Journal articles on the topic 'Flood damage Thailand'

One of the Thailand’s worst floods occurred in the autumn of 2011. A wide area of the Chao Phraya River basin, including Bangkok, was inundated for a long time. Heavy flood damage expanded not only in Thailand but in many parts of the world. The authors formed a research group and carried out an interview survey in the field in Thailand in November 2011 and in January 2012. We investigated the flood situation and damage in and around Bangkok. We also did so in Ayutthaya, where a world heritage site and an industrial park are located. Based on our findings, we discuss suitable countermeasures for reducing flood damage in Bangkok.

In 2011, the Thai economy contracted by 9.0 percent, mainly due to severe flooding in Chao Phraya River Basin. Rainfall accumulated from January to October 2011 was approximately 35% higher than in average years. Overall damage from floods amounted to THB 1.44 trillion, making it the world’s fourth costliest disaster. Significant damage included the production chains of the manufacturing sector and logistics systems and reductions in household expenditures, investment, Thailand’s exports, and the number of foreign turists.

The 2011 flood on the Chao Phraya River in Thailand caused enormous damage. The damage was greatest to the industrial sector, accounting for more than 70% of the estimated economic damage, and the resulting disruption of the supply chains of global companies has spread not only throughout Thailand but to other countries around the world. In order to reduce such damage, it is necessary to prepare a flood manual that makes use of past flood experiences or a business continuity planning (BCP) that assumes floods. In addition, business continuity management (BCM) is needed to establish and enhance BCP. Thus, it is essential to obtain flood information on the scale of an industrial park. Therefore, in this study, to provide detailed flood information as above, in addition to a flood inundation analysis model for the Chao Phraya River Basin, a detailed model on the scale of an industrial park was developed. Specifically, we developed a 40 m mesh industrial park-scale model based on survey data using a local aerial laser and the local river channel shape. Furthermore, using the flood discharge and river discharge output obtained from a 1 km mesh model of the Chao Phraya River Basin as inputs for the industrial park scale model for the surrounding boundary conditions, we obtained a more precise inundation analysis. As a result, the flood risk information obtained from the above analysis model can be useful for BCP/BCM. In addition, detailed flood risk information such as road inundation conditions can be obtained at any location, which could be useful in creating evacuation plans for employees.

This study investigates characteristics of the damage to housing caused by the 2011 Thai flood and explores recovery processes. There are three research objectives. The first objective is to compile financial losses and support for residents affected by the 2011 flood. The second objective is to classify the types of reconstruction that residents chose to renovate their own homes. The third objective is to estimate residents’ capability for coping with future floods. Huntra, a sub district in Ayutthaya province, was chosen as the site for this study. The research results indicate that the disaster recovery budget provided by national government was too small, and was not enough for all of the reconstruction that the affected residents needed. Renovation that offers better protection against floods is classified into two groups. Type A is called elevated houses, in which the used spaces are elevated higher than before flood. Type B is called extended houses, in which the used spaces that are considered safe in a disaster are extended. Most residents could not afford this type of renovation. However, so far the most widely used option is painting the house in order to erase the watermark from the flood. In the three years since the flood occurred, residents have gained a greater awareness of flood evacuation; however, only a small number of residents decided to reconstruct their house using measures for flood protection. Flood relief policy that focuses on providing money for the affected homeowners has therefore not been successful. Our study suggests that the government should establish more systematic support, such as provision of construction materials or craftsmen/labor to communities or residents.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to focus on the large-scale flood response coordination across sectors and jurisdictions, investigating the characteristics and gaps of the 2011 Thailand flood response operations. Design/methodology/approach The large-scale flood response coordination was measured as an inter-organizational network. An extensive content analysis of news reports was conducted to identify the participating organizations and relationships among them that emerged during the initial flood response operations. Social network analysis was used to examine the patterns and gaps of coordination among the organizations. Findings The research identified three major gaps that might weaken the response coordination. First, the coordination structure was highly fragmented with many isolated actors. Second, the benefit of inter-sector relationships was not well leveraged in the system due to weak reciprocal relationships across sectors. Third, provincial level organizations did not serve as a strong liaison between local actors (cities) and national actors. Practical implications Based on the findings, the research offers suggestions to improve the performance of response coordination in recurring flood disasters. Originality/value This study is distinctive in its examination of structural characteristics of large-scale, inter-sector and multi-jurisdictional flood response coordination in Thailand. Previous studies have explored how citizens were organized and responded to flood disasters at the local level, and measured indicators or causes of response resilience at the provincial level system. Yet, studies examining the patterns of coordination structure among response organizations across all affected-jurisdictional authorities and sectors have been lacking.

<p><strong>Abstract.</strong> Flooding is one of the major disasters occurring in various parts of the world. Estimation of economic loss due to flood often becomes necessary for flood damage mitigation. This present practice to carry out post flood survey to estimate damage, which is a laborious and time-consuming task. This paper presents a framework of rapid estimation of flood damage using SAR earth observation satellite data.</p><p>In Nakhon Si Thammarat, a southern province in Thailand, flooding is a recurrent event affecting the entire province, especially the urban area. Every year, it causes lives and damages to infrastructure, agricultural production and severely affects local economic development. In order to monitor and estimate flood damages in near-real time, numerous techniques can be used, from a simply digitizing on maps, to using detailed surveys or remote sensing techniques. However, when using the last-mentioned technique, the results are conditioned by the time of data acquisition (day or night) as well as by weather conditions. Although, these impediments can be surpassed by using RADAR satellite imagery. The aim of this study is to delineate the land surface of Chian Yai, Pak Phanang and Hua Sai districts of that was affected by floods in December 2018 and January 2019. For this case study, Sentinel-1 C-Band SAR data provided by ESA (European Space Agency) were used. The data sets were taken before and after the flood took place, all within 1 days and were processed using Sentinel Toolbox. Cropland mapping has been carried out to assess the agricultural loss in study area using Sentinel-1 SAR data. The thematic accuracy has been assessed for cropland classification for test site shows encouraging overall accuracy as 82.63 % and kappa coefficients (&amp;kappa;) as 0.78.</p>

Abstract. Thailand floods in 2011 caused an unprecedented economic damage in the Chao Phraya River basin. To diagnose the flood hazard characteristics, this study analyzes the hydrologic sensitivity of flood runoff and inundation to rainfall. The motivation is to address why the seemingly insignificant monsoon rainfall, or 1.2 times more rainfall than past large floods including the ones in 1995 and 2006, resulted in such a devastating flooding. To quantify the hydrologic sensitivity, this study simulated a long-term rainfall-runoff and inundation for the entire river basin (160 000 km2). The simulation suggested that the flood inundation volume in 2011 was 1.6 times more than past flood events. Furthermore the elasticity index suggested that 1% increase in rainfall causes 2.3% increase in runoff and 4.2% increase in flood inundation. This study highlights the importance of sensitivity quantification for better understanding of flood hazard characteristics; and the presented approach is effective for the analysis at large river basins.

Numerous global water disasters have devastated many regions, and some may be due to climate change. Severe water disasters not only may inflict heavily damage on industry but may also leave many persons dead or seriously injured. The 2011 Thailand flood is a typical example of such disasters. In it, a wide area of the Chao Phraya River basin, where Bangkok is located, was inundated for a long period. Damage by the flood affected not only the domestic scene but also economies and industries all over the world. Many academicians and researchers have executed field surveys from various academic aspects and have studied flood disasters to clarify what actually occurred and to consider what must be done to mitigate such flood events in the future. The Journal of Disaster Research has planned a special issue on this severe flooding in Thailand. Having participated in field surveys and found the flood worth studying more deeply, I decided to contribute to this special issue as a Guest Editor. This special issue contains 9 articles, 7 papers and 2 reports, all of which have been peer-reviewed. The broad topics covered range from a detailed field survey to flood and inundation simulation. I would like to extend sincere thanks to all of the contributors and reviewers involved in producing these articles. Especially, I would especially like to express my gratitude to Dr. Hiroshi Takebayashi, Associate Professor, Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan, for his great support. I look forward with great anticipation to any feedback that readers may be able to provide regarding these articles.

Abstract. The Thailand floods in 2011 caused unprecedented economic damage in the Chao Phraya River basin. To diagnose the flood hazard characteristics, this study analyses the hydrologic sensitivity of flood runoff and inundation to rainfall. The motivation is to address why the seemingly insignificant monsoon rainfall, or 1.2 times more rainfall than for past large floods, including the ones in 1995 and 2006, resulted in such devastating flooding. To quantify the hydrologic sensitivity, this study simulated long-term rainfall–runoff and inundation for the entire river basin (160 000 km2). The simulation suggested that the flood inundation volume was 1.6 times more in 2011 than for the past flood events. Furthermore, the elasticity index suggested that a 1 % increase in rainfall causes a 2.3 % increase in runoff and a 4.2 % increase in flood inundation. This study highlights the importance of sensitivity quantification for a better understanding of flood hazard characteristics; the presented basin-wide rainfall–runoff–inundation simulation was an effective approach to analyse the sensitivity of flood runoff and inundation at the river basin scale.

Thailand was hit by a great flood in 2011 resulting from irregular rainfall during the typhoon season that was estimated at 140% more than average. The flood began in the north and slowly moved to the central region, where it remained for more than 4 months. The flood caused great damage to the economy because it adversely affected industrial estates and agricultural areas. In the north, there are four main rivers in the region that combine into a river called Chao Phraya in the central region. The Yom River is one of the northern rivers where no large-scale dam has been constructed, resulting in frequent flood and drought. Sukhothai Province is located in the Yom Basin, where flood and drought occur on a regular basis, and the province was also severely damaged in the 2011 flood. In order to estimate flood damage cost in 2011, a simple regression curve is presented first to relate flood areas and damage cost based on past records. The 2011 flood in Sukhothai province was then simulated by using a Rainfall-Runoff-Inundation (RRI) model with satellite based rainfall (TRMM). After simulation results were compared with the observed stream flow water level, discharge and inundation extent, this study estimates damage cost for the 2011 flood based on the simulated flood area. The proposed approach could be a useful guideline in damage cost computation.

Rapid urbanization, deforestation and disaster management system exacerbated the risk of flooding in Thailand. In 2011, Thailand had learned the lessons from its experience of the mega flood disaster that point to the requirement of better solutions to reduce damage to property and human life. This article presents the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) and Flood Management Framework (SEAFMF) in the existing flood management plan. This study aims to investigate how SEA can be integrated into Thailand’s flood management plan using an appropriate flood management framework. The methodology includes content analysis of qualitative and quantitative data based on a review of existing research, interviews with relevant organizations, and focus group discussions. The results show that the strategic environmental assessment approach can be used in decision making regarding the adaptation framework. As the pilot case, is a partially integrated model, more effective SEA should be completely done by establishing the appropriate legal framework and authority to directly responsible. The results could provide example of integration SEA into FMP, adaptation to climate change, and disaster management for other areas.

Floods are the greatest natural disaster in Thailand, but they are an important part of recharging the water volume for groundwater resources. This paper focused on evaluating and discussing the relationship between flood magnitudes and flood management impacting groundwater storage in the Upper Chao Phraya River basin in Thailand, where the intensive rice production of the region is located. Based on satellite image data, there were annual flood inundations varying from 1950 to 10,470 km2 over the period 2005–2019. The evaluation shows those flooding events yielded floodwater recharge of approximately 0.5–5.9 km3. To lessen the flood damage, floodways with 2000 m3 s-1 of drainage capacity are proposed by the government. This measure aims to accelerate flood surplus out to the gulf of Thailand and to confine the flooding areas to a maximum value of 4650 km2. A reduction of approximately 3.4 km3 of groundwater storage is estimated if the floodways are implemented. Staple crops in the dry season, especially rice fields outside an irrigation project (rainfed area), cope with water stress. To sustain basin water demand in the dry season, approximately 1820 km2 should be allowed for an area flooded for a month where 0.9 km3 of water volume is harvested annually. Although flood control is important, potential impact on the reduction of groundwater recharge needs to be carefully considered. Therefore, a flood control policy shows the balance of available basin water occasionally supplied by the groundwater while rice water demand is being proposed.

Mainstreaming flood risk reduction into spatial planning (MFRRSP) recognizes the urgent need for sustainable human settlement planning. Despite official recognition of MFRRSP in Thailand, repetitive damage from floods demonstrates gaps in concept and implementation. This paper examines the transition and challenges of flood risk reduction (FRR) practices in the spatial planning (SP) of the Bangkok and Sing Buri provinces of Thailand. Content analysis through computer-aided qualitative data analysis software (CAQDS) and in-depth interviews provide the evidence for the study. Twenty-two codes under seven assessments were extracted from the MFRRSP guidelines of international organizations. It was found that FRR was more mainstream in Thailand’s SP. The code in the next Sing Buri and Bangkok Comprehensive Land Use Plan (CLUP) was mentioned in 202.06% and 112.70% of the existing CLUP. The assessment area that deserves more attention is FRR preparedness and stakeholder participation, which only 0.011% and 0.035% mention. Two implementation problems are identified. Firstly, no emergency management deals with using land-use management methods. Secondly, FRR regulations limiting the type, density, and design have been reduced, as seen in the next draft of Bangkok CLUP that reduces the floodway in specific districts to be a residential land type. This specific study for Thailand shows how the method can be used in any local context for any country to understand how official planning documents evolve and adapt to disaster preparedness.

The flood in the Chao Phraya River basin in 2011 caused 815 deaths and more than $45 billion in economic damage to Thailand. The industrial sector, the main contributor to the country’s economy, suffered especially devastating economic damage due to inundation of the industrial areas in the river basin. Seven industrial areas, where the total share of Japanese-affiliated firms was more than half, were most severely hit by the flood. In this study, a survey was conducted with Japanese-affiliated firms from February–March 2015 with the purpose of further strengthening their flood countermeasures in the future. The firms’ factories were asked which lessons from the 2011 flood they considered important and whether their experiences from the flood had been applied to strengthening their flood countermeasures. It was found that these factories, regardless of their inundation status in 2011, considered “preparation of a business continuity plan or manual for possible floods” to be the most important lesson from the 2011 flood. However, when it comes to actual implementation of flood countermeasures, the factories that were inundated in 2011 strengthened flood countermeasures much more than the factories with only indirect damage. In both groups, however, collaboration with business partners and local communities as well as use of reliable flood-related information were revealed to be the areas where further strengthening would be possible.

Abstract Flooding is one of the main disasters in Thailand and Mueang Sing Buri is among those areas hit. Located on the Chao Phraya River Basin, in the central region of Thailand, the area receives a large amount of runoff during monsoon seasons which causes frequent flood disasters. The aims of this research are to create a flood hazard map and to estimate the number of people that may need shelter after the occurrence of a flood, and to evaluate whether the shelter capacity is adequate in Mueang Sing Buri. To explore the potential locations of emergency shelters, the relevant information related to flooding was initially recorded, such as building detail, flood depth, elevation map, and flood risk map. The available space of each building varies by the characteristics of building types. The calculation of shelter capacity thus depends on characteristics of the buildings, accessibility, and percent of vacant area. The emergency shelter assessment benefits many sectors in the design of preparation plans for hazard management.

Floods represent one of the most severe natural disasters threatening the development of human society worldwide, including in Thailand. In recent decades, Chaiyaphum province has experienced a problem with flooding almost every year. In particular, the flood in 2010 caused property damage of 495 million Baht, more than 322,000 persons were affected, and approximately 1046.4 km2 of productive agricultural area was affected. Therefore, this study examined how to optimize land use and land cover allocation for flood mitigation using land use change and hydrological models with optimization methods. This research aimed to allocate land use and land cover (LULC) to minimize the surface for flood mitigation in Mueang Chaiyaphum district, Chaiyaphum province, Thailand. The research methodology consisted of six stages: data collection and preparation, LULC classification, LULC prediction, surface runoff estimation, the optimization of LULC allocation for flood mitigation and mapping, and economic and ecosystem service value evaluation and change. According to the results of the optimization and mapping of suitable LULC allocation to minimize surface runoff for flood mitigation in dry, normal, and wet years using goal programming and the CLUE-S model, the suitable LULC allocation for flood mitigation in 2049 under a normal year could provide the highest future economic value and gain. In the meantime, the suitable LULC allocation for flood mitigation in 2049 under a drought year could provide the highest ecosystem service value and gain. Nevertheless, considering future economic and ecosystem service values and changes with surface runoff reduction, the most suitable LULC allocation for flood mitigation is a normal year. Consequently, it can be concluded that the derived results of this study can be used as primary information for flood mitigation project implementation. Additionally, the presented conceptual framework and research workflows can be used as a guideline for government agencies to examine other flood-prone areas for flood mitigation in Thailand.

A large scale flood disaster occurred in Southern Thailand in December, 2016 and January, 2017, resulting in 95 deaths. The majority of the 15 provinces in Southern Thailand suffered from the disaster and extensive, long-term damage was caused which distinguished this flood event from previous flood disasters. This paper reports the findings of a field survey conducted in February, 2017 and analyzes the precipitation phenomena by using ground rainfall data as well as satellite rainfall data because there were not enough ground rain gauges set in this region. Results revealed that this precipitation event had the highest intensity out of all precipitation events occurring over the last 11 years.

Poor and non-poor groups from two flood-prone villages in central Thailand were compared following the flood of 2011. The results showed that the damage/income ratio was higher among persons in the poor group living in old, high-pillared houses near the river. Although this group was not as well prepared and experienced less damage than the non-poor group, they had fewer resources for recovery. The study examined household history, networks, and socio-economic status, as well as the local history. The poor group’s socio-economic characteristics may limit their capacity to resettle, as they have lived in the flood-prone area for generations. Proposals to address this included improving dykes and early warning systems as well as offering compensation for lost earnings.

Flash floods are water-related disasters that cause damage to properties, buildings, and infrastructures in the flow path. Flash floods often occur within a short period of time following intense rainfall in the high, mountainous area of northern Thailand. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to generate a flash flood susceptibility map using watershed morphometric parameters and hydrological approaches. In this study, the Pai River basin, located in Mae Hong Son in northern Thailand, is divided into 86 subwatersheds, and 23 morphometric parameters of the watershed are extracted from the digital elevation model (DEM). In addition, the soil conservation service curve number (SCS-CN) model is used to estimate the precipitation excess, and Snyder’s synthetic unit hydrograph method is used to estimate the time to peak and time of concentration. With respect to the rainfall dataset, in this study, we combined CHIRPS data (as satellite gridded precipitation data) with rainfall data measured within the study area for the runoff analysis. According to the analysis results, 25 out of 86 subwatersheds are classified as highly susceptible areas to flash floods. The similarities in the morphometric parameters representing watersheds in highly flash flood-susceptible areas indicate that this categorization included areas with high relief, high relief ratios, high ruggedness ratios, high stream frequencies, high texture ratios, high annual runoff, high peak discharge, low elongation ratios, and low lemniscates ratios.

Many urban areas in tropical Southeast Asia, e.g., Bangkok in Thailand, have recently been experiencing unprecedentedly intense flash floods due to climate change. The rapid flood inundation has caused extremely severe damage to urban residents and social infrastructures. In addition, urban Southeast Asia usually has inadequate capacities in drainage systems, complicated land use patterns, and a large vulnerable population in limited urban areas. To reduce the urban flood risk and enhance the resilience of vulnerable urban communities, it has been of essential importance to develop real-time urban flood forecasting systems for flood disaster prevention authorities and the urban public. This paper reviewed the state-of-the-art models of real-time forecasting systems for urban flash floods. The real-time system basically consists of the following subsystems, i.e., rainfall forecasting, drainage system modelling, and inundation area mapping. This paper summarized the recent radar data utilization methods for rainfall forecasting, physical-process-based hydraulic models for flood inundation prediction, and data-driven artificial intelligence (AI) models for the real-time forecasting system. This paper also dealt with available technologies for modelling, e.g., digital surface models (DSMs) for the finer urban terrain of drainage systems. The review indicated that an obstacle to using process-based hydraulic models was the limited computational resources and shorter lead time for real-time forecasting in many urban areas in tropical Southeast Asia. The review further discussed the prospects of data-driven AI models for real-time forecasting systems.

In urban areas of Thailand, and especially in Bangkok, recent flash floods have caused severe damage and prompted a renewed focus to manage their impacts. The development of a real-time warning system could provide timely information to initiate flood management protocols, thereby reducing impacts. Therefore, we developed an innovative real-time flood forecasting system (RTFlood system) and applied it to the Ramkhamhaeng polder in Bangkok, which is particularly vulnerable to flash floods. The RTFlood system consists of three modules. The first module prepared rainfall input data for subsequent use by a hydraulic model. This module used radar rainfall data measured by the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration and developed forecasts using the TITAN (Thunderstorm Identification, Tracking, Analysis, and Nowcasting) rainfall model. The second module provided a real-time task management system that controlled all processes in the RTFlood system, i.e., input data preparation, hydraulic simulation timing, and post-processing of the output data for presentation. The third module provided a model simulation applying the input data from the first and second modules to simulate flash floods. It used a dynamic, conceptual model (PCSWMM, Personal Computer version of the Stormwater Management Model) to represent the drainage systems of the target urban area and predict the inundation areas. The RTFlood system was applied to the Ramkhamhaeng polder to evaluate the system’s accuracy for 116 recent flash floods. The result showed that 61.2% of the flash floods were successfully predicted with accuracy high enough for appropriate pre-warning. Moreover, it indicated that the RTFlood system alerted inundation potential 20 min earlier than separate flood modeling using radar and local rain stations individually. The earlier alert made it possible to decide on explicit flood controls, including pump and canal gate operations.

In order to develop a rational methodology to evaluate building damage caused by tsunamis, first, disaster data collected in Thailand, Sri Lanka, and Japan are introduced as verification data. Next, the applicability of an empirical method of predicting inundation depth ( = the inundation height from ground level) based on analysis of those data and a numerical simulation method of tsunami flood is examined by comparing calculation values with the verification data. Then, the validity of a convenient method of evaluating building strength against the tsunami using the gate-type Rahmen Building Model is checked by comparing calculation results with actual damage and diagrams to get pillar widths or wall thicknesses at the breaking threshold for common sizes of buildings are proposed.

Flooding is a major natural hazard that can cause significant damage to socioeconomic and ecological systems. This study presents an approach to producing the maximum flood inundation and flood duration maps over the Chao Phraya River Basin (CPRB), Thailand. An integrated numerical model and spatial analysis tool were utilized in this study. The Rainfall-Runoff-Inundation (RRI) model was first used to simulate both river discharge and inundation depth. Then, the maximum flood inundation and flood duration maps with different return periods were estimated using a Geographical Information System (GIS) tool. The results illustrate that the flood inundation areas were spread out, starting from Nakhon Sawan Province, which is located in the central part of the basin. The maximum flood inundation depth could reach up to approximately 7.71, 8.28, and 8.78 m for the flood return periods of 50, 100, and 200 years, respectively. The results also indicate that the inundation areas over the CPRB could cover approximately 21,837, 23,392, and 24,533 km2 for flood return periods of 50, 100, and 200 years, respectively. The longest flood durations for return periods of 50, 100, and 200 years were approximately 159, 177, and 198 days, respectively. The longest flood duration occurred in the vicinity of the Nakhon Sawan. This study suggests that flood inundation areas and duration mapping could provide supporting information regarding the impacts caused by varying degrees of flood hazards and can be used to enhance comprehensive disaster risk management planning.

This paper aims to identify the root causes that exacerbated the economic damage from the 2011 Chao Phraya river flood disaster in central Thailand industrial complex area. Finding root causes is crucial for learning from disasters; however, there has not been much investigation of the economic damage root causes with regard to the 2011 Chao Phraya river flood disaster. This paper seeks to investigate the root causes of the economic damage by organizing the existing analytical frameworks, tools and approaches to clarify why industrial parks and estates experienced such substantial economic devastation that resonated worldwide. The study’s research design includes a social background survey, in-depth interview surveys and an investigation of the disaster’s root causes. Through the research, inadequate urban and land use planning facilitated by a decentralization policy, foreign companies settlement in the country, which involved urbanization and relocation without proper risk assessment, information, and knowledge, and supplier’s responsibility based on the supply chain’s structure, are detected as root causes for the high economic damage in the industrial complex area. This study also provides key lessons essential to building regional resilience in industrial complex areas: 1) considering the potential risks of regional planning, which include both socio-economic and climate changes; 2) clarifying the roles of companies, regions, and nations in sharing risk information with related stakeholders before, during, and after a disaster; and 3) building horizontal and vertical collaborations among all related stakeholders.

Thailand has faced many flooding crises, especially in 2011, which caused widespread damage to industrial parks and community zones. However, the negative consequences of flooding on the local people and workers in industrial zones have been little studied. This study focuses on the impacts of flooding after 2011 on the well-being of residents in industrial zones in terms of their work and livelihoods. Community-based research was used to explore the effects of floods on 647 respondents who worked in Rojana Industrial Park (N = 247) and those who lived around the park (N = 400). A questionnaire survey was conducted in February 2020. The results showed adverse impacts on the economy, accommodation, and well-being of both the local inhabitants and workers, whose monthly incomes and overtime jobs decreased significantly compared to before the disaster. However, local people suffered more from low incomes than workers of the company, as the employees’ work status was maintained during the crisis. Japanese company culture is investigated as a factor in the higher resilience and recovery levels of company employees than the Rojana community. In addition, the workers were evacuated to other accommodations until the company recovered, while locals remained in their flooded homes. In addition, most respondents reported that mental health impacts were more likely to affect their mental health. For effective recovery and flood risk management, the government should follow up on employment, accommodation, and livelihood after a sudden flood, especially for the local people. A greater understanding of community risk, community engagement, and awareness-raising activities can enhance readiness, response, recovery, and resilience in disaster management by government, businesses, and local communities.

Significant evidence has shown that southern Thailand is prone to the highest risk of repeated flooding. However, psychological distress and mental health problems caused by the flash floods and landslides have been under-researched among Thai survivors. This cross-sectional study aimed to explore characteristics and factors associated with the prevalence of psychological distress, probable post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), probable depression, suicide risk, and alcohol problems 4 to 6 months after the flooding. The research examined 326 survivors from households in flooded communities in Nakhon Si Thammarat province during 2011. Descriptive statistics, correlation analysis and a binary logistic regression model were applied to the data representing demographics, household damage, perceived mental health impact, social support and mental health problems. The results showed that the prevalence rate of probable PTSD, probable depression, psychological distress, suicide risk, and alcohol problems were 44.48, 31.29, 29.45, 17.18 and 4.60 %, respectively. Risk factors that variously affected those mental health problems were age, gender, prior physical condition, perception of mental health impacts, skin infection, and injury incurred during the flood. On the other hand, a significant protective factor was the degree of social support. Results suggest that rapid actions should be taken immediately after flooding, especially management with the risk survivor group and promotion of social support to minimize the mental health impacts associated with the flooding.

This paper is discusses about volunteers’ needs in order to increase the preparedness in assisting natural disasters victims. Disasters are phenomenon that causes damage in properties and lives that limit individuals or societies’ abilities and well-being. Natural disasters such as landslides, tsunami, flood and typhoon happen almost every year. These natural disasters affect certain countries such as Japan, Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia. The volunteers are the one who manage the humanitarian aids to the victims. The needs of the volunteers that been identified need to be evaluated in order to help to expedite the disaster relief management process. This is because the important aspects that need to be evaluated are planning, operational management and disaster training. Meanwhile, disaster preparedness represent as systematic planning in response to the disaster situation that needs to be done to those involved in disaster relief i.e volunteers. The concern on this aspect will help volunteer to be more active, positive and confident, in both physically and mentally when providing helps. Therefore, this concept paper will discusses volunteers’ needs in various perspectives and opinions in order to help in increasing the preparedness in assisting natural disasters victims, as well as increase the effectiveness throughout the relief process.

Estimating flood hazard, vulnerability, and flood risk at the household level in the past did not fully consider all relevant parameters. The main objective of this study is to improve this drawback by developing a new comprehensive and systematic methodology considering all relevant parameters and their weighting factors. This new methodology is applied to a case study of flood inundation in a municipal area of Nan City in the Upper Nan River Basin in Thailand. Field and questionnaire surveys were carried out to collect pertinent data for input into the new methodology for estimating flood hazard, vulnerability, and risk. Designed floods for various return periods were predicted using flood simulation models for assessing flood risk. The flood risk maps constructed for the return periods of 10–500 years show a substantial increase in flood risk with the return periods. The results are consistent with past flood damages, which were significant near and along the riverbanks where ground elevation is low, population density is high, and the number of household properties are high. In conclusion, this new comprehensive methodology yielded realistic results and can be used further to assess the effectiveness of various proposed flood mitigation measures.

Amidst sudden and unprecedented increases in the severity and frequency of climate-change-induced natural disasters, building critical infrastructure resilience has become a prominent policy issue globally for reducing disaster risks. Sustainable measures and procedures to strengthen preparedness, response, and recovery of infrastructures are urgently needed, but the standard for measuring such resilient elements has yet to be consensually developed. This study was undertaken with an aim to quantitatively measure transportation infrastructure robustness, a proactive dimension of resilience capacities and capabilities to withstand disasters; in this case, floods. A four-stage analytical framework was empirically implemented: (1) specifying the system and disturbance (i.e., road network and flood risks in Chiang Mai, Thailand), (2) illustrating the system response using the damaged area as a function of floodwater levels and protection measures, (3) determining recovery thresholds based on land use and system functionality, and (4) quantifying robustness through the application of edge- and node-betweenness centrality models. Various quantifiable indicators of transportation robustness can be revealed; not only flood-damaged areas commonly considered in flood-risk management and spatial planning, but also the numbers of affected traffic links, nodes, and cars are highly valuable for transportation planning in achieving sustainable flood-resilient transportation systems.

The 2011 monsoon season was exceptionally heavy, leading to extensive and long-lasting flooding in the Chao Phraya river basin. Flooding was exacerbated by rapid expansion of urban areas into flood plains and was the costliest natural disaster in the country's history, with direct damages estimated at US$ 45 billion. The present study examines the flood behavior in 2011 and flood impact from changing climate. Two generations of the global climate model (GCM), ensembles CMIP3 and CMIP5, are statistically downscaled through historical 20th century and future projections. The majority of GCMs overestimate the dry spell (in June and July) and underestimate the peak precipitation (in May and September). However, they can simulate the mean precipitation reasonably well. Use of the Multi Model Mean shows continuously increased precipitation from near-future to far-future, while the Multi Model Median shows increased precipitation only for the far-future. These findings in changing precipitation are assessed by flood simulation. With several adaptation measures, flood in the lower Chao Phraya river basin cannot be completely avoided. One of the best practices for a high flood risk community is to raise the house with open space in the first floor. This is promoted as one resilient approach in Thailand.

The riverine ecosystems of the Mekong River Basin possess the world’s most productive inland fishery and provide highly productive food crops for millions of people annually. The development of hydropower potential in the Mekong River has long been of interest to governments in the region. Among the existing 64 dams, 46 dams have been built in the Lower Mekong Basin (LMB) to produce up to 8650 MW of electricity. Additionally, of the 123 proposed built hydropower dams, eleven hydropower plants have been nominated for the river mainstream and are expected to install a total of 13,000 MW in the LMB countries. However, serious concerns have intensified over the potential negative economic consequences, especially on fisheries and agriculture in Cambodia and Vietnam. To date, most of the concerns have concentrated on the impacts on hydrology, environment, livelihood, and diversity in the LMB attributed to hydropower development. This paper, however, discusses the fishery and agricultural sectors of the LMB and focuses on the downstream floodplains of Cambodia and Vietnam. The dam construction has caused greater losses of biodiversity and fisheries than climate change in the LMB. The reduction of 276,847 and 178,169 t of fish, 3.7% and 2.3% of rice, 21.0% and 10.0% of maize will contribute to a decrease of 3.7% and 0.3% of the GDP of Cambodia and Vietnam, respectively. Lao PDR may benefit the most revenue from electricity generation than the other country in the LMB, as most of the proposed dams are projected in the country. Cambodia burdens 3/4 of the reduction of total capture fishery destruction, whilst Lao PDR, Thailand, and Vietnam endure the remaining 1/3 losses. The tradeoff analyses reveal that losses of capture fisheries, sediment or nutrients, and social mitigation costs are greater than the benefits from electricity generation, improved irrigation, and flood control of the LMB region. The socioeconomic and environmental damage caused by hydropower dams in developing countries, including the Mekong, is greater than the early costs in North America and Europe. It is proposed that dam construction for hydropower in the Mekong River, as well as other rivers in developing countries, should be gradually removed and shifted toward solar, wind, and other renewable resources.

This study aims at clarifying households’ responses to the flood in Thailand. The result of this study helps fill the gap in literature about the factor affecting a household’s decision to evacuate in response to the flood, as such a decision varies with the type of natural disaster. The result of the study confirms that more vulnerable people are less likely to evacuate. However, they are more likely to evacuate, if at least one of their household members has reduced mobility. People in flood-prone areas exhibited moral hazards. Furthermore, people with relatively secured employment statuses are more likely to stay in the flood-prone area, to minimize their losses from the flood. If households with management-level employees received real-time and accurate updates about the flood, the decision to evacuate would be freely decided by such households, which can minimize their losses. Similarly, real-time and accurate data about potential damages and losses can reduce moral hazards. Thus, it is necessary for national and local governments to understand area-specific characteristics of people and linkages between societal vulnerability and economic resilience. The study’s implications highlight the importance of developing disaster management strategies in an integrated area-based approach.

The new concept for flood control called ‘Cascade’ method which permits dams to overflow around an upstream region with a sequence of dams constructed in a river is proposed. Multiple small scale dry dams should be constructed in series instead of a large scale dam in order to prevent flood disaster and preserve the natural environment. Recently a flood control dam with a bottom outlet hole as its regular spillway, known as ‘dry dam’, has been reviewed, planned and built in some sites in Japan. Under a condition of a common reservoir capacity, the Cascade type flood control permitting upstream dams to overflow except for the most downstream dam in a river is compared with a conventional one not to overflow each dam in a numerical simulation. As a result, it is made clear that the Cascade method using multiple dry dams is much more effective than the conventional one. In this connection, the Cascade type flood control method permitting upstream dams to overflow from emergency spillways except for the most downstream dam can be applied to normal storage dams with slide gates operated conventionally. Therefore, it could become an effective adaptation method for the global warming problem since it is performed by only changing how to operate slide gates in existing storage dams constructed in series. In addition, we also propose a new type of dry dam that has a closable and openable gate for its regular spillway primarily to retain the water for the water utilization. The new type of dry dam, which should be constructed in the upper reach away from the existing downstream storage dam needing still more its capacity for water utilization, ensures the amount of water available for the use by closing the regular spillway after the new dry dam is at full capacity, and the flood control capacity of the dams including the new dry dam is stronger than that of the normal dams owing to the storage function with the new dry dam. The new dry dams may improve the water utilization, the flood control, and environmentfriendliness under the current condition in Thailand damaged by the severe flood in 2011.

Climate change induced sea-level rise (SLR) is on its increase globally. Regionally the lowlands of China, Vietnam, Bangladesh, and islands of the Malaysian, Indonesian and Philippine archipelagos are among the world’s most threatened regions. Sea-level rise has major impacts on the ecosystems and society. It threatens coastal populations, economic activities, and fragile ecosystems as mangroves, coastal salt-marches and wetlands. This paper provides a summary of the current state of knowledge of sea level-rise and its effects on both human and natural ecosystems. The focus is on coastal urban areas and low lying deltas in South-East Asia and Vietnam, as one of the most threatened areas in the world. About 3 mm per year reflects the growing consensus on the average SLR worldwide. The trend speeds up during recent decades. The figures are subject to local, temporal and methodological variation. In Vietnam the average values of 3.3 mm per year during the 1993-2014 period are above the worldwide average. Although a basic conceptual understanding exists that the increasing global frequency of the strongest tropical cyclones is related with the increasing temperature and SLR, this relationship is insufficiently understood. Moreover the precise, complex environmental, economic, social, and health impacts are currently unclear. SLR, storms and changing precipitation patterns increase flood risks, in particular in urban areas. Part of the current scientific debate is on how urban agglomeration can be made more resilient to flood risks. Where originally mainly technical interventions dominated this discussion, it becomes increasingly clear that proactive special planning, flood defense, flood risk mitigation, flood preparation, and flood recovery are important, but costly instruments. 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During recent mega-disasters, such as the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and the 2011 Thailand floods, interdependencies in supply chains caused substantial economic damage, often exacerbated by vulnerable small and medium enterprises (SMEs). Therefore, a new global framework in disaster risk reduction, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, mentions the role of the private sector in achieving a resilient society. However, the framework’s statements are abstract and they need to be converted into actionable agendas. This paper identifies future directions for private sector resilience to disasters, focusing on business continuity. Even though business continuity has been regarded as a critical factor in conventional disaster planning, Business Continuity Management (BCM), articulated as a holistic management process, tends to be designed and implemented selectively by each organization. To address SMEs and supply chain resilience, this paper proposes a new type of BCM, a regional BCM based on Public-Private Partnership (PPP), and a new role for the insurance industry.

Bangkok is not only Thailand’s political, economic and administrative capital, but also a regional and global hub. In recent decades, it has transformed from a compact urban core into a sprawling megacity. Today, in addition to the original centre, the city also extends into its five neighboring provinces and forms a single agglomeration, the Bangkok Metropolitan Region: around 15% of the country’s population resides here. However, alongside its economic and demographic vitality, Bangkok is highly vulnerable to climate change and other environmental issues. In particular, due to the ‘three waters’ of runoff, rain and sea rise, together with its low-lying topography of 1.0-2.0 meters, much of the capital is prone to inundation. This research draws analysis on the 2006 and 2010 flood and profiles the causes of the 2006 and 2010 flooding and presents four case study districts in the eastern suburbs of Bangkok: Min Buri, Nong Jork, Lat Krabang and Klong Samwa. Each of them has distinct physical, social and economic characteristics, yet all were impacted to varying degrees by the flooding and reflect Bangkok’s rapid urbanization in their mix of agricultural, industrial and residential uses. The areas also illustrate the experience of residents living outside the inner city’s established polder system. The results highlight the importance of a localized analysis of the impacts of flooding, as both the intensity and the nature of its effects vary considerably from district to district. Of the four, Minburi was the worst affected, particularly as residents suffered loss of livelihood as a result of the economic disruption and health threats. As with the other districts, the indirect costs of the flooding at times exceeded the direct physical damage, though this is not generally recognized in official assessments. The research findings highlighted the significance of work absence as a major indirect cost: while the impact on individual households was relatively moderate, the agricultural sector was severely affected. Medical care was another indirect expense for inundated communities with the spread of diseases such as dengue fever and foot-and-mouth disease.

Climate change is a critical issue for all of humanity. It is predicted that Thailand is likely to have an increasing frequency and intensity of rainfall and storms which, will result in a more severe flash flood problem. Slum residents in Chiang Mai are one of the groups of people who are vulnerable to flooding impacts of climate change. The objective of this study is to analyze the flood-resilient housing style of low-income people. Data from 3 slums (146 households) which encounter different kinds of floods every year, i.e. drainage floods (Ban Sanku: 21 households), river floods (Kampang Ngam: 64 households) and flash floods (Samunkee Pattana: 61 house- holds), were collected. The study found that flood frequency, duration, depth and flow velocity caused damage to the houses, but only flood frequency, duration, and flow velocity were factors affecting the housing structure. If considering only damage to slums which frequently face shallow water depth, slow flow velocity and short duration, all 8 low-income housing styles (A-H) can be built. The high platform house with open space under the house is appropriate for slums located in flooding area where high-level, slow flow velocit y floods occur frequently but for a short duration. It may be a permanent, semi-permanent or temporary structure (D-F). For the other slums facing high flood levels with high flow velocities for a short duration, all permanent housing styles are appropriate. If the objective is not only damage prevention but also living during a flood, per- manent high platform houses with open spaces under the houses are recommended for all slums.

The study aims are to investigate the people perception on flood response, flood awareness and information dissemination during 2011 flood, to discuss the proper information needed for flood preparedness, and to understand drinking water preferences during emergency periods. A question-naire survey was conducted to collect information on flood awareness and preparedness from the people residing in a suburb of Bangkok that was one of the most severely affected areas. Re-sults showed that more than 90% of public realized the necessity of flood awareness. Flood risk per- ception level was positively correlated with age. There were gender differrences in priorit y floodresponses; males were more concerned about electrocution while women were more concerned over damage to household property. More than 40% of respondents gave lower priority to electricit y cutoffs during the flood. This perception of knowledge could lead to life-threatening damage. Television was found to be the most effective channel for disseminating flood information (58%) due to its reliability, transparency, and promptness. However, its popularity was slightly reduced during flood, most likely due to electricity shortages. For the younger generation, TV and internet are the most powerful tools, while older people rely on many channels including radio and pamphlet, so that messages need to be disseminated through many channels in combination. Infor-mation on flood severity, asset protection, water supply, food supply, health information, and shelter was concerned before and during flood. Bottled water was the main alternate water source (70%). The findings of this study provide basic guidance to the authorities concerned to assist in deve-loping effective policies and plans to minimize the impacts of future floods.

Abstract Background Floods cause not only damage but also public health issues. Developing an application to simulate public health problems during floods around the Loei River by implementing geographic information system (GIS) and structural equation model (SEM) techniques could help improve preparedness and aid plans in response to such problems in general and at the subdistrict level. As a result, the effects of public health problems would be physically and mentally less severe. Methods This research and development study examines cross-sectional survey data. Data on demographics, flood severity, preparedness, help, and public health problems during floods were collected using a five-part questionnaire. Calculated from the population proportion living within 300 m of the Loei River, the sample size was 560 people. The participants in each subdistrict were recruited proportionally in line with the course of the Loei River. Compared to the empirical data, the data analysis examined the causal model of public health problems during floods, flood severity, preparedness, and help. The standardized factor loadings obtained from the SEM analysis were substituted as the loadings in the equations for simulating public health problems during floods. Results The results revealed that the causal model of public health problems during floods, flood severity, preparation, and help agreed with the empirical data. Flood severity, preparedness, and aid (χ2 = 479.757, df = 160, p value <.05, CFI = 0.985, RMSEA = 0.060, χ2/df = 2.998) could explain 7.7% of public health problems. The computed values were applied in a GIS environment to simulate public health problem situations at the province, district, and subdistrict levels. Conclusions Flood severity and public health problems during floods were positively correlated; in contrast, preparedness and help showed an inverse relationship with public health problems. A total of 7.7% of the variance in public health problems during floods could be predicted. The analysed data were assigned in the GIS environment in the developed application to simulate public health problem situations during floods.

Purpose Global warming exacerbates sea level rise and extreme weather events that cause severe flooding, resulting in lost productivity and property damage. To reduce the impact of flooding, residents are avoiding purchasing homes in high-risk areas. There are numerous studies on the relationship between flood hazards and housing prices in developed countries, but few in developing countries. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the relationship between flood hazards and housing prices in Hat Yai, Songkhla, Thailand. Design/methodology/approach This study uses spatial-lag, spatial error and spatial autoregressive lag and error (SARAR) models to analyze the effect of flood risk on property prices. The main analysis examines the degree of flood risk and housing rental prices from our survey of 380 residences. To test the robustness of the results, the authors examine a different data set of the same samples by using the official property valuation from the Ministry of Finance and the flood risk estimated by the Southern Natural Disaster Research Center. Findings The SARAR model was chosen for this study because of the occurrence of spatial dependence in both dependent variable and the error term. The authors find that flood risk has a negative impact on property prices in Hat Yai, which is consistent with both models. Originality/value This study is one of the first to use spatial econometrics to analyze the impact of flood risk on property prices in Thailand. The results of this study are valuable to policymakers for benefit assessment in cost–benefit analysis of flood risk avoidance or reduction strategies and to the insurance market for pricing flood risk insurance.

The Chao Phraya River Basin (CPRB) of Thailand faces flooding almost every year. The severest flood occurred in the CPRB in 2011 with the highest property damage costs (46.5 billion USD) and the highest casualty (813 deaths). The objectives of this study were thus to (1) determine flood risk indices and categorize them into four risk zones (low, moderate, high, and very high) across 994 sub-districts in the CPRB during the six rainy months (May–October); and (2) propose specific measures for flood risk management for each of the categorized risk zones. The flood risk indices were assessed as the product of two hazard variables (flood levels and monthly cumulative precipitation) and the vulnerability variable (land uses). The findings revealed spatiotemporal variations in flood risk. Spatially, the sub-districts deemed to be in the high or very high flood risk zone were mainly located close to the Chao Phraya River (CPR), where the flood levels reached 1.1 – 4 m in depth; whereas the sub-districts detected in the low or moderate flood risk zone were located further away from the CPR. Temporally, more sub-districts were detected in the high or very high risk zone in September when heavy rainfalls were observed. Specific measures are proposed herein to manage flood risk regarding the categorized zones during three periods. The preventive and mitigation measures should be prepared before flooding; emergency responses should be practically implemented during flooding; and the recovery after flooding should cover both infrastructural and environmental damage and mental/physical illnesses amongst the affected people. Intensive measures are recommended for the sub-districts located in both the high and very high risk zones. These measures may be properly loosened for the sub-districts located in the low and moderate risk zones.

In Southeast Asia, climate change will potentially have negative consequences for urban transportation infrastructure (UTI). It is necessary to improve the understanding of climate change-associated loss and damage in relation to UTI to ensure the sustainability of existing transportation assets and for prioritizing future investments. However, there is currently limited knowledge on how to practically assess loss and damage for UTI in the context of climate change and then to incorporate appropriate adaptation measures and strategies to future-proof transportation planning. This study presents the results and experiences from assessing climate change-related loss and damage to UTI in six cities of Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam. One pilot city from each country was selected for assessment by applying NK-GIAS software to determine loss and damage for urban roads. It was found that the six selected cities were highly vulnerable to climate change given their location and exposure to sea-level rise, storm surge, flooding, and salinity intrusion. Through analyses conducted using NK-GIAS software, economic losses for different flood scenarios were determined. The linkage between flooding and road damage was demonstrated, with maximum damage estimations under the most extreme flooding scenario of approximately 20 million USD for Hoi An, 3 million USD for Kampot and 21 million USD for Samut Sakhon, corresponding to water levels of 3.4 m, 4.0 m and 2.7 m respectively. Damage to the road network was identified as a key impact related to climate change. Further research is recommended to develop appropriate damage curves through laboratory analysis, addressing both flood depth and duration, to strengthen the NK-GIAS analyses undertaken in this study.

AbstractDisaster clusters refer to major disasters that cluster in space and time without any linkage, resulting in large direct damage and economic ripple effects (EREs). However, the cumulative EREs caused by a disaster cluster may not be equal to the summation EREs of the individual disasters within a cluster. We constructed a global economic ripple input-output model suitable for the analysis of disaster clusters and demonstrated the extent of this difference with the example of two typical catastrophes that occurred in 2011 (the Great East Japan Earthquake and the Great Thailand Flood), within an interval of only 136 days. The results indicate that: (1) The EREs suffered by 11 of the 35 countries affected (30%) are “1 + 1 > 2”, and “1 + 1 < 2” for 24 of the 35 countries affected (70%). This indicates that there is a significant difference between the cumulative and the summation losses. The difference is related to factors such as trade distance, economic influence of disaster-affected sectors, and trade ties; (2) The EREs are more than two times the direct loss and have an industrial dependence, mostly aggregated in key sectors with strong industrial influence and fast trade times in the industrial chain; and (3) Additional EREs due to the extension of the recovery period will be aggregated in countries with close trade ties to the disaster-affected country, further magnifying the difference.

AbstractIdentification of the sources of the spatio-temporal information of flooding is important for flood control and understanding the water dynamic. Flood disasters are generally caused by two main sources: fluvial and pluvial flooding. However, there is a gap in information and challenge of such particular information in the Mekong River Basin (MRB) known as the largest river basin in Southeast Asia. This paper aims to analyze the spatio-temporal hydrograph separations of flooding and to determine the fluvial and pluvial sources of inundation water in the Lower Mekong Basin (LMB) by using a distributed rainfall–runoff–inundation (RRI) model and time–space accounting scheme (T–SAS) method. This study focuses on the two major flood events in 2000 and 2011, whose characteristics were different. The one in 2000 was long in terms of flood duration and it was the historically largest annual total flood water with twice the peak times in July and September. The 2011 flood had the highest flooded water during the peak time; however, its annual total flood water was less than the one in 2000. The results of spatio-temporal sources of flooding indicated that during the flow peak time in 2000 and 2011, the flow at Kratie was mainly contributed by 30-day (67%) and 100-day (98%) precipitation from the upstream. The drainage area of the MRB in China, northern Lao PDR, southern Lao PDR and eastern Thailand, and Cambodia and Vietnam contributed to peak flood at Kratie by 13%, 27%, 33%, and 27% for the 2000 flood and 12%, 33%, 38%, and 16% for the 2011 flood. The source of inundated water in the LMB was derived from upstream flow (fluvial source) of 35–36% and local rainfall (pluvial source) of 64–65%. Even though flood events in 2000 and 2011 had different characteristics, the sources of flood inundation in the LMB for both events were majorly from the local rainfall rather than the upstream flow. The large annual flood volume and long during of flooding in 2000 caused severe total economic damages up to 517 million US$ in the LMB countries (Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand, and Vietnam), while the high peak inundated water in 2011 with shorter flood duration caused damages of 493 million US$.