina popular no tratamento de tosses, bronquite, contus?es, hemorr?idas, resfriados e infec??es uterinas. V. polyanthes ? muito visitada por v?rias esp?cies de abelhas, principalmente por abelhas nativas, que buscam recursos alimentares. Al?m das abelhas nativas, que s?o respons?veis por at? 90% da poliniza??o dos vegetais nativos, APIS MELLIFERA BUSCA RECURSOS ALIMENTARES NESSE VEGETAL. Essa esp?cie foi introduzida no Brasil durante o per?odo colonial e ainda n?o se sabe as conseq??ncias da introdu??o dessa esp?cie sobre as comunidades de abelhas nativas, uma vez que s?o poucos os trabalhos realizados com essa finalidade. Esse trabalho possui como objetivo conhecer os principais visitantes florais de V. polyanthes e as intera??es entre as comunidades de abelhas. O trabalho foi realizado no munic?pio de Valen?a-RJ, em uma ?rea com 15 colm?ias de A. mellifera. Foram realizadas quatro coletas com rede entomol?gica com 10 minutos de dura??o em cada hora, das 08 ?s 16 horas uma vez por semana, entre junho e agosto de 2009. Foram coletadas 771 abelhas pertencentes a tr?s fam?lias e 22 esp?cies. As esp?cies mais abundantes foram A. mellifera, T, spinipes e S. quadripunctata. As abelhas sociais representaram 98% do total em rela??o ?s abelhas solit?rias com 2%. Das 22 esp?cies, A. mellifera e T. spinipes foram dominantes na explora??o de recursos sobre as demais esp?cies de abelhas. Ocorreu uma grande similaridade na explora??o de recursos alimentares entre A. mellifera, T. spinipes e S. quadripunctata, possivelmente por estar ocorrendo uma poss?vel competi??o entre essas esp?cies. A baixa diversidade de abelhas pode ter sido influenciada pela abund?ncia de A. mellifera. Esse trabalho encontrou um dos maiores n?meros de esp?cies de melipon?neos coletadas no estado do Rio de Janeiro.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior
O trabalho teve por objetivo estudar os requerimentos de polinizaÃÃo do gergelim (Sesamum indicum), assim como seus visitantes florais e os efeitos dos tipos de polinizaÃÃo na produÃÃo de frutos e qualidade de sementes. A pesquisa foi realizada em trÃs localidades: no municÃpio de Sousa na ParaÃba, com a variedade BRS SEDA, numa propriedade particular; no municÃpio de Barbalha no CearÃ, com a variedade G2, em um campo experimental da Embrapa AlgodÃo; e na Universidade Federal do Cearà (UFC) em Fortaleza, onde foram feitas as anÃlises laboratoriais. As observaÃÃes foram coletadas de dezembro de 2007 a fevereiro de 2008 em Sousa e de novembro de 2008 a janeiro de 2009 no municÃpio de Barbalha. O trabalho foi dividido em quatro etapas: 1 - diversidade e abundÃncia dos visitantes florais no gergelim; 2 â comportamento de forrageamento dos visitantes florais; 3 - biologia floral, requerimentos de polinizaÃÃo e eficiÃncia polinizadora de Apis mellifera com apenas uma visita e 4 - avaliaÃÃo dos efeitos dos tipos de polinizaÃÃo na produÃÃo de frutos e na qualidade das sementes. Os experimentos foram montados em delineamento inteiramente casualizado e os dados analisados por meio de anÃlise de variÃncia com comparaÃÃo de mÃdias a posteriori pelo teste Tukey. Todos os visitantes observados foram da ordem Hymenoptera, sendo representados por trÃs famÃlias diferentes: Apidae, Anthophoridae e Vespidae. As abelhas Apis mellifera e Trigona spinipes, em ambos os municÃpios, iniciaram a coleta de pÃlen junto à antese, Ãs 7 horas, cessando Ãs 11 horas. ApÃs esse horÃrio passaram somente a coletar nÃctar, cessando Ãs 17 horas em Sousa e Ãs 15 horas em Barbalha. Houve diferenÃa significativa entre os tratamentos no nÃmero de frutos colhidos 30 dias apÃs as polinizaÃÃes, onde o maior nÃmero de frutos colhido foi observado na polinizaÃÃo livre e este tratamento apenas foi diferente da autopolinizaÃÃo manual. Com a polinizaÃÃo livre foi obtido o melhor resultado, tanto aos 5 dias, como aos 30, mesmo nÃo sendo diferente da polinizaÃÃo manual cruzada. Os resultados deste trabalho mostram que nÃo hà carÃncia de polinizadores e nem de dÃficit de polinizaÃÃo na Ãrea. Foi demonstrado que o gergelim à uma planta de polinizaÃÃo mista, pois os resultados deste experimento mostraram que ele pode produzir frutos sob qualquer um dos tipos de polinizaÃÃo testados. Suas flores sÃo capazes de se autopolinizar, que nÃo depende de agentes externos. As polinizaÃÃes restritas com papel e restrita com filà apresentaram os frutos com sementes mais pesadas e uma maior quantidade delas dentro do fruto. TambÃm nÃo foram encontradas diferenÃas entre os tratamentos de polinizaÃÃo para a avaliaÃÃo fisiolÃgica das sementes. Conclui-se que as abelhas foram os visitantes florais mais abundantes e diversos, sendo a espÃcie Apis mellifera considerada uma potencial polinizadora, jà que foi capaz de visitar as flores de gergelim para coleta legÃtima e ilegÃtima de nÃctar e pÃlen. A cultura do gergelim beneficia-se tanto da autopolinizaÃÃo quanto da polinizaÃÃo cruzada
The present work aimed to study the pollination requirements of sesame (Sesamun indicum), its floral visitors and the effects of the different kinds of pollination on fruit production and seed quality. The research was carried out in three localities, in the municipality of Sousa, in ParaÃba, in a private farm with the BRS SEDA variety; in the experimental field of Embrapa AlgodÃo situated in the municipality of Barbalha, in Cearà with G2 variety; and in the Universidade Federal do Cearà (UFC) in Fortaleza, CE, where the laboratorial analyses were done. The observation were gathered from December 2007 to February 2008 in Sousa and from November 2008 to March 2009 in Barbalha. The work was divided into four steps: 1 â diversity and abundance of the floral visitors of sesame; 2 â foraging behavior of its floral visitors; 3 â floral biology, pollination requirements and pollination efficiency of Apis mellifera with a single visit; and 4 â assessment of the effects of the different kinds of pollination in the seed quality. All The experimental design was completely randomized and the data were analyzed by ANOVA and the means were a posteriori compared by Tukey test. All the visitors observed were from Hymenoptera order,which were represented by three different families: Apidae, Anthophoridae and Vespidae. The Apis mellifera and Trigona spinipes bees, in both municipalities, started to gather pollen in the same time that the anthesis occurred until 11h. After this time they started to collect nectar until 17h in the municipality of Sousa, and until 15h in Barbalha. There was no significant difference (P < 0,05) in the number of fruit harvested among the five kinds of pollination (free, hand self-pollination, hand cross-pollination, restricted with tulle bag and restricted with paper bag). Also, none difference was observed among pollination treatments for the physiological evaluation of the seeds. It is concluded that the bees were the most abundant and diverse floral visitors, which Apis mellifera specie was considered a potential pollinator, due its ability to visited the flowers of sesame for nectar and pollen legitimate and illegitimate collection. The sesame crop benefits itself from auto-pollination as well as from crosspollination, indifferently

ANDRADE, Patricia Barreto de. Potenciais polinizadores e requerimentos de polinização do gergelim (Sesamum indicum). 2009. 74 f. : Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal do Ceará, Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Departamento de Zootecnia, Fortaleza-CE, 2009.
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O trabalho teve por objetivo estudar os requerimentos de polinização do gergelim (Sesamum indicum), assim como seus visitantes florais e os efeitos dos tipos de polinização na produção de frutos e qualidade de sementes. A pesquisa foi realizada em três localidades: no município de Sousa na Paraíba, com a variedade BRS SEDA, numa propriedade particular; no município de Barbalha no Ceará, com a variedade G2, em um campo experimental da Embrapa Algodão; e na Universidade Federal do Ceará (UFC) em Fortaleza, onde foram feitas as análises laboratoriais. As observações foram coletadas de dezembro de 2007 a fevereiro de 2008 em Sousa e de novembro de 2008 a janeiro de 2009 no município de Barbalha. O trabalho foi dividido em quatro etapas: 1 - diversidade e abundância dos visitantes florais no gergelim; 2 – comportamento de forrageamento dos visitantes florais; 3 - biologia floral, requerimentos de polinização e eficiência polinizadora de Apis mellifera com apenas uma visita e 4 - avaliação dos efeitos dos tipos de polinização na produção de frutos e na qualidade das sementes. Os experimentos foram montados em delineamento inteiramente casualizado e os dados analisados por meio de análise de variância com comparação de médias a posteriori pelo teste Tukey. Todos os visitantes observados foram da ordem Hymenoptera, sendo representados por três famílias diferentes: Apidae, Anthophoridae e Vespidae. As abelhas Apis mellifera e Trigona spinipes, em ambos os municípios, iniciaram a coleta de pólen junto à antese, às 7 horas, cessando às 11 horas. Após esse horário passaram somente a coletar néctar, cessando às 17 horas em Sousa e às 15 horas em Barbalha. Houve diferença significativa entre os tratamentos no número de frutos colhidos 30 dias após as polinizações, onde o maior número de frutos colhido foi observado na polinização livre e este tratamento apenas foi diferente da autopolinização manual. Com a polinização livre foi obtido o melhor resultado, tanto aos 5 dias, como aos 30, mesmo não sendo diferente da polinização manual cruzada. Os resultados deste trabalho mostram que não há carência de polinizadores e nem de déficit de polinização na área. Foi demonstrado que o gergelim é uma planta de polinização mista, pois os resultados deste experimento mostraram que ele pode produzir frutos sob qualquer um dos tipos de polinização testados. Suas flores são capazes de se autopolinizar, que não depende de agentes externos. As polinizações restritas com papel e restrita com filó apresentaram os frutos com sementes mais pesadas e uma maior quantidade delas dentro do fruto. Também não foram encontradas diferenças entre os tratamentos de polinização para a avaliação fisiológica das sementes. Conclui-se que as abelhas foram os visitantes florais mais abundantes e diversos, sendo a espécie Apis mellifera considerada uma potencial polinizadora, já que foi capaz de visitar as flores de gergelim para coleta legítima e ilegítima de néctar e pólen. A cultura do gergelim beneficia-se tanto da autopolinização quanto da polinização cruzada
O trabalho teve por objetivo estudar os requerimentos de polinização do gergelim (Sesamum indicum), assim como seus visitantes florais e os efeitos dos tipos de polinização na produção de frutos e qualidade de sementes. A pesquisa foi realizada em três localidades: no município de Sousa na Paraíba, com a variedade BRS SEDA, numa propriedade particular; no município de Barbalha no Ceará, com a variedade G2, em um campo experimental da Embrapa Algodão; e na Universidade Federal do Ceará (UFC) em Fortaleza, onde foram feitas as análises laboratoriais. As observações foram coletadas de dezembro de 2007 a fevereiro de 2008 em Sousa e de novembro de 2008 a janeiro de 2009 no município de Barbalha. O trabalho foi dividido em quatro etapas: 1 - diversidade e abundância dos visitantes florais no gergelim; 2 – comportamento de forrageamento dos visitantes florais; 3 - biologia floral, requerimentos de polinização e eficiência polinizadora de Apis mellifera com apenas uma visita e 4 - avaliação dos efeitos dos tipos de polinização na produção de frutos e na qualidade das sementes. Os experimentos foram montados em delineamento inteiramente casualizado e os dados analisados por meio de análise de variância com comparação de médias a posteriori pelo teste Tukey. Todos os visitantes observados foram da ordem Hymenoptera, sendo representados por três famílias diferentes: Apidae, Anthophoridae e Vespidae. As abelhas Apis mellifera e Trigona spinipes, em ambos os municípios, iniciaram a coleta de pólen junto à antese, às 7 horas, cessando às 11 horas. Após esse horário passaram somente a coletar néctar, cessando às 17 horas em Sousa e às 15 horas em Barbalha. Houve diferença significativa entre os tratamentos no número de frutos colhidos 30 dias após as polinizações, onde o maior número de frutos colhido foi observado na polinização livre e este tratamento apenas foi diferente da autopolinização manual. Com a polinização livre foi obtido o melhor resultado, tanto aos 5 dias, como aos 30, mesmo não sendo diferente da polinização manual cruzada. Os resultados deste trabalho mostram que não há carência de polinizadores e nem de déficit de polinização na área. Foi demonstrado que o gergelim é uma planta de polinização mista, pois os resultados deste experimento mostraram que ele pode produzir frutos sob qualquer um dos tipos de polinização testados. Suas flores são capazes de se autopolinizar, que não depende de agentes externos. As polinizações restritas com papel e restrita com filó apresentaram os frutos com sementes mais pesadas e uma maior quantidade delas dentro do fruto. Também não foram encontradas diferenças entre os tratamentos de polinização para a avaliação fisiológica das sementes. Conclui-se que as abelhas foram os visitantes florais mais abundantes e diversos, sendo a espécie Apis mellifera considerada uma potencial polinizadora, já que foi capaz de visitar as flores de gergelim para coleta legítima e ilegítima de néctar e pólen. A cultura do gergelim beneficia-se tanto da autopolinização quanto da polinização cruzada

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CNPQ
O licuri (Syagrus coronata) é uma palmeira que floresce e frutifica durante o ano inteiro, tendo grande importância ecológica e econômica, uma vez que fornece hábitat e alimento para diversos seres vivos, inclusive para a subsistência de populações humanas. Em populações nativas encontradas no Parque Nacional do Catimbau, a fenologia da espécie foi monitorada em quatro áreas (total de 120 indivíduos). Também foram identificados os visitantes florais, a composição química dos odores florais e a variação de temperatura das flores durante a antese, levando em consideração as fases reprodutivas (feminina e masculina), o sexo das estruturas reprodutivas (flores pistiladas e estaminadas) e o período do dia (manhã e noite). O fitness reprodutivo foi comparativamente analisado para polinização diurna vs noturna, entomófila vs anemófila. Amostras de odores florais foram coletadas através de “headspace” dinâmico a partir de flores pistiladas e estaminadas, bem como nas suas respectivas brácteas. O estudo da fenologia evidenciou duas áreas sazonais, enquanto duas outras produziram eventos contínuos de reprodução. A riqueza e abundância de visitantes florais foram maiores nas inflorescências masculinas que nas femininas. O fitness reprodutivo não mostrou diferença entre os tratamentos de polinização. Por sua vez, análises de odor floral demonstraram diferenças de compostos isolados nas brácteas e inflorescências, mas não entre as fases reprodutivas; a quantidade de odor emitido diferiu nas brácteas nas fases femininas e masculinas, mas não nas inflorescências, as quais apresentaram quantidades similares de compostos. Não foi evidenciado fenômeno de termogênese floral, nem ao longo do dia, nem entre as fases reprodutivas. Estratégias como o fornecimento de recursos em abundância e hábitat para visitantes florais, liberação diferenciada de odor e floração contínua, podem estar associadas à garantia do fluxo gênico dentro e entre populações dessa espécie de Syagrus.
Licuri (Syagrus coronata) is a palm tree that blooms and bears fruit throughout the year, having an ecological and economic importance, as it provides habitat and food for many living beings, including for the livelihoods of human populations. In native populations, found in Catimbau National Park, the phenology of species was monitored in four areas (total 120 individuals). Also flower visitors were identified, the chemical composition of floral scents and temperature variation of flowers at anthesis, taking into account the reproductive stages (male and female), sex of the reproductive structures (pistillate and staminate flowers) and the period the day (morning and evening). The reproductive fitness was comparatively analyzed for day vs. night pollinated and entomophilous vs anemophilus. Samples of floral odours were collected through "headspace" dynamic from pistillate and staminate flowers as well as in their respective bracts. The study of phenology showed two seasonal areas, while two others produced continuous reproductive events. The richness and abundance of floral visitors were higher in male than in female inflorescences. The reproductive fitness showed no difference between pollination treatments. In turn, floral odor analysis showed differences in isolated compounds in the bracts and flowers, but do not between the reproductive stage; the amount of odor emitted differed in the bracts in male and female phases, but not in inflorescences, which showed similar amounts of compounds. Floral thermogenesis phenomenon was not evidenced neither throughout the day nor between reproductive stages. Strategies such as providing abundant resources and habitat for floral visitors, differentiated release of odor and continuous flowering, may be associated with the guarantee of gene flow within and among populations of this species of Syagrus.

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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES
The invasion of terrestrial habitats by exotic plants often has negative effects on growth and fitness of native plants. Exotic plants may change the foraging behavior of pollinators and dynamics of interactions of local assemblages. Due to the lack of shared evolutionary history between exotic plants and native pollinators, it is likely that the morphological and phenological mismatches are especially important in determining the interactions involving exotic plants and specialist native pollinators. In addition, exotic plant species are expected to be pollinated by abundant generalist pollinators whose interactions are phylogenetically constrained compared to specialists pollinators. To evaluate these issues, we compiled 28 plant-pollinator networks with 778 plant species (10% alien) and 3019 pollinator species, comprising 7919 interactions. We expected that: (a) exotic plants tend to be visited by more generalist pollinator species compared to the co-occurring native plant species; (b) an increase in the proportion of exotic plants in the plant-pollinator networks promotesan increase in the global connectivity and nestednessof the interactions. If these predictions are correct, then the introduction of plants should also promote an increase in the risk of heterospecific pollen deposition on native plants. We found that exotic and native plants did not differ in the average degree of specialization of their pollinators. Moreover, an increase in the proportion of alien plants did not affecteither structure or the connectivity of networks. On the other hand, there was an increase in the risk of heterospecific pollen deposition on native plant stigmas when the proportion of exotic plants increases to about 1/3 of the flora pollinated by animals.However, above this percentage the relationship is reversed. This result may be a consequence of progressive decrease in pollinator fidelity of native plants in habitats with low-levels of invasion by exotic species, reducing the amount of shared pollen due to the impoverished pollinator fauna.
A invasão de habitats terrestres por plantas exóticas geralmente tem efeitos negativos sobre o crescimento e reprodução das plantas nativas. Além disso, plantas exóticas podem promover alterações no comportamento dos polinizadores e na dinâmica de interações das assembleias locais. Devido à ausência de uma história evolutiva entre plantas exóticas e polinizadores locais, é provável que as restrições morfológicas, fenológicas e comportamentais atuem de modo mais severo sobre interações envolvendo plantas exóticas e polinizadores nativos especialistas. Além disso, quando uma planta coloniza uma nova área, espera-se que ela interaja com maior probabilidade com os polinizadores generalistas devido, entre outros fatores, à maior abundância e menor seletividade dos mesmos. Assim, esperamos que: (a) em redes de interação planta-polinizador, os visitantes florais das plantas exóticas sejam mais generalistas do que aqueles que visitam plantas nativas; (b) a introdução de plantas exóticas promova um aumento na conectividade e no aninhamento das redes de interações planta-polinizador. Consequentemente, a introdução de plantas deve promover também um aumento no risco das plantas nativas receberem pólen heteroespecífico. Para avaliar as expectativas acima, compilamos 28 redes de interações planta-polinizador com 778 espécies de plantas (10% exóticas) e 3019 espécies de polinizadores, compreendendo 7919 interações. Em assembleias locais, as plantas exóticas e nativas não diferiram quanto ao grau de especialização de seus polinizadores. Além disso, um aumento na proporção de plantas exóticas não promoveu alterações na conectividade e estrutura das redes de interações. Por outro lado, há um aumento no risco das plantas nativas serem contaminadas por pólen heteroespecífico (Rphr) quando a porcentagem de plantas exóticas aumenta até atingir cerca de 13 da flora polinizada por animais. Isso pode ser uma consequência da diminuição na fidelidade dos polinizadores das plantas nativas em ambientes pouco invadidos. No entanto, acima desse percentual a relação é inversa, o que pode ser consequência da redução na quantidade de pólen compartilhado devido à perda de parte da fauna de polinizadores.

As flower visitors, ants rarely benefit a plant, commonly disrupting pollination by deterring other flower visitors, or stealing nectar. This thesis examines three aspects of ant-flower interactions, focusing on the occurrence of floral traits that prevent disruption of pollination and a novel means by which ants may influence pollinator behaviour. To assess which types of plant species possess ant-repelling floral traits I carried out a survey of 49 Neotropical plant species. Around a third of these species were repellent to the common generalist ant Camponotus novograndensis (Formicinae). This repellence was positively correlated with large nectar volumes within individual flowers. It appears that there has been selection for floral ant-repellence as a defence against ant thieves in plant species that invest in large volumes of nectar. In some cases these repellent traits were effective against a wide range of ant species. However, in no plant species were predacious ants particularly repelled, indicating that there may be little selective pressure on non-ant-plants to defend potential pollinators from aggressive ants. To investigate the importance of coevolution in determining the effectiveness of ant-repellents, a small but diverse range of Mediterranean plant species were tested with the invasive nectar thieving ant Linepithema humile (Dolichoderinae) and the native but non-nectar thieving ant Messor bouvieri (Myrmecinae). Responses of both ant species to floral traits were very similar. The ability of some plants to restrict access to ant species with which they have no evolutionary history may help to reduce the impact invasive species, as nectar thieves, have on plant-pollinator interactions. It is reported that flowers recently visited by bees and hoverflies may be rejected for a period of time by subsequent bee visitors through the detection of scent-marks. Nectar-thieving ants could potentially influence the foraging decisions of bees in a similar way if they come to associate ant trail pheromones or footprint hydrocarbons with poor reward levels. However, my empirical work found no differences were found in bee visitation behaviour between flowers of Digitalis pupurea (Plantaginaceae), Bupleurum fruticosum (Apiaceae) or Brassica juncea (Brassicaceae) that had been in contact with ants and control flowers. Ant-attendance at flowers of these species may not reduce reward levels sufficiently to make it worthwhile for bees to incorporate ant scent-marks into foraging decisions. Investigations like these into the interactions between ants, flowers and other flower visitors are essential if we hope to understand the part ants play in pollination ecology, and determine how ants have helped shape floral evolution.

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Em Minas Gerais as áreas de Mata Atlântica, Campo Rupestre e Mata Ciliar destacam-se devido sua relevância para a Biologia da Conservação com expressiva diversidade, incluindo a de vespas sociais. Este grupo de insetos, que no Brasil está representado pelos Polistinae, causa considerável impacto nos ecossistemas, já que as vespas são importantes predadoras e visitantes florais. Este trabalho teve como objetivo estudar a estrutura e composição da taxocenose de vespas sociais durante os períodos quente/úmido e frio/seco e verificar a eficiência dos métodos de coleta utilizados na captura desses insetos no Parque Estadual do Ibitipoca. Também foi estimada a riqueza, diversidade, abundância, amplitude do nicho e a equitatividade de vespas sociais visitantes em flores deste local. Foram realizadas 12 coletas em três fitofisionomias (Campo Rupestre, Mata Ciliar e um fragmento de Mata Atlântica) no período de novembro de 2007 a outubro de 2008. Usou-se três metodologias de coleta: busca ativa com auxílio de uma rede entomológica; busca pontual onde eram vistoriadas plantas em floração com vespas visitantes e armadilhas com suco de maracujá ou caldo de sardinha. Foram coletados 926 indivíduos de vespas sociais distribuídos em 21 espécies e oito gêneros sendo para a busca ativa (18 espécies), busca pontual (15 espécies), armadilha atrativa de suco de maracujá (sete espécies) e caldo de sardinha (cinco espécies). A Mata Ciliar apresentou a maior riqueza de espécies (19), seguida pelo Campo Rupestre (14) e Mata Atlântica (5), porém o Campo Rupestre apresentou a maior diversidade (H’= 2,16) em relação à Mata Ciliar (H’= 1,43) e Mata Atlântica (H’= 0,18), O cálculo da constância das espécies demonstrou que 38,08 % foram acidentais (C<25%), 38,08% acessórias (25% 50%). Nos períodos frio/seco e quente/úmido, para as três áreas estudas o teste de Spearman demonstrou que não houve correlação significativa da riqueza e abundância com as variáveis temperatura e pluviosidade. Foram coletados 103 indivíduos pertencentes a 15 espécies e sete gêneros visitando flores de 27 espécies de plantas (14 famílias). As famílias mais visitadas foram Erythroxylaceae (10 espécies) e Asteraceae (10 espécies) que também se destacou com a maior abundância de indivíduos (55). Mischocyttarus confusus, Mischocyttarus drewseni e Polybia sp2 foram as mais abundantes na Mata Ciliar e para o Campo Rupestre foi Polybia sp2. A diversidade de vespas sociais em flores na Mata Ciliar (H’= 0,78 e J’= 0,75) foi maior que no campo Rupestre (H’= 0.30 e J’= 0,39) e não houve diferenças significativas entre os índices de Shannon-Wiener para os dois locais estudados (Z(U) = 1.8475 (p) =0.0647. A amplitude do nicho trófico apresentou uma variação de 0,63 a 10 2,42 sendo M. drewseni visitante em 12 das 27 espécies de plantas do Parque Estadual do Ibitipoca registradas no período de estudo alcançando o maior valor da amplitude do nicho (2,42) e Polybia sp2, que visitou nove das 27 espécies vegetais apresentando maior abundância durante o período de coleta. Conclui-se que nenhuma das metodologias de amostragem capturou todas as espécies registradas no presente estudo, sendo o mais indicado a utilização destas em consórcio e a riqueza e diversidade variaram de acordo com as características fitofisionomicas de cada área, disponibilizando recursos e locais de nidificação. As vespas atuaram como visitantes regulares em flores do presente estudo, indicando a importância destes insetos na busca por néctar em diferentes flores do Parque Estadual do Ibitipoca
In Minas Gerais, areas of the Atlantic Forest, Rupestre fields and the Riparian Forest have been highlighted due to their importance for Conservation Biology, presenting high diversity and including social wasps. This group of insects, which is represented by Polistinae in Brazil, causes considerably high damage on ecosystems, since they are important predators and floral visitors. The objective of this work was to study the structure and taxocenosis composition of social wasps during the hot/humid and cold/dry seasons, and to observe the efficiency of the collection methods used to capture these insects at Ibitipoca State Park. The work also estimated richness, diversity, abundance, niche amplitude and evenness of the flower-visiting social wasps. In three phytophysiognomies (Rupestre fields, the Riparian Forest and an Atlantic Forest fragment), 12 collections were carried out from November 2007 to October 2008. Three collection methods were used: the active search, with the aid of an entomological net; the punctual method, with plants in the flowering periods being visited by wasps, and attractive traps with passion fruit juice or broth of sardines (sardines preserved and water). A total of 926 social wasp individuals were collected, and distributed among 21 species and eight genera in the active search (18 species), in the punctual method (15 species), in traps with passion fruit juice (seven species) and sardines (five species). The Riparian Forest presented the highest species richness (19), followed by Rupestre fields (14) and the Atlantic Forest (5), though Rupestre fields showed higher diversity (H’= 2.16) than the Riparian Forest (H’= 1.43) and the Atlantic Forest (H’= 0.18). The regular rate calculation of the species showed that 38.08 % were accidental (C<25%), 38.08% accessories (25% 50%). In the cold/dry and hot/humid seasons, considering the three areas of study, the Spearman test showed that there was no significant correlation between richness and abundance and the climatic variables temperature and pluviosity. A total of 103 individuals were obtained, belonging to 15 species and seven genera, visiting flowers of 27 species of plants (14 families). The families with the highest number of visitors were Erythroxylaceae (10 species) and Asteraceae (10 species), which also stood out with the highest values for abundance of individuals (55). Mischocyttarus confusus, Mischocyttarus drewseni and Polybia sp2 were the most abundant in the Riparian Forest, and Polybia sp2 in Rupestre fields. The diversity of flower-visiting social wasps in the Riparian Forest (H’= 0.78 and J’= 0.75) was higher than in Rupestre fields (H’= 0.30 and J’= 0.39), and there were no significant differences between the Shannon-Wiener indices for the two locations studied 12 (Z(U)= 1.84 (p)= 0.064. The amplitude index of trophic niche showed variations from 0.63 to 2.42, with M. drewseni visitors present in 12 among the 27 species of plants at Ibitipoca State Park, being recorded during the study period with the highest amplitude index of trophic niche (2,42) Polybia sp2 visited nine of the 27 vegetable species, and showed higher abundance during the collection period. It may be concluded that no sampling method alone captured all the species recorded in the present study, a fact that indicates the use of all methods combined. In addition, richness and diversity varied according to phytophysiognomic characteristics of each location, with available resources and places for nidification. Wasps were regular floral visitors in the present study, showing the importance of these insects in search of nectar in different flowers at Ibitipoca State Park.

Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa no Estado do Rio Grande do Sul
This study aimed to determine the details of the offer and quality of floral resources in Bauhinia forficata Link, native species of Seasonal Deciduous Forest in Rio Grande do Sul, and how they influence the attraction and interaction with the flower visitors and other plant species. It sought to further determine the ecological mechanisms that are established from the plant interactions / animal that can be used as a theoretical basis for the creation of ecological restoration strategies. The work was conducted in the municipality of Santa Maria, central region of Rio Grande do Sul. Were selected 11 matrices based on the environmental quality of the fragments their surroundings and morphophysiological and phytosanitary characteristics of individuals, of which was evaluates the phenology, volume and concentration of nectar instanding crop (NID), pollinic viability, suitability for autogamy, floristic diversity of the surrounding areas, diversity, intensity and behavior of diurnal and nocturnal flower visitors and ditrophic networks of plant-pollinator interaction. The variables were tested by comparison of means, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and correlation analysis. The average volume of NID observed for the species was 40.3 μl and the mean concentration was 0.265 mg / μl. The average pollen viability was 81.43%, and the species has proved unfit to autogamy. The average number of floral visitors was 18.24 per matrices and the average intensity of interaction was 59.94%. Were accounted for 730 floral visitors belonging to 29 morphospecies, 657 at the diurnal monitoring and 73 at nocturnal monitoring. The main order observed was Lepidoptera. The suborder Rhopalocera was the most abundant between diurnal visitors (30.43%), and the suborder Heterocera the most abundant among the nocturnal visitors (50%). Proved to be effective pollinators of Bauhinia forficata the bumblebee (Hymenoptera) morphospecies, gray-moth (Pyrgus sp.) (Lepidoptera: Heperiidae) and orange-black-butterfly (Helyconius sp.) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). The functionally effective pollination systems for Bauhinia forficata in the study area are the Psychophily (butterflies) and Melittophily (bumblebees). In the analysis of floristic diversity were found 34 species, the Shannon diversity index ranged between 1.46 and 2.43 between plots. The Bauhinia forficata species, Acacia velutina and Strychnos brasiliensis have the greatest relative densities, respectively, 10.97%, 10.42% and 8.78%. It can be concluded that both the supply and quality of resources influence at the attraction of visitors, as the interaction of visitors with flowers interfered at the availability of resources. The quantity, quality and plasticity of the offered floral resources, the generalist attraction of visitors, the time and intensity of flowering, the inability to autogamy and geitonogamy, high rates of pollen viability and the high degree of connectance of ditróficas webs, are responsible for initiate important ecological mechanisms between this and other ecosystem agents, being them: compensation mechanisms, of species coexistence, induction of gene flow and competition and partilhamento of the resources. These results demonstrate that Bauhinia forficata is an important energy source for the diet of a wide range of pollinators and acts as an inducer of ecological processes and gene flow in the study area.
O presente estudo teve por objetivo determinar as características da oferta e qualidade dos recursos florais em Bauhinia forficata Link, espécie nativa da floresta Estacional Decidual do Rio Grande do Sul, e a forma como estas influenciam na atração e na interação com os visitantes florais e com as demais espécies vegetais. Buscou-se ainda determinar os mecanismos ecológicos que se estabelecem a partir das interações planta/animal que possam ser utilizados como base teórica para a criação de estratégias de restauração ecológica. O trabalho foi conduzido no Município de Santa Maria, região central do Rio Grande do Sul. Foram selecionadas 11 matrizes com base na qualidade ambiental dos fragmentos de seu entorno e nas características morfofisiológicas e fitossanitárias dos indivíduos, das quais se avaliou a fenologia, volume e concentração de néctar instantaneamente disponível (NID), viabilidade polínica, aptidão à autogamia, diversidade florística das áreas adjacentes, diversidade, intensidade e comportamento de visitantes florais diurnos e noturnos, e teias ditróficas de interação planta-polinizador. As variáveis foram testadas por comparação de médias, Análise de Componentes Principais (PCA) e análise de correlação. O volume médio de NID observado para a espécie foi de 40,3 μl e a concentração média foi de 0,265 mg/μl. A viabilidade polínica média foi de 81,43%, sendo que a espécie demonstrou ser inapta à autogamia. O número médio de visitantes florais foi 18,24 por matriz e a intensidade média de interação foi 59,94%. Foram contabilizados 730 visitantes florais pertencentes a 29 morfoespécies, sendo 657 no monitoramento diurno e 73 no monitoramento noturno. A principal ordem observada foi Lepidoptera. A subordem Rhopalocera foi a mais abundante entre os visitantes diurnos (30,43%) e a subordem Heterocera a mais abundante entre os visitantes noturnos (50%). Demonstraram serem polinizadores efetivos da Bauhinia forficata as morfoespécies mamangava (Hymenoptera), mariposa-cinza (Pyrgus sp. (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae) e a borboleta-laranja-preta (Helyconius sp. (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)). Os sistemas de polinização funcionalmente efetivos para Bauhinia forficata na área de estudo são a Psicofilia (borboletas) e a Melitofilia (mamangavas). O grau de conectância total das teias ditróficas foi de 53,47% para as redes de visitantes diurnos e de 44% para as redes de visitantes noturnos. Na análise da diversidade florística foram encontradas 34 espécies, o índice de diversidade de Shannon variou entre 1,46 e 2,43 entre parcelas. As espécies Bauhinia forficata, Acacia velutina e Strychnos brasiliensis apresentaram as maiores densidades relativas, respectivamente, 10,97%, 10,42% e 8,78%. Foi encontrada correlação entre a concentração do néctar e diversidade florística, entre volume de néctar e diversidade de visitantes e entre a viabilidade polínica e volume e concentração do néctar. Pode-se concluir que tanto a oferta e a qualidade dos recursos influenciaram na atração dos visitantes, quanto a interação dos visitantes com as flores interferiu na disponibilidade dos recursos. A quantidade, qualidade e plasticidade dos recursos florais ofertados, a atração generalista de visitantes, a sincronia e intensidade de floração, a inaptidão à autogamia e geitonogamia, as altas taxas de viabilidade polínica e o alto grau de conectância das teias ditróficas, são responsáveis por desencadear importantes mecanismos ecológicos entre esta e os demais agentes do ecossistema, sendo eles: mecanismos de compensação, de coexistência de espécies, indução do fluxo gênico e de competição e partilhamento de recursos. Tais resultados demonstram que Bauhinia forficata é uma importante fonte energética para a dieta de uma vasta gama de polinizadores e atua como indutora dos processos ecológicos e do fluxo gênico na área de estudo.

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Species of the genus Psychotria L. are common in the understory of tropical and subtropical forest formations. Most species are distylous with two floral morphs (thrum and pin) in the same population, however homostylous and monomorphic species are common. The objective of this work was to monitor the vegetative and reproductive phenology, as well as determine aspects of floral biology, with emphasis on floral morphometric and floral visitors of Psychotria leiocarpa Cham. & Schltdl., P. carthagenensis Jacq. e P. myriantha Muell. Arg. found in Seasonal Deciduous Forest fragment in Boca do Monte, Santa Maria, RS (53º54 W, 29º38 S). The phenological monitoring was performed every fortnight from August 2010 to August 2011. Were evaluated the vegetative phenophases (budding and leaf fall) and reproductive flowering (anthesis and bud) and fruiting (immature and mature fruit). Were observed during flowering period and duration of anthesis and floral visitors, and collected flowers for morphometric analysis and pollen viability. The three species have intraspecific synchrony in all phenophases. Leaf fall occurred throughout the year, but was more expressive P. leiocarpa in the months of autumn and winter, in other species restricted to a few leaves. The leaf emission was synchronic and occurred in spring, followed by the issue of buds. The bloom was like the annual intermediate for the three species and occurred between October and January. There was greater synchrony between P. leiocarpa and P. carthagenensis, P. myriantha has a slight delay in peak bloom. The fruiting is synchronic, and fruit maturation is gradual and long-term during the autumn and winter. The precipitation was not correlated with any of the phenophases. The highest correlations were obtained for immature fruit with ripe fruit temperature and with temperature and day length. In P. leiocarpa period of anthesis was from 5 to 17 hours. P. myriantha anthesis took several periods during the day, and lasts for 24 h. In P. carthagenensis anthesis occurred in two periods: between 5 to 18 hours and between 12 hours until the next morning. P. myriantha is homostílica. P. leiocarpa has the two floral morphs, reciprocal herkogamy and not isopletic. It has dimorphic traits auxiliary corolla length, size of the stigma lobes and the size of pollen grains, and higher in thrum flowers corolla diameter and number of pollen grains per anther, the higher pin flowers. P. carthagenensis has the two floral morphs, without reciprocal herkogamy and is not isopletic. Presented dimorphic traits auxiliary, length of stigma lobes and anther size, higher in thrum morph and diameter of the corolla in higher pin morpho. The floral visitors were insects, especially of the order Hymenoptera. Apis mellifera was the most frequent visitor in P. leiocarpa and P. myriantha. P. carthagenensis has native bees as the most frequent visitors
Espécies do gênero Psychotria L. são comuns no sub-bosque das formações florestais tropicais e subtropicais. A maioria das espécies são distílicas, apresentando dois morfos florais (brevistilo e longistilo) em uma mesma população, contudo espécies homostílicas ou monomorficas são comuns. O objetivo deste trabalho foi o de acompanhar a fenologia vegetativa e reprodutiva, bem como determinar aspectos da biologia floral, com ênfase na morfometria floral, e os visitantes florais de Psychotria leiocarpa Cham. & Schltdl., P. carthagenensis Jacq. e P. myriantha Muell. Arg. encontradas em um fragmento de Floresta Estacional Decidual no distrito de Boca do Monte, Santa Maria, RS (53º54 W, 29º38 S). O acompanhamento fenológico foi quinzenal de agosto de 2010 a agosto de 2011. Foram observadas as fenofases vegetativas (queda foliar e brotamento) e reprodutivas de floração (botão e antese) e de frutificação (fruto imaturo e maduro). Durante a floração foram observados o período e duração da antese e visitantes florais, e realizadas coleta de flores para as análises morfométricas e de viabilidade polínica. As três espécies possuem sincronia intraespecífica em todas as fenofases. A queda foliar ocorreu durante todo o ano, mas foi mais expressiva em P. leiocarpa nos meses de outono e inverno, nas outras espécies restringiu-se a poucas folhas. O brotamento foi sincrônico entre as espécies e ocorreu nos meses de primavera, seguido da emissão de botões. A floração foi do tipo anual intermediária para as três espécies e ocorreu entre outubro e janeiro. Houve maior sincronia entre P. leiocarpa e P. carthagenensis, pois P. myriantha possui um pequeno atraso no pico de floração em relação às outras espécies. A frutificação é sincrônica, e a maturação dos frutos é gradual e de longa duração durante o outono e inverno. A precipitação não se correlacionou com nenhuma das fenofases. As maiores correlações foram obtidas para frutos imaturos com a temperatura e frutos maduros com a temperatura e comprimento do dia. A antese é diurna para as três espécies. Em P. leiocarpa, o período de antese foi entre 5h às 17 horas. P. myriantha teve vários períodos de antese durante o dia e duração de 24 horas. Em P. carthagenensis, a antese ocorreu em dois períodos: entre as 5h até 18h, e das 12h até a manhã do dia seguinte. P. myriantha é homostílica. P. leiocarpa possui os dois morfos florais, hercogamia recíproca e anisopletia. Apresentou características dimórficas auxiliares para comprimento da corola, tamanho dos lobos estigmáticos e no tamanho dos grãos de pólen, maior nas flores brevistilas e no diâmetro da corola e na quantidade de grãos de pólen por antera, maior nas flores longistilas. P. carthagenensis possui os dois morfos florais, sem hercogamia recíproca e é anisopletia. Apresentou características dimórficas auxiliares para comprimento dos lobos estigmáticos e tamanho da antera, maior no morfo brevistilo e diâmetro da corola, maior no morfo longistilo. Os visitantes florais foram insetos, principalmente da ordem Hymenoptera. Apis mellifera foi o visitante mais frequente em P. leiocarpa e P. myriantha, e P. carthagenensis apresenta abelhas nativas como os visitantes mais freqüentes.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior
Este trabalho teve como objetivo conhecer a abundÃncia, diversidade e frequÃncia das abelhas visitantes florais em Ãreas de cultivo de cajueiro comercial prÃximo e longe de mata nativa. A pesquisa foi realizada de agosto a novembro de 2012, em pomares comerciais no municÃpio de Horizonte, CearÃ. A metodologia constou na marcaÃÃo de cinco diferentes gradientes de distÃncia (40m, 80m, 120m, 160m e 200m) da mata nativa em 10 Ãreas de cultivo de cajueiro anÃo precoce para a contagem e registro dos visitantes florais observados em 500 panÃculas durante o percurso de transectos realizado em seis horÃrios distintos (7h, 9h, 11h, 13h, 15h e 17h) a cada 15 dias . AlÃm disso, eram realizadas coletas com rede entomolÃgica em seis Ãrvores selecionadas, cinco minutos em cada Ãrvore, em Ãrea de 25m x 50m. Foram coletadas 368 visitantes florais entre abelhas sociais (331), abelhas solitÃrias (21) e outras espÃcies (16) visitantes florais nas panÃculas do cajueiro. A relaÃÃo entre a abundÃncia de insetos e horÃrio da coleta revela que para todas as abelhas coletadas, os horÃrios de 7h e 9h foram os que apresentaram a maior abundÃncia de insetos visitando as flores do cajueiro, principalmente de meliponÃneos. A frequÃncia de visitantes florais do cajueiro em 500 panÃculas nos meses de floraÃÃo, tanto em Ãreas com mata nativa quanto sem mata nativa, nÃo variou em funÃÃo do perÃodo de florada (p>0,05), da mesma forma que nÃo houve diferenÃa significativa (p>0,05) no nÃmero mÃdio de abelhas quando comparado as diferentes distÃncias durante as contagens nas Ãreas com mata nativa e sem mata nativa. As abelhas sociais foram as mais abundantes e destas, 176 foram Apis mellifera e 159 meliponÃneos. Jà as abelhas solitÃrias foram pouco representadas por coleta, tendo Centris spp. e Xylocopa (Neoxylocopa) cearensis sido vistas somente em algumas Ãreas de estudo, nÃo apresentando efeito significativo (p>0,05) quanto ao local (com ou sem mata nativa), Ãrea, horÃrio e dia de coleta. Conclui-se com esse estudo que a presenÃa do fragmento de mata nativa prÃxima à borda de cultura, nÃo influenciou na abundÃncia de visitantes florais nas distÃncias selecionadas, contudo a existÃncia de remanescentes de mata nativa prÃximo aos cajueirais, possibilitou a permanÃncia das abelhas sociais nas Ãreas de cultivo durante todo o perÃodo de florada, principalmente nos horÃrios em que as flores do cajueiro estÃo mais receptivas à polinizaÃÃo.
This study aimed to understand the abundance, diversity and frequency of bees visiting flowers in cashew tree growing areas near and far from commercial native forest. The research was conducted during the blooming season in 2012, from August to November in commercial orchards in the city of Horizonte, CearÃ. The methodology consisted in marking five different gradients of distance (40m, 80m, 120m, 160m and 200m) in all 10 areas to perform and record count of floral visitors in 500 panicles during transect conducted at six different times (7h, 9h, 11h, 13h, 15h and 17h), and captured with an insect net in six selected trees, five minutes at each cashew tree in an area of 25m x 50m. We collected 368 flower visitors among social bees (331), solitary bees (21) and other species (16) floral visitors in panicles of cashew. The relationship between insect abundance and time of collection reveals that for all bees collected, the hours of 7h and 9h of the morning were those with the greatest abundance of insects visiting the flowers of cashew mainly of stingless bees. The frequency of flower visitors in 500 cashew flowering panicles in the months, both in areas with native vegetation as no native forest, did not vary according to the period of flowering (p>0.05), just as there was no significant difference (p>0.05) in the mean number of bees compared the different distances during the counts in areas with native forest fragment and native forest without. Social bees were the most abundant group and among them 176 were Apis mellifera and 159 stingless bees. Solitary bees were poorly represented and Centris spp. and Xylocopa (Neoxylocopa) cearensis were seen only in a few areas showing no significant effect (p>0.05) on the site (with or without native forest), area, time and day of collection. We conclude from this study that the presence of native forest fragment near the edge of culture, did not influence the abundance of floral visitors on selected distances, however the existence of remnant native forest near the cashew trees, allowed to remain in social bees growing areas during the flowering period, mainly at times when the flowers of cashew are more receptive to pollination.

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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)
Green manure is considered a viable and sustainable alternative to agricultural land. The positive highlight this practice results from the proof of the harmful effects of joint-soluble fertilizers with high oil costs and industrial fertilizers. Thus Leguminosae family has been the most used as green manure, as it brings many advantages for both the soil and to the plants. In this family there is the Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. (Leguminosae, Faboideae) species as one of the most used for this practice. However knowledge about their biology and especially in relation to aspects of floral biology and their pollinators about various species used as green manure are scarce. This study aimed to verify aspects of floral biology and pollination that influence the reproduction of green manure Mucuna pruriens. For this, we inventoried the wealth of floral visitors and pollinators; verified as morphology and floral biology influence the pollinator behavior and/or floral visitor; and analyzed the M. pruriens fertility components through its fruiting rates and seed formation. To study the floral biology flowers were observed as to their flowering time and duration of anthesis. Visa also is change of color in the floral parts and stigmatic receptivity at all stages of flower development. Morphometry of flowers by the material preserved in FAA and in natura was verified. For the morphological and anatomical study of the keel light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy was used. The floral visitors were observed during their foraging activities and made autogamy test for the presence of spontaneous self. For fertility components was observed a difference in fruit development positions in the basal, middle and apical inflorescence and the difference in the formation of seeds in the fruits positions. The M. pruriens flower anthesis have seven days. Are heteroclamídeas with purplish corolla dialipetala and zigomorfa. It is a monoecious plant with androecium and gynoecium diadelfo simple. The gynoecium and androecium are tensioned and confined inside the keel. In Keel apex petals are joined and lignified presenting a membrane that is different from petalar tissue. Were observed individuals Trigona spinipes (Fabr.) (Hymenoptera: Apidae) and Vespidae of individuals presenting looting behavior. There was no significant difference between the number of fruits developed in relation to the position in the inflorescence. Selective abortions occurred at a higher frequency in the basal region of the pods of Mucuna pruriens. Mucuna pruriens, presented characteristics that distinguishes it from other species of the genus, since, it showed no need for pollinators for reproduction by the presence of autogamy. The presence of the membrane in Keel vertex possibly be the difference that provides the reproduction of this species. Before the study of fertility components, it is possible to detect certain reproductive problems. There is a great investment in production M. pruriens little flowers to fruit formation occurring a great loss of energy descent to ensure species.
A adubação verde é considerada uma alternativa viável e sustentável aos solos agrícolas. O destaque positivo dessa prática resulta da comprovação dos efeitos danosos dos adubos solúveis em junção com os elevados custos do petróleo e fertilizantes industriais. Diante disso Leguminosae tem sido a família mais utilizada como adubo verde, pois traz muitas vantagens tanto para o solo quanto para as plantas. Nesta família destaca-se a espécie Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. (Leguminosae, Faboideae) como uma das mais utilizadas para esta prática. Entretanto o conhecimento sobre sua biologia e principalmente em relação aos aspectos da biologia floral e de seus agentes polinizadores acerca de várias espécies utilizadas como adubo verde são escassos. Assim este trabalho objetivou verificar aspectos da biologia floral e da polinização que influenciam a reprodução do adubo verde Mucuna pruriens. Para isso, foi inventariada a riqueza de visitantes florais e de polinizadores; verificada como a morfologia e a biologia floral influenciam no comportamento do polinizador e/ou visitante floral; e analisados os componentes de fecundidade de M. pruriens através de suas taxas de frutificação e formação de sementes. Para o estudo da biologia floral as flores foram observadas quanto ao seu período de floração e duração da antese. Visto também se ocorre mudança de coloração nas partes florais e receptividade estigmática em todos os estágios de desenvolvimento floral. Foi verificada a morfometria das flores mediante material preservado em FAA e in natura. Para o estudo morfo-anatômico da quilha foi utilizada a microscopia de luz e microscopia eletrônica de varredura. Os visitantes florais foram observados durante suas atividades de forrageamento e feito teste de autogamia para verificar a presença de autopolinização espontânea. Para os componentes de fecundidade foi verificada a diferença no desenvolvimento de frutos nas posições basal, mediana e apical das inflorescências, bem como a diferença na formação de sementes nas posições dos frutos. As flores de M. pruriens possuem antese de sete dias. São heteroclamídeas, com corola violácea, dialipétala e zigomorfa. É uma planta monóica com androceu diadelfo e gineceu simples. O gineceu e androceu ficam tensionados e confinados no interior da quilha. No ápice da quilha as pétalas são unidas e lignificadas apresentando uma membrana que se diferencia do tecido petalar. Foram observados indivíduos de Trigona spinipes (Fabr.) (Hymenoptera:    Apidae)    e indíviduos de Vespidae apresentando comportamento de pilhagem. Não houve diferença significativa entre o número de frutos desenvolvidos em relação à posição na inflorescência. Os abortos seletivos ocorreram em maior frequência na região basal das vagens de Mucuna pruriens. Mucuna pruriens, apresentou características que a distingue de outras espécies do gênero, uma vez que, não evidenciou necessidade de polinizadores para reprodução pela presença de autogamia. A presença da membrana no vértice da quilha, possivelmente ser o diferencial que proporciona a reprodução dessa espécie. Diante do estudo dos componentes de fecundidade, é possível detectar determinados problemas reprodutivos. Existe um grande investimento da M. pruriens na produção de flores para pouca formação de frutos ocorrendo uma grande perda de energia para garantir descendentes da espécie.

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Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos
It is estimated that approximately 73 % of the world crops are pollinated by a bees. The constant alteration of habitats has led to the decline of pollinators, which may reflect limitations in the quantity and quality of the fruits and seeds grown, becoming one of the biggest problems when it comes to agricultural production. Studies with agricultural crops and their pollinators may contribute in seeking proposals that combine agriculture and conservation of forest fragments. The general objective of this work was to study aspects of Solanum lycopersicum L. hybrid Pizzadoro pollination. The specific objectives were: 1) verify if the floral morphology influences the behavior of the pollinator visits, 2) evaluate the richness of pollinating bees and pollinators at different distances from the Legal Reserve area, 3) compare the efficiency of three species of bees pollination in two treatments: spontaneous self-pollination, and pollination under natural conditions. The study was conducted on a conventional tomato cultivation in the municipality of Estiva Gerbi, Sao Paulo. Flowers were collected and observed under a stereomicroscope and scanning electron microscope. Efficiency was compared between Apis mellifera, Augochloropsis sp. and Exomalopsis sp. by Spears index. Observations and sampling were made in situ at 50, 100 and 150 meters from the Legal Reserve. It was found that the anther dehiscence is longitudinal and that the efficiency of pollination by A. mellifera (0.72) was similar to Exomalopsis sp. (0.85) and greater than Augochloropsis sp. (0.22). It is considered that the success of A. mellifera is associated with the floral morphology. Eleven species of insects, of which 7 were considered pollinators were found. Fifty eight floral visits were recorded, out of which 24 in quadrant A (50 m), 13 in B (100 m) and 21 in C (150 m), with A. mellifera dominant with 62.1% of visits, followed by Augochloropsis sp. and Oxaea flavescens both with 10.3%, Exomalopsis sp. with 6.9 %, Allograpta sp. with 5.2 % ,Bombus sp. with 3.4 % and Xylocopa sp. 1.7 %. The data indicates that the Legal Reserve played a key role in providing pollinators for tomato crops and therefore emphasizes the need for conservation and restoration of forest fragments to assist in increasing crop production.
Estima-se que aproximadamente 73% das plantas cultivadas mundialmente sejam polinizadas por alguma espécie de abelha. A constante alteração de habitats vem provocando o declínio de polinizadores, que pode refletir em limitações na quantidade e qualidade dos frutos e sementes cultivados, constituindo-se em um dos maiores problemas quando se trata de produção agrícola. Estudos com culturas agrícolas e seus polinizadores podem contribuir na busca de propostas que conciliem agricultura e conservação de fragmentos florestais. O objetivo geral do presente trabalho foi estudar aspectos relacionados com polinização de Solanum lycopersicum L. híbrido Pizzadoro. Os objetivos específicos foram: 1) verificar se a morfologia floral influencia no comportamento de visita do polinizador; 2) avaliar a riqueza de abelhas polinizadoras e visitantes florais em diferentes distâncias da área de Reserva Legal; 3) comparar a eficiência de três espécies de abelhas na polinização em dois tratamentos: kautopolinização espontânea, e a polinização em condições naturais. O estudo foi realizado numa área de cultivo convencional de tomate no município de Estiva Gerbi, São Paulo. Foram coletadas flores e observadas em estereomicroscópio e microscópio eletrônico de varredura. Foi comparada a eficiência de Apis mellifera, Augochloropsis sp. e Exomalopsis sp. pelo teste de Kruskal-Wallis. Observações e coletas foram feitas in situ a 50, 100 e 150 metros da RL. Verificou-se que a deiscência da antera é do tipo longitudinal e que não houve diferença entre as espécies de abelhas, ou seja, o número de sementes produzidas não depende da espécie de abelha. Considera-se que o sucesso de A. mellifera esteja associado à morfologia floral. Foram encontradas 11 espécies de insetos, das quais 7 foram consideradas polinizadoras. Foram registradas 58 visitas florais; dessas, 24 no quadrante A (50 m), 13 no B (100 m) e 21 no C (150 m), sendo A. mellifera dominante com 62,1% das visitas, seguida de Augochloropsis sp. e Oxaea flavescens ambos com 10,3%, Exomalopsis sp. com 6,9%, Allograpta sp. com 5,2%, Bombus sp. com 3,4% e Xylocopa sp. com 1,7%. Os dados indicam que a RL desempenhou um papel fundamental no fornecimento de polinizadores para a cultura de tomate e, por isso, enfatiza-se a necessidade de conservação e restauração de fragmentos florestais para auxiliar no aumento da produção da cultura.

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Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior - CAPES
Physalis angulata L. (Solanaceae) is a traditional medicinal species that can be found all over Brazil. The medicinal utility attributed derives from the production of complex substances of pharmacological interest as: vitaesteroids, fisalinas, flavonoids, steroids, fatty acids, carotenoids, ascorbic acid and alkaloids. For pharmaceutical production, the pharmaceutical industry requires a large amount of raw material, which would be very expensive and would generate significant impacts on the natural environment. In this way, it is necessary to develop breeding programs aimed at medicinal plants, in order to ensure the industrial production of special metabolites. In order to initiate the genetic improvement of a species it is necessary to obtain accurate information on several fundamental questions and one of them is the reproductive system. In this sense, the objective of this work was to carry out a study on the reproductive system of Physalis angulata, identifying the preferential crossing system through experiments of controlled pollinations, viability tests and pollen grain germination and floral visitors observations. All variables evaluated to estimate the preferential cross-breeding system of P. angulata indicated that this is a self-compatible species, and according to the egg pollen ratio it presents a facultative autogamous system. The dyes used to estimate pollen viability did not differ statistically. The pollen viability was high using the colorimetric method, however, there was no germination of the pollen tubes using the in vitro germination method, and further studies and adjustments of the culture medium were necessary. The hour factor influenced the viability of the pollen grains and reached 96% at 14 hours using the tetrazolium dye. The anthesis of the flowers of P. angulata lasted on average two days, they began the opening at 6 in the morning and the closure began at 14 o'clock in the field conditions; on the second day they reopen and close at the same time. In a greenhouse, the flowers opened at the same time, but the closure occurred around 5 pm and reopened the next day. The most frequent insects were of the order Hymenoptera (Apis mell?fera).
Physalis angulata L. (Solanaceae) ? uma esp?cie medicinal tradicional podendo ser encontrada em todo o territ?rio brasileiro. A utilidade medicinal atribu?da decorre da produ??o de subst?ncias complexas de interesse farmacol?gico como: vitaester?ides, fisalinas, flavon?ides, ester?ides, ?cidos graxos, caroten?ides, ?cido asc?rbico e alcal?ides. Para a produ??o de f?rmacos, a ind?stria farmac?utica requer uma grande quantidade de mat?ria-prima, o que seria muito dispendioso e geraria impactos expressivos no ambiente natural. Desse modo, faz-se necess?rio o desenvolvimento de programas de melhoramento voltados para plantas medicinais, visando assegurar a produ??o industrial de metab?licos especiais. Para iniciar o melhoramento gen?tico de uma esp?cie ? necess?rio obter informa??es precisas sobre v?rias quest?es fundamentais e uma delas ? o sistema reprodutivo. Nesse sentido, o objetivo desse trabalho foi realizar um estudo sobre o sistema reprodutivo de Physalis angulata, identificando o sistema de cruzamento preferencial por meio de experimentos de poliniza??es controladas, testes de viabilidade e germinabilidade dos gr?os de p?len e observa??es dos visitantes florais. Todas as vari?veis avaliadas para estimar o sistema preferencial de cruzamento de P. angulata indicaram que se trata de uma esp?cie auto-compat?vel, e segundo a rela??o p?len ?vulo apresenta um sistema aut?gamo facultativo. Os corantes utilizados para estimar a viabilidade pol?nica n?o diferiram estatisticamente. A viabilidade pol?nica foi alta utilizando o m?todo colorim?trico, entretanto n?o houve germina??o dos tubos pol?nicos utilizando o m?todo de germina??o in vitro, sendo necess?rios mais estudos e ajustes dos meios de cultura. O fator hora influenciou a viabilidade dos gr?os de p?len e alcan?ou 96% ?s 14 horas utilizando o corante tetraz?lio. A antese das flores de P. angulata durou em m?dia dois dias, iniciaram a abertura ?s 6 da manh? e o encerramento iniciou ?s 14 horas em condi??es de campo; no segundo dia reabrem e fecham no mesmo hor?rio. Em casa de vegeta??o, as flores abriram no mesmo hor?rio, mas o fechamento ocorreu por volta das 17 horas e reabriram no dia seguinte. Os insetos visitantes mais frequentes foram da ordem Hymenoptera (Apis mell?fera).

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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES
Os estudos de biologia reprodutiva são fundamentais para a conservação e manejo das espécies de plantas, uma vez que o período reprodutivo é uma fase de grande importância para a dinâmica das populações e sobrevivência das espécies . Esta dissertação teve como objetivo contribuir para o conhecimento da morfologia floral, biologia floral e reprodutiva de Butia odorata (Barb. Rodr.) Noblick, além de identificar os agentes polinizadores e suas relações com as flores. O trabalho foi realizado em dois países, no Uruguai (em La Paloma, Departamento de Rocha) e no Brasil (em Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul). Foram identificadas as fases de floração, antese masculina e feminina. Foi estimado o número de flores masculinas e femininas por ráquila na inflorescência, e a relação existente entre flores masculinas e femininas. Foi verificada a coloração das ráquilas e das flores. As flores foram caracterizadas quanto à sua morfologia e morfometria. Foram identificadas as ordens de insetos que visitaram as inflorescências, a relação dos insetos com as flores, os recursos florais coleta dos e o período de visitação durante as fases de floração. As flores de Butia odorata são unissexuais, hipóginas, actinomorfas, diclamídeas e sésseis. As flores masculinas e femininas ocorrem na mesma inflorescência e possuem formatos distintos, sendo as primeiras muito mais numerosas do que as segundas. As flores masculinas estão dispostas por toda a ráquila, com maior concentração do meio para o ápice, as flores femininas são encontradas do meio para a base da ráquila, formando tríades com duas masculinas. Existe variabilidade genética para cor e tamanho de ráquilas e para cor das flores em inflorescências de B. odorata. A espécie apresenta mecanismos de protandria. Uma grande diversidade de espécies de insetos das ordens Hymenoptera, Coleoptera e Diptera visitam as inflorescências. Durante a antese masculina, as ordens Hymenoptera e Coleoptera são mais frequentes, enquanto que durante a antese feminina a ordem Hymenoptera se destaca. Os insetos são atraídos pelos recursos como pólen e néctar disponibilizados pelas flores. A compreensão sobre a biologia reprodutiva, apresentado nos dois capítulos da dissertação, serve de alicerce para a preservação do butiá, pois este conhecimento é de grande importância para traçar estratégias de conservação e uso de recursos genéticos e programas de melhoramento.
Studies of reproductive biology are essential for the conservation and management of plant species, once the reproductive period is a time of great importance for the population dynamics and species survival. This dissertation had as objective to contribute to uderstanding floral morphology, floral and reproductive biology of Butia odorata (Barb. Rodr.) Noblick. Also, to identify the pollinators and their relationship with the flowers. The study was conducted in two Countries, Uruguay (La Paloma, Rocha Department) and Brazil (Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul State). Stages of flowering, and male and female anthesis were identified. The number of male and female flowers per rachille in the inflorescence, and the ratio between male and female flowers were estimated. The coloring of rachilles and flowers was verified. The morphology and morphometry of flowers were characterized. Orders of insects that visited the inflorescences, the relationship of insects with flowers, the collected floral resources and the period of visitation during the stages of flowering were identified. Flowers of Butia odorata are unisexual, hypogynous, actinomorphic, dichlamydeous and sessile. The male and female flowers occur on the same inflorescence and have different formats, being the male more numerous than the female. The male flowers are arranged throughout the rachille, with higher concentration from the middle to the apex. The female flowers are found from the middle to the base of rachille, forming triads with two male flowers. There is genetic variability for color and size of rachilles and for color of flowers on inflorescences of B. odorata. The species has mechanisms of protandry. A great diversity of insects' species, belonging to the Hymenoptera, Coleoptera and Diptera orders visit the inflorescences. During male anthesis, the Hymenoptera and Coleoptera orders are more frequent, whereas during female anthesis the Hymenoptera order stands. The insects are attracted by the resources such as pollen and nectar provided by the flowers. The understanding of the reproductive biology, presented in two chapters of this dissertation, serves as the foundation for the preservation of butiá, because this knowledge is of great importance to devise strategies for the conservation and use of genetic resources and breeding programs.

A renewed focus on generalised pollinator systems has inspired a conceptual framework which highlights that spatial and temporal interactions among plants and their assemblage of pollinators can vary across the individual, population, regional and species levels. Pollination is clearly a dynamic interaction, varying in the number and interdependence of participants and the strength of the outcome of the interaction. Therefore, the role of variation in pollination is fundamental for understanding ecological dynamics of plant populations and is a major factor in the evolution and maintenance of generalised and specialised pollination systems. My study centred on these basic concepts by addressing the following questions: (1) How variable are pollinators in a generalised pollination system? To what degree do insect visitation rates and assemblage composition vary spatially among populations and temporally among flowering seasons? (2) How does variation in pollinators affect plant reproductive success? I chose to do this using a model system, Trachymene incisa subsp. incisa (Apiaceae), which is a widespread Australian herbaceous species with simple white flowers grouped into umbels that attract a high diversity of insect visitors. The Apiaceae are considered to be highly generalist in terms of pollination, due to their simple and uniform floral display and easily accessible floral rewards. Three populations of T. incisa located between 70 km and 210 km apart were studied over 2-3 years. The few studies investigating spatial and temporal variation simultaneously over geographic and yearly/seasonal scales indicate that there is a trend for more spatial than temporal variation in pollinators of generalist-pollinated plants. My study showed both spatial and temporal variation in assemblage composition among all populations and variation in insect visitation rates, in the form of a significant population by year interaction. However, removing ants from the analyses to restrict the assemblage to flying insects and the most likely pollinators, resulted in a significant difference in overall visitation rate between years but no difference in assemblage composition between the Myall Lakes and Tomago populations. These results indicate more temporal than spatial variation in the flying insect visitor assemblage of T. incisa. Foraging behaviour provides another source of variation in plant-pollinator interactions. Trachymene incisa exhibits umbels that function as either male or female at any one time and offer different floral rewards in each phase. For successful pollination, pollinators must visit both male and female umbels during a foraging trip. Insects showed both preferences and non-preferences for umbel phases in natural patches where the gender ratio was male biased. In contrast, insects showed no bias in visitation during a foraging trip or in time spent foraging on male and female umbels in experimental arrays where the gender ratio was equal. Pollinator assemblages consisting of a mixture of different pollinator types coupled with temporal variation in the assemblages of populations among years maintains generalisation at the population/local level. In addition, spatial variation in assemblages among populations maintains generalisation at the species level. Fire alters pollination in T. incisa by shifting the flowering season and reducing the abundance of flying insects. Therefore, fire plays an important role in maintaining spatial and temporal variation in this fire-prone system. Although insect pollinators are important in determining the mating opportunities of 90% of flowering plant species worldwide, few studies have looked at the effects of variation in pollinator assemblages on plant reproductive success and mating. In T. incisa, high insect visitation rates do not guarantee high plant reproductive success, indicating that the quality of visit is more important than the rate of visitation. This is shown by comparing the Agnes Banks and Myall Lakes populations in 2003: Agnes Banks received the highest visitation rate from an assemblage dominated by ants but produced the lowest reproductive output, and Myall Lakes received the lowest visitation rate by an assemblage dominated by a native bee and produced the highest seedling emergence. Interestingly, populations with different assemblage composition can produce similar percentage seed set per umbel. However, similar percentage seed set did not result in similar percentage seedling emergence. Differences among years in reproductive output (total seed production) were due to differences in umbel production (reproductive effort) and proportion of umbels with seeds, and not seed set per umbel. Trachymene incisa is self-compatible and suffers weak to intermediate levels of inbreeding depression through early stages of the life cycle when seeds are self-pollinated and biparentally inbred. Floral phenology, in the form of synchronous protandry, plays an important role in avoiding self-pollination within umbels and reducing the chance of geitonogamous pollination between umbels on the same plant. Although pollinators can increase the rate of inbreeding in T. incisa by foraging on both male and female phase umbels on the same plant or closely related plants, most consecutive insect movements were between plants not located adjacent to each other. This indicates that inbreeding is mostly avoided and that T. incisa is a predominantly outcrossing species, although further genetic analyses are required to confirm this hypothesis. A new conceptual understanding has emerged from the key empirical results in the study of this model generalised pollination system. The large differences among populations and between years indicate that populations are not equally serviced by pollinators and are not equally generalist. Insect visitation rates varied significantly throughout the day, highlighting that sampling of pollinators at one time will result in an inaccurate estimate and usually underestimate the degree of generalisation. The visitor assemblage is not equivalent to the pollinator assemblage, although non-pollinating floral visitors are likely to influence the overall effectiveness of the pollinator assemblage. Given the high degree of variation in both the number of pollinator species and number of pollinator types, I have constructed a model which includes the degree of ecological and functional specialisation of a plant species on pollinators and the variation encountered across different levels of plant organisation. This model describes the ecological or current state of plant species and their pollinators, as well as presenting the patterns of generalisation across a range of populations, which is critical for understanding the evolution and maintenance of the system. In-depth examination of pollination systems is required in order to understand the range of strategies utilised by plants and their pollinators, and I advocate a complete floral visitor assemblage approach to future studies in pollination ecology. In particular, future studies should focus on the role of introduced pollinators in altering generalised plant-pollinator systems and the contribution of non-pollinating floral visitors to pollinator assemblage effectiveness. Comparative studies involving plants with highly conserved floral displays, such as those in the genus Trachymene and in the Apiaceae, will be useful for investigating the dynamics of generalised pollination systems across a range of widespread and restricted species.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
A renewed focus on generalised pollinator systems has inspired a conceptual framework which highlights that spatial and temporal interactions among plants and their assemblage of pollinators can vary across the individual, population, regional and species levels. Pollination is clearly a dynamic interaction, varying in the number and interdependence of participants and the strength of the outcome of the interaction. Therefore, the role of variation in pollination is fundamental for understanding ecological dynamics of plant populations and is a major factor in the evolution and maintenance of generalised and specialised pollination systems. My study centred on these basic concepts by addressing the following questions: (1) How variable are pollinators in a generalised pollination system? To what degree do insect visitation rates and assemblage composition vary spatially among populations and temporally among flowering seasons? (2) How does variation in pollinators affect plant reproductive success? I chose to do this using a model system, Trachymene incisa subsp. incisa (Apiaceae), which is a widespread Australian herbaceous species with simple white flowers grouped into umbels that attract a high diversity of insect visitors. The Apiaceae are considered to be highly generalist in terms of pollination, due to their simple and uniform floral display and easily accessible floral rewards. Three populations of T. incisa located between 70 km and 210 km apart were studied over 2-3 years. The few studies investigating spatial and temporal variation simultaneously over geographic and yearly/seasonal scales indicate that there is a trend for more spatial than temporal variation in pollinators of generalist-pollinated plants. My study showed both spatial and temporal variation in assemblage composition among all populations and variation in insect visitation rates, in the form of a significant population by year interaction. However, removing ants from the analyses to restrict the assemblage to flying insects and the most likely pollinators, resulted in a significant difference in overall visitation rate between years but no difference in assemblage composition between the Myall Lakes and Tomago populations. These results indicate more temporal than spatial variation in the flying insect visitor assemblage of T. incisa. Foraging behaviour provides another source of variation in plant-pollinator interactions. Trachymene incisa exhibits umbels that function as either male or female at any one time and offer different floral rewards in each phase. For successful pollination, pollinators must visit both male and female umbels during a foraging trip. Insects showed both preferences and non-preferences for umbel phases in natural patches where the gender ratio was male biased. In contrast, insects showed no bias in visitation during a foraging trip or in time spent foraging on male and female umbels in experimental arrays where the gender ratio was equal. Pollinator assemblages consisting of a mixture of different pollinator types coupled with temporal variation in the assemblages of populations among years maintains generalisation at the population/local level. In addition, spatial variation in assemblages among populations maintains generalisation at the species level. Fire alters pollination in T. incisa by shifting the flowering season and reducing the abundance of flying insects. Therefore, fire plays an important role in maintaining spatial and temporal variation in this fire-prone system. Although insect pollinators are important in determining the mating opportunities of 90% of flowering plant species worldwide, few studies have looked at the effects of variation in pollinator assemblages on plant reproductive success and mating. In T. incisa, high insect visitation rates do not guarantee high plant reproductive success, indicating that the quality of visit is more important than the rate of visitation. This is shown by comparing the Agnes Banks and Myall Lakes populations in 2003: Agnes Banks received the highest visitation rate from an assemblage dominated by ants but produced the lowest reproductive output, and Myall Lakes received the lowest visitation rate by an assemblage dominated by a native bee and produced the highest seedling emergence. Interestingly, populations with different assemblage composition can produce similar percentage seed set per umbel. However, similar percentage seed set did not result in similar percentage seedling emergence. Differences among years in reproductive output (total seed production) were due to differences in umbel production (reproductive effort) and proportion of umbels with seeds, and not seed set per umbel. Trachymene incisa is self-compatible and suffers weak to intermediate levels of inbreeding depression through early stages of the life cycle when seeds are self-pollinated and biparentally inbred. Floral phenology, in the form of synchronous protandry, plays an important role in avoiding self-pollination within umbels and reducing the chance of geitonogamous pollination between umbels on the same plant. Although pollinators can increase the rate of inbreeding in T. incisa by foraging on both male and female phase umbels on the same plant or closely related plants, most consecutive insect movements were between plants not located adjacent to each other. This indicates that inbreeding is mostly avoided and that T. incisa is a predominantly outcrossing species, although further genetic analyses are required to confirm this hypothesis. A new conceptual understanding has emerged from the key empirical results in the study of this model generalised pollination system. The large differences among populations and between years indicate that populations are not equally serviced by pollinators and are not equally generalist. Insect visitation rates varied significantly throughout the day, highlighting that sampling of pollinators at one time will result in an inaccurate estimate and usually underestimate the degree of generalisation. The visitor assemblage is not equivalent to the pollinator assemblage, although non-pollinating floral visitors are likely to influence the overall effectiveness of the pollinator assemblage. Given the high degree of variation in both the number of pollinator species and number of pollinator types, I have constructed a model which includes the degree of ecological and functional specialisation of a plant species on pollinators and the variation encountered across different levels of plant organisation. This model describes the ecological or current state of plant species and their pollinators, as well as presenting the patterns of generalisation across a range of populations, which is critical for understanding the evolution and maintenance of the system. In-depth examination of pollination systems is required in order to understand the range of strategies utilised by plants and their pollinators, and I advocate a complete floral visitor assemblage approach to future studies in pollination ecology. In particular, future studies should focus on the role of introduced pollinators in altering generalised plant-pollinator systems and the contribution of non-pollinating floral visitors to pollinator assemblage effectiveness. Comparative studies involving plants with highly conserved floral displays, such as those in the genus Trachymene and in the Apiaceae, will be useful for investigating the dynamics of generalised pollination systems across a range of widespread and restricted species.

Flower seed mixes are increasingly used to enhance the biodiversity and amenity values of urban green spaces. Urban or “pictorial” flower seed mixes are often used because they are designed using cultivars and non-native species to provide more colourful and longer-lasting flower displays. Although these seed mixes are effective in providing a high density of large colourful flowers, over an extended season, their value for biodiversity, and in particular the floral rewards they provide for flower-visitors, is largely unknown. The overall aim of my thesis was to assess and improve the value of these new urban habitats as forage resources for flower-visiting insects. My approach was to quantify and compare floral reward provision and insect visitation between meadows grown from three exemplar commercial pictorial flower meadow seed mixes (called Marmalade Annual, Short Annual and Cornfield Annual). I also compared these standard commercial mixes with corresponding ‘nectar-enriched’ formulations, which were designed by increasing the proportional seed weight contribution of selected species predicted to produce high quantities of nectar within each mix. To compare floral rewards and visitation between meadows grown from these seed mixes, I set up a field experiment in Sheffield, UK, using a complete randomised block design with six replicate blocks, each with six 25 m2 plots sown with one of the six seed mix treatments. My first objective was to quantify the floral nectar and pollen rewards provided by each flowering species recorded in the meadows (on the scale of a single flower or inflorescence). My second objective was to use these data to quantify the floral rewards provided per unit area by replicate meadows of different seed mix treatments, testing whether enrichment of seed mixes is an effective method of increasing floral nectar sugar rewards. My third objective was to corroborate/correct my morphology-based flower-visitor identifications using DNA barcoding to screen for misidentifications and morphologically cryptic species. I then used these DNA barcode-based identifications to assess whether there are systematic biases in the structure of flower-visitor networks constructed using molecular taxon identifications compared to traditional morphology-based taxon identifications. My fourth objective was to quantify patterns of insect visitation to meadows, testing whether meadows of different seed mix types attract different flower-visitor assemblages. Meadow floral composition surveys revealed that contamination by unintended horticultural species was widespread across replicate seed mix treatments, with contaminants likely germinating from a seed bank laid down during a failed attempt at this experiment the previous year. Contamination particularly affected Marmalade mixes, mainly because the common contaminant species were often also components of the Short and Cornfield mixes. For example, contaminants contributed on average about a third of nectar sugar mass or pollen volume per unit area in Marmalade mix meadows. Hence, contamination fundamentally undermined the internal validity of seed mix treatments, reducing the ability to directly attribute meadow level patterns in floral rewards or flower-visitors to seed mixes. As result, examination of patterns of floral resource provision and insect visitation were more informative at a species scale. In terms of patterns of insect visitation, Centaurea cyanus received 91% of bumblebee visits, 88% of honeybee visits and 29% of hoverfly visits, whilst T. inodorum received 27% of hoverfly visits. Patterns of bumblebee and honeybee visitation indicated preferential visitation to floral units of Centaurea cyanus. Although this species produced high quantities of nectar sugar mass and pollen volume, this did not differentiate it from other Asteraceae, such as Glebionis segetum, Rudbeckia hirta and Coreopsis tinctoria, which all produced high quantities of both floral rewards. Hence, it is likely that floral traits not measured in this study, such as nectar accessibility (‘nectar-holder depth’) or concentration/volume characteristics (which can affect accessibility due to constraints imposed by feeding morphology), drove patterns of preferential visitation in bumblebees and honeybees to C. cyanus. Given that in the absence of contamination there would have been very few bumblebee or honeybee visitors to Marmalade mix meadows, aesthetically designed pictorial meadows can fail to jointly provide benefits for people and some important flower-visiting insect taxa. DNA barcoding did not change specimen identifications for most morphotaxa. However, splitting and/or lumping processes affected almost one third of morphotaxa, with lumping of morphotaxa the most common type of change. This was in part because males and females from sexually dimorphic species were often separated by morphological identification. These DNA barcode-based changes to visitor taxonomy resulted in consistent minor changes in network size and structure across replicate networks. Lumping of morphotaxa decreased taxon richness, reducing the number of unique links and interaction diversity (the effective number of links). Lumping also increased flower-visitor generality, reducing plant vulnerability and increasing overall network connectance. However, taxonomic changes had no effect on interaction evenness or network specialisation. Thus, for this well-studied fauna, DNA barcode-based flower-visitor networks were systematically biased toward fewer taxa and links, with more generalist visitors and specialist plants. Given that many tropical faunas have more species and are less described than in Britain this pattern may not be replicated in other studies. Further studies in contrasting plant-pollinator communities are required before generalisations can be made about systematic biases between networks constructed using morphological versus molecular data. Overall, meadows grown from annual pictorial flower meadow seed mixes provide abundant floral units per unit area of meadow and are a valuable alternative to traditional horticultural flower beds or amenity grasslands in high profile urban contexts. Nevertheless, care must be taken during design of seed mixes and selection of mixes for planting to ensure that species in the mix provide suitable floral resources for an array of flower-visitors, including bees. This would be aided by the integration of informative measures for candidate species of floral rewards or visitor types and visitation rates during seed mix design.

Relying on wild bees for pollination services has become necessary as the global demand for crops dependent on animal pollination increases. If wild bee populations are to establish and persist in agricultural landscapes, there must be sufficient floral resources over time and space. This study examines the relationship between bee visits in agroecosystems and the spatiotemporal availability of floral resources over one season. I expected that landscapes with greater floral resources earlier in the season would subsequently experience more bee visits than landscapes with fewer early-season floral resources, and that the spatiotemporal scale of this effect would differ among taxa. I measured bee visitation rate and floral resource density over three spatial scales and during four time-periods spanning one season, in 27 agricultural sites across Ontario and Québec, Canada. The present abundance of floral resources at a local scale positively influenced bee visits across all sampling periods. However, differences in the temporal scale of bees’ response to floral resources were observed at landscape scales. Past and present floral resources were positively or negatively associated with bee visits depending on the time of season and which taxon was examined. The number of visits by Andrenidae, honey bees, and bumble bees increased with floral resource abundance in previous time-periods, while other taxa exhibited a negative association with past floral resources, suggesting possible dilution of bee populations at a landscape scale. Understanding the scales at which bee taxa are influenced by floral resources can allow development of land management strategies that could enhance crop pollination and conserve species threatened by agricultural intensification.

A restauração ecológica, ao buscar a manutenção de processos ecológicos e serviços ecossistêmicos, vem exercendo um importante papel na recuperação de ecossistemas degradados e conservação da biodiversidade. Restabelecer as interações entre organismos pode, contudo, ser uma tarefa mais árdua em ambientes de alta diversidade com complexas relações ecológicas como as florestas tropicais. Neste trabalho, investigamos a resposta dos insetos visitantes florais à restauração por plantio de mudas de espécies de Floresta Estacional Semidecidual, uma vez que o restabelecimento do processo de polinização é imprescindível para a perpetuação da floresta implantada. Para isso, foram examinados diferentes aspectos das comunidades de plantas e visitantes florais em seis áreas em processo de restauração. Primeiramente, buscouse analisar a estrutura da comunidade de visitantes florais e seus padrões de visita às flores, avaliandose também se a proximidade de fragmentos de vegetação nativa é importante na determinação da estrutura destas comunidades. Além disso, investigamos as espécies vegetais que florescem nos estágios iniciais de restauração para verificarmos se a comunidade de plantas se restabelecendo em cada local é importante na determinação da comunidade de visitantes. Por fim, avaliamos o restabelecimento do processo de polinização ao averiguar o transporte de pólen ocorrendo nas áreas restauradas e ao examinar a robustez das redes formadas frente à extinção simulada de espécies. Todas as áreas analisadas apresentaram redes de interação plantavisitante floral com estrutura e atributos comuns a outras redes mutualísticas de polinização, indicando que o processo deve estar se restabelecendo. A diferença na composição de espécies de visitantes não resultou em diferenças nos atributos das redes e a distância das áreas restauradas a fragmentos de vegetação nativa não influenciou a composição da comunidade de visitantes. Por outro lado, a vegetação regenerante composta por espécies ruderais aumentou a diversidade de visitantes e também a complexidade das redes de interação planta visitante floral, afetando a composição e provavelmente o funcionamento das comunidades. Embora tanto as redes de visitação quanto as de transporte de pólen revelem comunidades funcionalmente complexas com um número relativamente diverso de interações entre plantas e potenciais polinizadores, os dados de visitação demonstraram que nem todas as áreas possuem o mesmo padrão de resposta à extinção simulada de espécies. A presença massiva de gramíneas é provavelmente um fator determinante da robustez destas redes já que ela dificulta a regeneração natural das espécies ruderais que contribuem para o maior aporte de recursos florais para os insetos visitantes. Este trabalho demonstra a importância de se avaliar a recuperação dos aspectos funcionais de ecossistemas restaurados e tem implicações práticas para o manejo de áreas restauradas onde houver preocupação particular com a recuperação das interações plantapolinizador. Enfatizamos a importância do monitoramento constante de áreas restauradas para melhor entendermos as trajetórias de recuperação das florestas tropicais e recomendamos estudos multidisciplinares que integrem diversas áreas de conhecimento para aperfeiçoarmos as ações de restauração.
Ecological restoration plays an essential role in recovering degraded ecosystems and maintaining biodiversity. Restoration initiatives aiming to restore ecological processes and ecosystem services are increasing rapidly worldwide. However, the high diversity and complexity of interactions among organisms in tropical ecosystems make their restoration a challenge. Since pollination is one ecosystem process that must be reinstated in order to perpetuate restored forests, we investigated flower visitors response to habitat restoration. In six areas of Atlantic Semideciduous Forest undergoing restoration, blooming plants (introduced and spontaneously regenerated), flower visitors and their interactions were recorded bimonthly during one year. We used the data to analyze the patterns of insect visitation in each area and to evaluate whether remnant habitat proximity is important in determining the structure of flowervisitor communities. We also examined the role of earlysuccessional plant community in determining richness and composition of flowervisitor communities. To decide whether pollination has been successfully reinstated, we evaluated the patterns of pollen movement and the robustness of interaction networks to species loss. Our results suggest that plantpollinator communities were equally established on all restored sites. There were no differences in the metrics of flowervisitor networks between forest categories, showing that habitat proximity had no effect on visitation webs. On the other hand, spontaneously regenerated plants (mostly weeds) were responsible to increase the diversity of flowervisiting insects as well as the complexity of visitation webs, hence having a crucial role on ecosystem functioning during early stages of forest restoration. We also found that despite having a relatively complex network structure and diverse community of potential pollinators, not all areas show the same resilience to species extinction. Still, the removal of the most connected plants and pollinators first from the network caused the higher number of secondary extinctions. The robustness of pollination networks to species loss seems to be related to the occurrence of alien grasses in some of the restored areas. As alien grass invasion inhibits natural regeneration of weeds, it also decreases the availability of floral resources to insects foraging in those areas. Our findings have practical implications for the management of restored forests, mainly those with specific targets such as recovering pollinatorfriendly environments. Additionally, this study demonstrates the importance of evaluating functional aspects of biodiversity in restored areas. We highlight the relevance of monitoring restored communities at different successional stages to improve our understanding of restoration trajectories. We further recommend future research to be more integrative, so that the information produced will help to better planning restoration activities.

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Néctar; entomofauna; Merremia aegyptia
O objetivo deste trabalho foi o de investigar se os diferentes horários de coleta de néctar em áreas apícolas influenciam no volume, concentração de açúcar e açúcar total produzido por suas flores, no momento da antese, bem como verificar possíveis alterações nas características do néctar ao longo do tempo e discutir as conseqüências no potencial apícola das áreas de jitirana-branca (Merremia aegyptia). E ainda, a relação entre esta produção de atrativos florais e o comportamento dos polinizadores potenciais, dentre estes a Apis mellifera L. (abelha africanizada), e os requerimentos de polinização da jitirana branca. A pesquisa foi realizada em uma área de preservação de Caatinga, no Campus da FATEC Sertão Central, Quixeramobim-Ceará. Foi constatado que: A jitirana branca é uma cornucópia; sua densidade floral por m² foi em média 33,7 flores; apresentou ampla gama de visitantes florais (hymenopteros, coleópteros, hemípteros, dípteros, e pássaros); seu volume de néctar variou de acordo com o horário de coleta e não há reposição de néctar na flor após as 11:00 horas (A.M.); e a polinização mais eficiente corresponde a autopolinização.

In entomophilous plants, the most frequent flower visitors are social and solitary bees. The relationship is mutualistic, as bees benefit from pollen and nectar, and plants have their pollination performed by bees. The study of the guilds of flower-visiting bees presents as results, among others, the understanding of the guild structure and the factors that interfere with this structure. Among these, the deforestation of natural areas, as in the Cerrado , has been considered as one of the main factors. Thus, a common Cerrado plant Matayba guianensis Aubl., (Sapindaceae) was chosen, with the goal of studying the structure of the guild of flower-visiting bees in this species. Other objectives were: to investigate whether the environmental differences among three Cerrado areas would have an influence on the structure of this guild and determine the flower visitors and probable pollinators of Matayba guianensis, besides bees. Three Cerrado sites were chosen in the city of Uberlândia, Minas Gerais, Brazil: the Panga Ecological Station (EEP), with 1,011.90 a; the Palma da Babilônia Farm (FPB), with 444.79 a and the Souza Cruz (SC) Property, with 70.43 a. The areas presented environmental differences evinced by the estimates of natural vegetation in the surroundings: 52.62 % for EEP, 32.94 % for FPB and 9.73 % for SC. Bees and other insects were collected on Matayba guianensis in two consecutive flowering periods, from October to December of 2005 and 2006. Matayba guianensis presented asynchrony in its phenological stages and predominance of staminate individuals (64,7%) in comparison to the estaminate/pistilate and only pistilate individuals, and was considered a generalist species regarding its flower visitors. In the first phase, 1516 bees were collected, belonging to five families of Apoidea and to 80 species. Analyzing these, we found 30% of dominant and 46.3% of rare species. In the second phase, 562 bees, belonging to 66 species, composed of 15.2 % of dominant ones and 56.1% of rare ones, were collected. Overall, 2078 bees, pertaining to 105 species, were collected. The Apidae family stood out in terms of number of species and individuals. The most abundant species was Apis mellifera, which represented 41.9 % and 32.7% of the bees collected in the first and second phases, respectively, followed by Scaptotrigona depilis. The visitation pattern of these species is not indicative of resource sharing. The structure of the guild, with many rare species and few abundant ones, as much as the richness and abundance of the families of Apoidea, was similar to other studies conducted in the Cerrado region. The collecting of bees in a single plant species was capable of representing, at least partially, the richness of bees in the Cerrado . There was great similarity between the bee guilds in EEP and FPB. The composition of species of each guild varied more among the three areas than the richness and abundance. The comparison between the bee guilds collected in EEP in 1988/89 and 2005/2006 made the changes in abundance and composition of species evident. The proportion of natural vegetation, the location and the biology of each species, such as in the case of Melipona, are factors that influenced the structure of the bee guilds. Other flower visitors of Matayba guianensis were the Coleoptera, with 35 species, the Diptera, with 37 and wasps, with 54. Some of these species, as Ornidia obesa and Palpada sp.1, may act as pollinators. Other species are probably damaging the plant, as the phytophagous Coleoptera. Matayba guianensis is a key plant in the maintenance of guilds of bees as well as of other Cerrado insects.
Nas plantas entomófilas os visitantes florais mais freqüentes são abelhas sociais e solitárias. A relação é mutualística, com as abelhas se beneficiando do pólen e do néctar e as plantas se beneficiando da polinização realizada pelas abelhas. O estudo das guildas de abelhas visitantes de flores permite, entre outros, o entendimento da estrutura da guilda e dos fatores que interferem nessa estrutura. Dentre estes, o desflorestamento de áreas naturais, como o cerrado, tem sido apontado como um dos principais fatores. Assim, escolheu-se uma planta comum de cerrado, Matayba guianensis Aubl. (Sapindaceae), objetivando-se estudar a estrutura da guilda de abelhas visitantes e aspectos de sua biologia floral. Outros objetivos foram verificar se as diferenças ambientais entre três áreas de cerrado influenciariam na estrutura dessa guilda e determinar os visitantes florais e possíveis polinizadores de Matayba guianensis, além das abelhas. Escolheu-se três áreas de cerrado (sentido restrito), no município de Uberlândia, MG: a Estação Ecológica do Panga- EEP, com 403,85 ha; o cerrado na Fazenda Palma da Babilônia-FPB, com 180 ha e a reserva na Souza Cruz-SC, com 28,5 ha. As áreas apresentavam diferenças que foram evidenciadas pelas estimativas de vegetação natural no entorno: 52,62 % para a EEP, 32,94 % para a FPB e 9,73 % para a SC. As abelhas e outros insetos foram coletados em Matayba guianensis em duas floradas consecutivas, de outubro a dezembro de 2005 e de 2006. Essa planta apresentou assincronia em suas fases fenológicas e predominância de indivíduos estaminados (64,7%) em relação aos estaminados/pistilados e pistilados, sendo generalista quanto a seus visitantes florais. Na primeira etapa, foram coletadas 1516 abelhas, pertencentes a cinco famílias de Apoidea e a 80 espécies. Destas, 30% foram dominantes e 46,3%, espécies raras. Na segunda etapa, coletou-se 562 abelhas pertencentes a 66 espécies, com 15,2 % de espécies dominantes e 56,1% de espécies raras. No total, foram coletadas 2078 abelhas pertencentes a 110 espécies. A família Apidae sobressaiu em número de espécies e de indivíduos. A espécie mais abundante foi Apis mellifera, que representou 41,9 % e 32,7% das abelhas coletadas na primeira e segunda etapas, seguida por Scaptotrigona depilis, com 24% e 20,6%, respectivamente. As espécies mais comuns apresentaram alguns picos de atividade não coincidentes, mas não houve um padrão de partição de recursos ao longo do dia. A estrutura da guilda, com muitas espécies raras e poucas espécies abundantes, assim como a riqueza e abundância das famílias de Apoidea, mostrou-se semelhante a outros trabalhos realizados no cerrado. A coleta de abelhas em uma única espécie de planta foi capaz de representar parcialmente a riqueza de abelhas do cerrado. A similaridade entre a guilda de abelhas da EEP foi bastante semelhante à da FPB. A composição das espécies de cada guilda variou mais entre as três áreas do que a riqueza e abundância. A comparação entre as guildas de abelhas da EEP coletadas em 1988/89 e em 2005/2006 evidenciou alterações na abundância e composição das espécies. A proporção de vegetação natural, a localização e a biologia de cada espécie, como no caso de Melipona, são fatores que influenciaram na estrutura das guildas de abelhas. Outros visitantes florais de Matayba guianensis foram os coleópteros, com 35 espécies; dípteros, com 37 e vespas, com 54. Muitas destas espécies, como os dípteros Ornidia obesa e Palpada sp.1, podem atuar como polinizadores. Outras espécies devem estar prejudicando a planta, como os coleópteros fitófagos. Matayba guianensis é uma planta-chave na manutenção de guildas de abelhas e de outros insetos do cerrado.
Doutor em Ecologia e Conservação de Recursos Naturais

A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy, May 2019
Suites of plant floral traits, such as floral colour and shape, nectar properties, scent, and timing of anthesis are important attractants and/or rewards for visitors, to ensure successful pollination events. This has resulted in a wide range of floral diversity within the angiosperms, and floral traits are often used to predict the most effective pollinators of a plant. The genus Aloe comprises of > 500 species, with the greatest concentration and diversity of species found in southern Africa. Twelve different growth forms across ~140 taxa are recognised in South Africa alone, with a wide variety of floral traits. These traits suggest specialist nectarivorous bird (e.g. sunbirds (Nectariniidae) and sugarbirds (Promeropidae), generalist (opportunistic) nectar-feeding birds (e.g. weavers (Ploceidae), thrushes (Muscicapidae), white-eyes (Zosteropidae), etc.), or insect (e.g. halictid, allodapine and honeybees) pollination. Floral colour, nectar, and pollen rewards are the most important attractants for these visitors (both predicted and unexpected), and nearly all aloes are self incompatible and reliant on pollen vectors for successful pollen transfer. This thesis investigated the role of Aloe floral traits in the attraction of multiple visitor/pollinator guilds, and the consequent effect on plant reproductive output, using three South African endemic Aloe species as model species. Aloe peglerae is a Critically Endangered, stemless aloe, which flowers during winter (June – July). Floral characteristics suggest bird pollination (red flowers that produce large amounts of nectar), although small mammals were reported as occasional nocturnal visitors to the aloes. To compare the role of diurnal bird visitors and nocturnal small mammal visitors in the pollination, and subsequent reproductive output of A. peglerae, day/night exclusion experiments were conducted during the 2013 flowering season. These experiments confirm that generalist nectar-feeding birds, especially the Cape Rock-Thrush (Monticola rupestris; 80% of all diurnal visits), are the primary pollinators of A. peglerae. Small, non-flying mammals, primarily the Namaqua Rock Mouse (Micaelamys namaquensis), successfully pollinate the aloe at night (70% of nocturnal visits), despite not being predicted by floral traits. This is the first quantification of small mammal pollination in Aloe. Over two flowering seasons with different flowering success rates (2013: a “good” flowering year, and 2014: a “poor” flowering year), day/night exclusion experiments were conducted to assess the effect of annual fluctuations in flowering success on the pollinator visitation and subsequent plant reproductive output. Small mammals are suitable, alternative pollinators, especially in years when flowering success is low. Mobile birds are able to move to more energetically viable food resources, while mice are forced to rely on their immediate surroundings. In a poorer flowering year, Aloe peglerae reproductive output was lower in bird-pollinated plants (fruit set: 2013: 23.3 ± 4.9%; 2014: 0%; mean ± S.E.), while reproductive output by small mammal pollinated plants was similar between years (2013: 8.9 ± 2.7%; 2014:4.9 ± 4.0%). This emphasizes the effectiveness of small mammals as pollinators in flowering years with low primary pollinator (bird) abundance. The production of A. peglerae nectar over a 24-hour period was measured, to assess the effect of constant nectar production on the temporal partitioning of pollinator visitation and resource use. Aloe peglerae nectar is produced continuously over 24-hours, with peaks in bird and small mammal visitation tracking periods of peak nectar production. Diurnal birds and nocturnal small mammals partition this nectar resource temporally, with overlaps in visitation at dusk and dawn. The increased nectar production during the day attracts birds, but residual and freshly secreted (albeit reduced) nectar attracts small mammals at night, ensuring pollination events throughout the flowering period of the aloes. Aloe reitzii var. reitzii flowers in summer (February – March), and flowers produce nectar throughout the day, with properties (volume and concentration) that range across both specialist- and generalist nectarivorous bird preferences. The contributions, and temporal partitioning, of both specialist- and generalist nectar feeding birds to the visitation to this aloe were investigated. Both these bird guilds regularly visit the aloes, with specialist visitation dominated by the Malachite Sunbird (Nectarinia famosa; 49% of all visits), and generalist visitation dominated by the Cape Weaver (Ploceus capensis; 41% of all visits). This may be indicative of pollinator specialisation by one generalist and one specialist nectarivore in A. reitzii var. reitzii. Visitation by these birds is temporally separated, likely due to territoriality and competition for nectar resources. Cape Weaver visitation peaks early in the morning, while Malachite Sunbirds are dominant from the late morning, and are more consistent for the rest of the day. Hawkmoths visit the aloes at night, and honeybees are regular visitors during day. Insects likely play an important role in the pollination of these aloes, as with many summer-flowering aloes. Aloe petricola is a winter flowering (July – August) aloe, with three different floral colour morphs co-existing in different proportions within the same populations (orange buds, yellow flowers (55% of sampled population); red buds, white flowers (22%); and red buds, yellow flowers (22%)). The potential influence of pollinator-mediated selection for floral colour (flower constancy) by birds, on the proportions of different floral morphs within a sub population of A. petricola, along with the resulting reproductive output of each color morph was assessed. Plant morphometrics (leaf rosette diameter and height, number of racemes, and raceme length) and nectar volume and concentration do not differ among morphs. Generalist nectar-feeding birds (six species recorded), especially the Dark-capped Bulbul (Pycnonotus tricolor; 43.2% of visits), regularly visited the aloes, with the White-bellied Sunbird (Cinnyris talatala; 10.2% of visits) making up most of the specialist nectarivore visits (four species recorded). Honeybees and butterflies were observed visiting the plants. Flower colour does not appear to confer a reproductive advantage, as bird visitors do not preferentially select among morphs and reproductive output was similar among the three morphs (fruit set/plant: orange-yellow: 21.9 ± 4.1%; red-white: 16.9 ± 2.3%, and red-yellow: 21.4 ± 5.4%) Visitors are likely foraging at any available food resources in the resource-limited winter. Interactions and functional trade-offs between biotic (pollinators, floral pigments) and abiotic factors (spatial and temporal environmental variation, resource availability and use), rather than pollinator-mediated selection and flower constancy, may be driving and maintaining polymorphism, and optimising plant fitness in this Aloe species. Despite the roles these floral characteristics play in attracting visitors and pollinators, 60% of published Aloe studies report fruit set (proportion of flowers that set fruit) of < 30%, with some plants producing no fruit at all. A review of published Aloe studies was conducted, where reports of pollinator visitation, surplus flower production and low fruit set were reviewed, and the theory of gender expression discussed in the context of Aloe. Many aloe species appear to produce surplus flowers that do not develop into fruit, likely as a result of the limited resources available, as these plants often grow in dry, resource-limited soils/environments. Fruit and seed maturation (female function) is resource-intensive, and so plants may allocate the limited resources to the “cheaper” male function of producing pollen. Therefore, these plants may be “functionally male”, with surplus flowers performing multiple functions, apart from fruit production. They may serve as additional pollinator attractants, by making inflorescences larger and more conspicuous (which is important during pollinator limitation), or providing additional nectar and pollen rewards. Surplus flowers may also compensate for flowers that are lost due to transfer of self-pollen (self-incompatibility reaction), and florivory. Structural limitations may cause low fruit set, as the infructescence cannot physically accommodate each flower as a fruit capsule; reported “low” fruit set may be the physical maximum that a plant can achieve. It appears that a trade-off between male and female function is made to optimise overall plant fitness. A broad scope for experimentation exists, as specific studies are required to define the role of surplus flowers in Aloe. Plant-pollinator interactions in Aloe are complex, and are further confounded by other factors, such as resource limitation, and climate variability. Long term studies on the variability in flowering and fruiting, as a result of resource availability, use, and storage, may prove invaluable in understanding these interactions. Further studies should avoid treating extrinsic (pollinators and resource availability) and intrinsic factors (plant size, gender expression) as mutually exclusive, but rather take the interactions into consideration. Resources are allocated to the production of pollinator attractants, and visitors of multiple guilds (specialist and generalist birds, small mammals, and insects) play a vital role in the pollination of aloes. Aloes are also important food resources for these visitors, especially in resource-limited winter months. Visitors do not appear to preferentially select plants based on specific colours or nectar properties, but rather feed at any available resource. Within each guild, there appears to be a dominant species which may be acting as the “specialist” pollinator for specific Aloe species. However, the efforts of these pollinators may be futile if remaining resources are not sufficient for fruit and seed maturation. If resources for female function are limiting, then the production of surplus flowers still ensures gene transfer. Inadequate resource supply, storage, and allocation may jeopardise the overall fitness of the plant and, ultimately, the species, many of which are sensitive to habitat transformation and land degradation.
PH2019

Carrot inflorescences are unspecialised in form and structure and as such, may be pollinated by a large range of insects. Although there is some literature published on insect visitation to open-pollinated carrot seed crops in several regions around the world, there are none in Australasia and there is none on insect visitation to hybrid carrot seed crops worldwide. With much geographic and seasonal visitation evident among these published studies and a growing hybrid carrot seed crop industry in Southern Australia and New Zealand, this study was undertaken to investigate insect visitation to carrot seed crops. Surveys and observation studies of insect visitation were undertaken over three consecutive seasons in the south of Tasmania in order to identify and determine the behaviour of potential pollinators in carrot seed crops. Over 100 morphological groupings of insects were discerned visiting hybrid carrot seed crops. The majority of insects were classified into the grouping small insects (< 5 mm), and made up 78 % of all insects with the largest group among these being thrips. Among the insects observed visiting umbels, nectar scarabs (Phyllotocus spp.) were the most abundant taxa but honey bees (Apis mellifera Linnaeus), muscoid flies and ladybirds were more frequently observed but at lower numbers. Weather conditions, site location, time of day, and season all affected the composition of the insect cohort and the frequency of visitation. Honey bees were the most reliable visitors due to the provision of hives by local bee-keepers. Nectar scarabs (Phyllotocus spp.), honey bees (Apis mellifera Linnaeus) and the hover fly, Eristalis tenax (Linnaeus), carried high carrot pollen loads on their bodies. Based on pollen loads, honey bees and muscoid flies appeared to forage mostly within the male-fertile carrot row whereas nectar scarabs and E. tenax foraged across rows. All observed insect taxa were more frequently seen visiting male-fertile (MF) than cytoplasmically male-sterile (CMS) umbels. Lower pollen loads on the honey bee’s body were six times more likely on bees collected on male-sterile than on MF umbels and eight times more likely on nectar collecting than pollen collecting worker bees. Honey bees were found to be visiting a wide range of alternative pollen sources and made relatively few (ca. 1.4 %) visits to carrot plants over the entire flowering season. Insect visits were more abundant on certain carrot cultivars. Significant differences in insect visitation were also found between cultivars from different carrot root types but not CMS types (brown anther or petaloid) or flower colours. The visitation rates of honey bees, nectar scarabs (Phyllotocus macleayi Fischer), muscoid flies and wasps each significantly differed between cultivars but differences were not consistent between seasons. At an individual umbel level as umbel diameter increased, visitation by soldier beetles increased. The presence of soldier beetles on umbels had a negative effect on visitation by A. mellifera. Differences in a number of chemical attributes were found between cultivars and were linked to attractiveness to pollinators. Fructose and glucose were dominant in the nectar of all cultivars with only small amounts of sucrose present. Twenty-six chemical compounds were detected in the inflorescence headspace of carrot flowers with all showing significant levels of variation between flowers. Honey bee visitation was found to be influenced by cis-2,6-dimethyl-2,6-octadiene, decanal, bornyl acetate and sucrose, whilst visitation by other insects was influenced by a combination of camphene, alpha-terpinene and umbel diameter. Further work considering functionally similar insect groups, whose species make-up may change considerably between years, but which collectively do not vary in their relative importance to the carrot flower should be the focus of further study.

At a global scale, rates of crop production are outstripping the availability of crop pollination services. Furthermore, there are concerning declines in both managed and wild pollinators. In response to these issues, recent research highlights the contribution of native insects towards agricultural pollination and the importance of native vegetation in sustaining wild pollinator services. Concurrently, land clearing and the loss of resources supplied by native vegetation may be the greatest threat to native pollinator diversity. In Australia, one of the first regions modified for agriculture, the Tasmanian Midlands have lost an estimated 83% of original habitat. Carrot seed (Daucus carota L.) export is a major commodity in this region, however rented honeybee hives are unable to meet crop pollination demands and thus limit the expansion of this industry. Revegetation with native flora offers a potential solution by increasing wild pollination services. The selection of suitable revegetation flora is hampered by the lack of a rapid method to compare floral traits and identify patterns between flora that may influence insect foraging. This thesis will directly address these knowledge gaps. The overall thesis aim is to establish whether insect visits to native and crop flora in the Tasmanian Midlands are explained by either the scent or pollen traits of flowers. In order to achieve this, scent and pollen samples were analysed for a subset of extant Midlands native and crop flora. Simultaneously, insect visits were observed for the study region and taxa. In conclusion, the association between scent, pollen and insect visits was tested to uncover the influence of particular traits. In Chapter 2, I examine scent as a floral trait and whether distinguishing scent profiles can be characterised for individual flora species through solid-phase microextraction (SPME) paired with gas-chromatography (GC-MS). Secondly, whether scent profiles for individual species group flora in known phylogenetic groups, implying the predominance of inherited volatiles, or whether flora group in patterns that may imply convergence due to pollinator selection pressures. Paired SPME and GC-MS was demonstrated to accurately collect representative and reproducible floral profiles, from which characteristic patterns could be isolated. Herein, the novel profiles of 15 Australian flora species are reported and contrasted against literature profiles of the commonly cultivated seed crops: Daucus carota L. and Brassica rapa L. Applying ordination and hierarchical clustering, both native and crop flora were found to generally group taxonomically as a result of shared, inherited volatiles. However, differences in shared and unique volatiles also highlighted evidence of past and ongoing evolutionary responses towards insect selection pressures. In Chapter 3, I investigate pollen as a floral trait and whether distinct pollen fingerprints can be obtained for individual flora through paired atmospheric solids ambient pressure–mass spectrometry (ASAP-MS). Secondly, whether pollen fingerprints group flora according to known phylogeny or in patterns indicative of pollinator pressures. Only the second study to apply ASAP-MS to the characterisation of pollen, this method was successfully applied in the collection of distinct pollen fingerprints. The novel pollen fingerprints of 18 Australian plant species, seed crop Daucus carota L. and two naturalised Brassica rapa L. hybrids are reported. Employing ordination, Jaccard index correlation and hierarchical clustering, pollens were found to generally group in accordance with known taxonomy and exhibited an average correlation of 49%. Additionally, evidence of pollinator selection pressures and unique evolutionary convergence was observed between more distantly related species, such as the Fabaceae pea Dillwynia cinerascens and the Myrtaceae Eucalyptus amygdalina. In Chapter 4, I sought to compare the visitation of major insect groups and their overlap between native and crop flora to determine potential revegetation flora species by mapping insect emergence and flowering sequence via a calendar. Insect visits were observed for 19 native Australian plant species, two naturalised Brassica rapa L. hybrids and the seed crop Daucus carota L. Beetle species constituted the highest taxa visiting native flora, flies and beetles dominated D. carota fields, whilst native and feral bees were most common to naturalised Brassica. Utilising ordination, Jaccard index correlation, and hierarchical clustering, insect visits broadly grouped flora taxonomically, with evidence of trends towards bee, fly or beetle preference across flora. Over two-thirds of the insect visitors to crop species overlapped with native flora, supporting the existence of a wild pollination service in this region that may be enhanced by revegetation. Comparison of insect preferences and emergence relative to flowering sequence allowed us to elucidate three sets of revegetation flora suitable for (i) maintaining existing biodiversity in the Midlands, (ii) enhancing wild pollination of D. carota crops, (iii) enhancing wild visitation of Brassica fields. In chapter 5, my aim was to synthesise the results of the previous three chapters, and answer whether (i) either scent or pollen traits explain insect visitation, (ii) scent and pollen associate as floral traits. Testing association with Procrustes analysis and the Procrustean randomisation test, insect visits were found to associate with pollen as a floral trait and not scent. There was no statistical support for any association between pollen and scent traits of flowers. From these results I determined that pollen may provide an easily tested trait that can help to narrow down the selection of vegetation flora, when layered on top of information about flowering sequence and insect visitation. In summary, this research addressed the overarching aim by finding that insect visits to native and crop flora in the Tasmanian Midlands are associated with the pollen composition of flowers. The ASAP-MS technique was demonstrated to provide vital fingerprinting data for pollen, allowing the analysis of pollen as a demonstrable trait to guide revegetation decision-making. The collection of scent as a floral trait was also easily obtainable by means of SPME GC-MS and merits further investigation. Lastly, three sets of sequentially flowering native flora were identified that are suitable for wild pollinator biodiversity in the Midlands region.

碩士
朝陽科技大學
休閒事業管理系
107
The purpose of this study is to explore the differences in attraction, consumption experience and visitor satisfaction among different background variables and the relationship between the variables. To visitors participated in the Expo 2018 in Taichung for the study, a total of 307 samples were issued, and 18 invalid questionnaires were deducted. a total of 289 valid samples were recovered, and the effective recovery rate was 94.13%.Statistical method includes descriptive statistics, independent sample t test, one-way ANOVA and regression analysis. The results and conclusions are as follows: 1. Respondents which women more than men, unmarried more than married, the age group is most from 21 to 30 years old., education in college is the largest, for the majority of occupation is service industry, monthly income $20,001 to $50,000 for the most, food and beverage is the most intention to queue type, and the residence in the central region is the most in Taichung. 2. Visitors with different background variables have significant differences in attractiveness, consumption experience, and satisfaction. 3. Tourists have a significant impact on the consumer experience of the world flora exposition attraction and tourists have a significant impact on the satisfaction of the world flora exposition attraction. And the consumer experience has a significant impact on visitor satisfaction. Based on the findings, the following suggestions are as follows: 1. Invite Youtuber to film and improve your understanding and interest in the event. 2. The location of the park to be adjusted. 3. The price and merchandise of the souvenirs around bo are adjusted and innovated to enhance the willingness of tourists to buy souvenirs. Keywords: Taichung flora exposition, Attactions, Consumption experience, visitor satisfaction

碩士
國立中興大學
科技管理研究所
99
Despite the great impact of festivals, little is known about what makes a festival successful. A large festival or event often requires huge injection of time and money. Such resources need to be used in a more efficient and effective way. Over the past decades, there has been a significant rise in the number of festivals and events. The fast growing number of festivals and events in terms of the social and economic impact has become a universal phenomenon. By using festival environment stimuli, visitors'' emotions, this study estimates the effects of visitors'' satisfaction, loyalty, and spending at The Taipei International Flora Expo. After knowing the effects and impacts of festivals and events, municipal managers and events holders may serve the public more efficiently and effectively. In the long run, we expect that festivals and events will be able not only to generate enormous economic revenue but also to create a positive city image.

Sicyos deppei G. Don (Cucurbitaceae) is an invasive monoic annual tendril-bearing vine; it is endemic to Mexico, adapted to the rainfall cycle (June through the end of September) and produces spiny, single seeded fruits. Under serious infestation conditions, S. deppei grows extensively, covering native plants, crops and tree trunks. This study determined the breeding system and pollinators of S. deppei growing in three study sites at urban gardens and disturbed sites at the Campus of the Universidad de las Américas, Puebla in the city of San Andrés Cholula, Puebla (Mexico). Each female inflorescence had an average of 17 flowers at the three study sites. As a step prior to experiments, the timing for stigma receptiveness and pollen viability was determined with the Peroxtesmo KO test (PKO) and Diaminobenzidine test (DAB),respectively. Stigmas of female flowers reach maximum receptivity when flowers are at anthesis; receptivity decreases as the flower reaches the succeeding floral stages. Viability of pollen grains increases with flower development; viabilitypercentages at early stages of floral development are very low, as opposed to the higher percentages of pollen viability found in flowers at anthesis and following developmental stages. Breeding systems were tested for xenogamy and geitonogamy by hand pollinating female flowers. Breeding systems results demonstrated that S. i deppei has a mixed-mating system, being able to set fruit and seed when pollinated with pollen from different plants and from pollen of the same plants. The pollinators were determined with the single-visit method. The diversity of floral visitors in this study was low; the most effective pollinator for S. deppei in this study was Apis mellifera. Throughout the rainy season, this study also described the phenology of S. deppei at the plant and flower level, as well as total plant length. Each stage of development in male and female flowers lasts one day. At the end of the rainy season (N2010) individual plants measured between 947 and 270 cm.
CONACYT, NSERC-CANPOLIN