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Journal articles on the topic 'Fledgling'

Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 3 February 2022

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1

With, Kimberly A., and Russell P. Balda. "Intersexual variation and factors affecting parental care in Western Bluebirds: a comparison of nestling and fledgling periods." Canadian Journal of Zoology 68, no. 4 (April 1, 1990): 733–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z90-106.

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We compared factors affecting parental feeding rates in Western Bluebirds (Sialia mexicana) between the nestling and fledgling periods to evaluate intersexual variation in parental care. Parents did not adjust the frequency of feeding visits between modal (five young) and below-modal (four or less young) broods during the nestling period. The frequency of parental feeding visits also was not significantly affected by offspring age during the nestling period. Males and females exhibited no significant differences in provisioning offspring, although males maintained a constant level of care throughout the nestling period, whereas females increased feeding visits following the brooding period. During the fledgling period, offspring from below-modal broods were fed at higher rates with increasing age than offspring from modal broods. Broods remained together (siblings averaged 8 m apart) within 200 m of the nest box for a week after fledging. As fledglings became more mobile, they would pursue parents while parents were foraging; parental feeding rates thus tended to increase with fledgling age and distance moved from the nest. Offspring sex did not influence parental care during the fledgling period. Both adults fed fledglings, with males taking sole care of fledglings if females initiated a second clutch soon (7–10 days) after fledging of the first brood. Parental feeding rates increased by 60% during the fledgling period compared with the nestling period. No evidence for brood division during the fledgling period was found. Although brood division represents one way of reducing energetic costs attributable to feeding fledglings, Western Bluebirds exhibit an alternate behavior in which the energetics of raising a brood are shared equally between the parents throughout both the nestling and fledgling periods. This is further facilitated by a close association of young during the fledgling period that may reduce energetic costs related to locating and feeding young.

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Wohner, Patricia J., Carol R. Foss, and Robert J. Cooper. "Rusty Blackbird Habitat Selection and Survivorship during Nesting and Post-Fledging." Diversity 12, no. 6 (June 2, 2020): 221. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/d12060221.

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Rusty blackbird (Euphagus carolinus) populations have declined dramatically since the 1970s and the cause of decline is still unclear. As is the case for many passerines, most research on rusty blackbirds occurs during the nesting period. Nest success is relatively high in most of the rusty blackbird’s range, but survival during the post-fledging period, when fledgling songbirds are particularly vulnerable, has not been studied. We assessed fledgling and adult survivorship and nest success in northern New Hampshire from May to August in 2010 to 2012. We also assessed fledgling and adult post-fledging habitat selection and nest-site selection. The likelihood of rusty blackbirds nesting in a given area increased with an increasing proportion of softwood/mixed-wood sapling stands and decreasing distances to first to sixth order streams. Wetlands were not selected for nest sites, but both adults and fledglings selected wetlands for post-fledging habitat. Fledglings and adults selected similar habitat post-fledging, but fledglings were much more likely to be found in habitat with an increasing proportion of softwood/mixed-wood sapling stands and were more likely to be closer to streams than adults. No habitat variables selected during nesting or post-fledging influenced daily survival rates, which were relatively low for adults over the 60-day study periods (males 0.996, females 0.998). Fledgling survival rates (0.89) were much higher than reported for species of similar size.

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Jones, Todd M., Jeffrey D. Brawn, and Michael P. Ward. "Development of activity rates in fledgling songbirds: when do young birds begin to behave like adults?" Behaviour 155, no. 5 (2018): 337–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1568539x-00003492.

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Abstract Logistical and technological limitations have constrained the characterization of behavioural development in songbirds, particularly during the post-fledging period. Recently, advances in radio-telemetry technology — automated radio-telemetry systems (ARTS) capable of recording continuous, high-resolution spatial-temporal data on radio-tagged birds — have opened the door to more comprehensive examinations of fledgling behaviour. We examined development of activity rates (number of times a bird was determined to have moved per number of detections, per hour) in fledgling Dickcissels using ARTS established at two grassland sites in east-central Illinois, USA. Specifically, we described general patterns of fledgling activity rates and determined the age at which fledglings began exhibiting activity rates like adults. We found that juveniles decreased activity rates immediately following fledging, likely to avoid detection by snakes and other predators, but increased activity levels throughout the rest of the post-fledging period. Peak hours of fledgling activity occurred around 0700 and 1800 h for all ages, with consistently low activity rates at night. On average, fledglings began exhibiting adult-like activity rates approximately 22 days after fledging, around roughly the same time they stopped being fed by adults. While our study provides important insights into development of fledgling behaviour in the Dickcissel, it remains unclear how patterns of behavioural development vary within and among species.

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Ogden, Lesley J. Evans, and Bridget J. M. Stutchbury. "Fledgling care and male parental effort in the Hooded Warbler (Wilsonia citrina)." Canadian Journal of Zoology 75, no. 4 (April 1, 1997): 576–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z97-071.

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We followed family groups of Hooded Warblers (Wilsonia citrina) from hatching through to fledgling independence to determine (i) the duration and extent of parental care of fledglings, (ii) the extent of brood division, and (iii) whether male parental effort in caring for nestlings predicts male effort in caring for fledglings. The 9-day nestling period of Hooded Warblers was followed by 4 – 6 weeks of further parental care of fledged young. Parental feeding rates increased from hatching to when the young fledged from the nest, and males fed nestlings significantly more than females did. At the fledgling stage feeding rates to fledglings were significantly higher than at the nestling stage, but there was no difference in feeding rates between the parents. Parents usually divided the brood of fledglings equally, so that each parent assumed full and exclusive care of a subset of the brood. However, many females (45%) initiated a second brood and the male assumed care of the entire first brood at the time when his mate began incubating. The proportion of feeding trips to nestlings made by the male was not predictive of his subsequent effort in the care of fledglings. Exclusion of the fledgling care period in studies of parental investment may give a biased picture of overall investment on the part of both male and female parents.

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Delancey, Clayton D., and Kamal Islam. "Post-fledging habitat use in a declining songbird." PeerJ 7 (August 30, 2019): e7358. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.7358.

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Background Fledglings of many mature forest-dependent Neotropical songbirds move from mature forest habitats into areas of thick vegetation such as regenerating clearcuts. The Cerulean Warbler (Setophaga cerulea), a Neotropical migratory songbird, is a species of conservation concern across its range and it is listed as endangered in Indiana. This species has declined faster than any other species of wood-warbler in North America. Most prior research on Cerulean Warblers has examined the breeding biology, but there are no data on habitat use by fledgling Cerulean Warblers. Our research aimed to determine where fledgling Cerulean Warblers dispersed after they left their nest, but before they migrated to their wintering grounds. Methods Since 2007, Cerulean Warbler breeding populations have been monitored in Yellowwood and Morgan–Monroe state forests in southern Indiana as part of a 100-year study called the Hardwood Ecosystem Experiment. To identify habitats used by fledgling Cerulean Warblers, we captured by hand or mist-nets, adult and juvenile Cerulean Warblers once young had fledged from a nest. We attached radio-transmitters to individuals and tracked each bird daily using radio-telemetry. Radio-telemetry data were collected from May to July 2015–2017, and microhabitat data on fledgling locations and random locations were collected during the same years in the month of July. Results Fledgling presence, when compared to random non-use sites, was positively correlated to presence of grapevines, greater vertical vegetation density, and greater ground and canopy cover. Fledgling presence was negatively correlated with white oak abundance, aspect, basal area, and the abundance of mature trees that Cerulean Warbler adults use for nesting. Conclusions Our study is the first to demonstrate that Cerulean Warbler fledglings occupy habitats that are characterized by specific habitat components. Fledgling sites were located in areas with high vegetation density, such as clusters of grapevine, which provided cover from predators. Identifying Cerulean Warbler habitats throughout the breeding season can better inform natural resource personnel on how to manage forests to meet the habitat needs of this rapidly declining migratory songbird.

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Berkeley, Lorelle I., John P. McCarty, and L. LaReesa Wolfenbarger. "Postfledging Survival and Movement in Dickcissels (Spiza Americana): Implications for Habitat Management and Conservation." Auk 124, no. 2 (April 1, 2007): 396–409. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/auk/124.2.396.

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Abstract When land managers incorporate the habitat needs of grassland birds into their planning, they typically rely on management recommendations based on habitat use by adults during nesting. Habitat requirements for other critical life stages are seldom known and may differ from those of nesting adults. Using radio-telemetry, we examined survival and habitat use by juvenile Dickcissels (Spiza americana) during the postfledging period. In 2003 and 2004, we monitored 60 fledgling Dickcissels for ≤30 days after they left the nest. Mortality rates were highest during the first week after leaving the nest, and only 33% of the fledglings survived the first four weeks after leaving the nest. Estimated mean survival times were 16.9 ± 1.6 days after birds left the nest. In both years, fledgling survival was positively associated with dense vertical and horizontal structure of forbs at nests. Survival tended to be positively associated with vertical grass density on adult territories and negatively associated with patchily distributed forbs on adult territories. Fledgling habitat use was restricted to areas where Dickcissels nested and adjacent fields. Habitats used included corn and soybean fields, grasslands, and wetlands. Our results suggest that the fledgling period is a critical stage for Dickcissels and that fledglings require habitat similar to habitat used for nesting. Supervivencia Durante el Período Posterior al Emplumamiento en Spiza americana: Implicancias para el Manejo de Hábitat y Conservación

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Zelenak, James R., Jay J. Rotella, and Alan R. Harmata. "Survival of fledgling Ferruginous Hawks in northern Montana." Canadian Journal of Zoology 75, no. 1 (January 1, 1997): 152–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z97-020.

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Few data exist regarding survival of Ferruginous Hawks (Buteo regalis) during the fledgling period. Consequently, we estimated the survival rate of juvenile Ferruginous Hawks from fledging to dispersal from the breeding area in northern Montana in 1993 – 1994 using radiotelemetry. A 171-km2 study area contained 24 occupied breeding sites in both years (7.12 km2/pair). Mean productivity was 0.96 young fledged per occupied breeding site (SE = 0.19, n = 48) and 2.30 young fledged per successful nest (SE = 0.21, n = 20). The average fledging age was 43.3 days. The survival rate for 27 radio-marked fledglings was high during the 3 weeks after fledging (Ŝ = 0.86, SE = 0.02). No fledgling mortality occurred > 10 days after fledging. When fledgling mortality was considered, occupied breeding sites produced an average of 0.82 dispersing young (SE = 0.24) and successful nests produced an average of 1.96 dispersing young (SE = 0.18). Our data concur with smaller data sets from earlier studies, which suggested that postfledging mortality is low.

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Hayward, James L., and Jere K. Clayburn. "Do Rhinoceros Auklet, Cerorhinca monocerata, Fledglings Fly to the Sea from Their Natal Burrows?" Canadian Field-Naturalist 118, no. 4 (October 1, 2004): 615. http://dx.doi.org/10.22621/cfn.v118i4.69.

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The mode of departure of Rhinoceros Auklet fledglings from their nest burrows has remained uncertain. Both walk-down and fly-down hypotheses have been proposed. Here we use the unique geography of Protection Island, Washington, to evaluate the fly-down hypothesis. Some fledglings raised on Protection Island do appear to walk to the water, but our results suggest that many of the island’s fledgling Rhinoceros Auklets fly to the sea.

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FAEGRE, SARAH K., LINDSEY NIETMANN, DYLAN HUBL, JAMES C. HA, and RENEE R. HA. "Spatial ecology of the Mariana Crow Corvus kubaryi: Implications for management strategies." Bird Conservation International 29, no. 4 (December 26, 2018): 527–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959270918000394.

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SummaryKnowledge of species-specific spatial ecology is critical for applying appropriate management strategies to maximise conservation outcomes. We used radio-telemetry to describe spatial behaviour of the critically endangered, island-endemic Mariana Crow Corvus kubaryi. To determine whether management strategies should reflect life stage, we measured the home ranges and daily movements of 22 Mariana Crows. Fledgling mobility was low during the first 31 days post-fledging and effects of age (fledgling or sub-adult) and time (months post-fledging or post-dispersal) were often driven entirely by this period. After controlling for reduced fledgling mobility, cumulative home range size increased over time for both age classes and was, on average, more than twice the area for sub-adults than fledglings. Sub-adults also tended to make longer daily movements than fledglings. Non-cumulative, monthly home range areas did not increase over time but the average overlap in home range area between consecutive months was only 63%, suggesting large shifts in space use each month. These results highlight the dynamic nature of Mariana Crow home ranges and suggest that large-scale management efforts are critical for protecting both breeding and non-breeding individuals. The application of the traditional home range concept to Mariana Crows and other wide-ranging passerine birds may result in sub-optimal management strategies. Instead, we recommend that the spatial and temporal scale of conservation efforts be informed by species-specific spatial behaviour across all relevant life stages.

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10

Adams, Amy A. Yackel, Susan K. Skagen, and Rod D. Adams. "Movements and Survival of Lark Bunting Fledglings." Condor 103, no. 3 (August 1, 2001): 643–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/condor/103.3.643.

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Abstract We quantified post-fledging pre-independence behavior and survival in Lark Buntings (Calamospiza melanocorys) using radio-telemetry. Brood division was recorded in six broods and was maintained throughout the observed fledgling care period. Chicks were capable of short flights (up to 25 m) by fledgling day 6 and longer flights (to 100 m) by fledgling day 13. During the first three weeks after fledging, juveniles moved as far as 800 m from nests. Nine of 23 (39%) monitored fledglings died within 15 days of fledging, primarily due to predation by raptors. Daily survival rates were 0.953 ± 0.019 for fledgling days 0–9, 0.955 ± 0.038 for fledgling days 10–20, and 0.953 ± 0.015 for fledgling days 0–20. The probability of surviving fledgling days 0–20 was 0.367. More quantification of juvenile survival is clearly needed to understand the role of post-fledging mortality in source-sink dynamics. Los Movimientos y Supervivencia de los Volantones de Calamospiza melanocorys Resumen. Cuantificamos la conducta y la supervivencia de volantones de Calamospiza melanocorys antes de independizarse de sus padres usando telemetría de radio. La división de la nidada se registró en seis nidadas y se mantuvo a través del período del cuidado de los volantones. Tras seis días de haber abandonado el nido, los polluelos eran capaces de realizar vuelos cortos (de hasta 25 m) y para el día trece ya realizaban vuelos más largos (a 100 m). Durante las primeras tres semanas después de salir del nido, los juveniles se movieron hasta 800 m de los nidos. Nueve de 23 (39%) volantones se murieron en los primeros 15 días fuera del nido, principalmente debido a depredación por aves rapaces. Las tasas diarias de supervivencia fueron de 0.953 ± 0.019 para los días 0 a 9, 0.955 ± 0.038 para los días 10 a 20, y 0.954 ± 0.015 para días 0 a 20. La probabilidad de sobrevivir entre los días 0 y 20 fue de 0.367. Se necesita más cuantificacion de la sobrevivencia en la etapa juvenil para entender el papel de la mortalidad tras la salida del nido en la dinámica de fuente-sumideros.

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Raihani, N. J., and A. R. Ridley. "Variable fledging age according to group size: trade-offs in a cooperatively breeding bird." Biology Letters 3, no. 6 (September 25, 2007): 624–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2007.0435.

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Group living can provide individuals with several benefits, including cooperative vigilance and lower predation rates. Individuals in larger groups may be less vulnerable to predation due to dilution effects, efficient detection or greater ability to repel predators. Individuals in smaller groups may consequently employ alternative behavioural tactics to compensate for their greater vulnerability to predators. Here, we describe how pied babbler ( Turdoides bicolor ) fledging age varies with group size and the associated risk of nestling predation. Nestling predation is highest in smaller groups, but there is no effect of group size on fledgling predation. Consequently, small groups fledge young earlier, thereby reducing the risk of predation. However, there is a cost to this behaviour as younger fledglings are less mobile than older fledglings: they move shorter distances and are less likely to successfully reach the communal roost tree. The optimal age to fledge young appears to depend on the trade-off between reduced nestling predation and increased fledgling mobility. We suggest that such trade-offs may be common in species where group size critically affects individual survival and reproductive success.

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Weatherhead, Patrick J., and Kevin W. Dufour. "Fledging Success as an Index of Recruitment in Red-Winged Blackbirds." Auk 117, no. 3 (July 1, 2000): 627–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/auk/117.3.627.

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Abstract We used data from an 11-year study of Red-winged Blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) to test the hypothesis that fledging success is a reliable index of recruitment at the population and the individual level. Natal philopatry was only 2.37% overall (3.51% for males and 1.49% for females) in our study population. However, the number of fledglings that returned as breeding adults from an annual fledgling cohort was significantly correlated with the size of the cohort. The correlation was also significant when males and females were analyzed separately, despite sex differences in natal philopatry, age of first breeding, and probable differences in mortality factors. Recruitment increased disproportionately with the size of the fledgling cohort. Thus, years of high production produced proportionately more breeding adults. At the individual level, the number of fledglings sired by a male in his lifetime was significantly correlated with the number of his descendants that eventually returned to breed in the study population. These results support the widely held assumption in avian field studies that fledging success is a reliable index of fitness.

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Eng, Margaret L., Bridget J. M. Stutchbury, Dawn M. Burke, and Ken A. Elliott. "Influence of forest management on pre- and post-fledging productivity of a Neotropical migratory songbird in a highly fragmented landscape." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 41, no. 10 (October 2011): 2009–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/x11-119.

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Little is known about the effects of forest management on fledgling survival in birds, despite the fact that this is a key determinant of overall productivity. In 2005–2006, we compared male density, nesting success, and fledgling survival of Hooded Warblers (Wilsonia citrina Boddaert, 1783) among forest fragments that were reference sites (n = 3; not logged in >21 years) or had received either a standard selection system harvest (n = 3) or a heavy cut (n = 5) within the past 6–10 years. Density tended to be higher in logged sites than reference sites, but cumulative probability of nest survival (0.22 ± 0.02; 21 days) did not differ among treatments. Brown-headed Cowbird (Molothrus ater (Boddaert, 1783)) parasitism was significantly higher in recently logged sites, and reference sites produced significantly more Hooded Warbler young per successful nest than standard selection harvest sites. Logging treatment did not have a strong negative effect on fledgling survival, and overall, 51% (33/65) of fledglings survived until three weeks after fledging. Standard selection harvest sites had the highest Hooded Warbler density (0.2 males/ha) but also the lowest seasonal productivity (0.84 independent fledglings/female), raising the possibility of an ecological trap. The estimated number of daughters produced per female per year that are expected to survive to breeding age was lower for all treatments (reference, 0.26; selection, 0.17; heavy cut, 0.32) than the expected annual mortality probability of adult females (0.4–0.6). Forest fragments in this region appear to be population sinks, regardless of extent of partial harvest within the fragment.

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Kopachena, Jeffrey G., and J. Bruce Falls. "Postfledging parental care in the White-throated Sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis)." Canadian Journal of Zoology 71, no. 2 (February 1, 1993): 227–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z93-032.

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We studied parental care in White-throated Sparrows (Zonotrichia albicollis) during the last 4 days of the nestling period and the first 4 days of the fledgling period. Both parents made more provisioning trips and delivered more food to fledglings than to nestlings. Though male and female parents provided nestlings with equal amounts of food, female parents provided fledglings with more food than did male parents. Fledglings received fewer items per trip than did nestlings. This suggests that fledging was associated with a change in parental foraging strategies. Postfledging parental care did not differ between broods from late nests and broods that were to be followed by a second nesting attempt.

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Tu, King-Ning. "A Fledgling Year." MRS Bulletin 18, no. 7 (July 1993): 77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/s0883769400037593.

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Cartwright, Jon. "Fledgling site challengesarXivserver." Physics World 22, no. 08 (August 2009): 9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/2058-7058/22/08/14.

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17

Singh, S., R. Meakin, and S. Iliffe. "Consider fledgling researchers." BMJ 340, jun29 4 (June 29, 2010): c3448. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.c3448.

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18

Cruz, Laura, Jennifer Meadows, and Nikki Panter. "The Fledgling Mindset." Journal of Effective Teaching in Higher Education 3, no. 2 (December 11, 2020): 47–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.36021/jethe.v3i2.55.

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As Biology students prepare to complete their undergraduate degrees and continue into either a career or to another degree, the scientific skills learned in the classroom are not enough to secure their professional path. In this study, the soft skills such as the ability to work in a team and to communicate effectively were emphasized within the context of a newly designed Biology course. As a required course for majors within the Department of Biology, students represented a wide array of experiences, skill levels, and motivation. By adopting a guided inquiry approach to teaching and learning, instructors designed a student-centered course that focused on four categories of professional skills: problem solving, communication, teamwork, and career management. Data collected from student surveys were analyzed to determine the effectiveness of these interventions in enhancing student’s abilities and attitudes towards professional skills. These data suggest that students increased their proficiency in attributes valued by employers regardless of gender or major; became more likely to recognize those traits sought by employers; and gained confidence in their ability to use these skills in the workplace.

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NICHOLS, RINA K., LANCE G. WOOLAVER, and CARL G. JONES. "Low productivity in the Critically Endangered Mauritius Olive White-eye Zosterops chloronothos." Bird Conservation International 15, no. 3 (September 2005): 297–302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959270905000468.

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Productivity of the endemic Mauritius Olive White-eye Zosterops chloronothos, the least known of the Mauritian land-bird species, was studied for three consecutive breeding seasons. Fifteen White-eye territories were monitored in 1998–1999 and 1999–2000, and 18 in 2000–2001. Although respectively 67%, 73% and 78% of pairs in these territories exhibited signs of breeding, the annual proportion of pairs that successfully produced a fledgling was found to be extremely low at 7%, 7% and 17% respectively. Only five fledglings were observed during the 3 year period. None of the pairs was observed to have more than one successful nesting episode per season, and no pair produced more than a single fledgling over the 3 years. The extremely low productivity of this declining population is of critical concern. Species-specific conservation management is urgently required for this species.

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Raine, AF, T. Anderson, M. Vynne, S. Driskill, H. Raine, and J. Adams. "Post-release survival of fallout Newell’s shearwater fledglings from a rescue and rehabilitation program on Kaua‘i, Hawai‘i." Endangered Species Research 43 (September 3, 2020): 39–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/esr01051.

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Light attraction impacts nocturnally active fledgling seabirds worldwide and is a particularly acute problem on Kaua‘i (the northern-most island in the main Hawaiian Island archipelago) for the Critically Endangered Newell’s shearwater Puffinus newelli. The Save Our Shearwaters (SOS) program was created in 1979 to address this issue and to date has recovered and released to sea more than 30500 fledglings. Although the value of the program for animal welfare is clear, as birds cannot simply be left to die, no evaluation exists to inform post-release survival. We used satellite transmitters to track 38 fledglings released by SOS and compared their survival rates (assessed by tag transmission duration) to those of 12 chicks that fledged naturally from the mountains of Kaua‘i. Wild fledglings transmitted longer than SOS birds, and SOS birds with longer rehabilitation periods transmitted for a shorter duration than birds released immediately or rehabilitated for only 1 d. Although transmitter durations from grounded fledglings were shorter (indicating impacts to survivorship), some SOS birds did survive and dispersed out to sea. All surviving birds (wild and SOS) traveled more than 2000 km to the southwest of Kaua‘i, where they concentrated mostly in the North Pacific Equatorial Countercurrent Province, revealing a large-scale annual post-breeding aggregation zone for fledgling Newell’s shearwaters. While there was reduced survival among birds undergoing rehabilitation, SOS remains an important contribution toward the conservation of Newell’s shearwater because a proportion of released birds do indeed survive. However, light attraction, the root cause of fallout, remains a serious unresolved issue on Kaua’i.

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De Mársico, María C., Mariela G. Gantchoff, and Juan C. Reboreda. "Host–parasite coevolution beyond the nestling stage? Mimicry of host fledglings by the specialist screaming cowbird." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 279, no. 1742 (May 30, 2012): 3401–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2012.0612.

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Egg mimicry by obligate avian brood parasites and host rejection of non-mimetic eggs are well-known textbook examples of host–parasite coevolution. By contrast, reciprocal adaptations and counteradaptations beyond the egg stage in brood parasites and their hosts have received less attention. The screaming cowbird ( Molothrus rufoaxillaris ) is a specialist obligate brood parasite whose fledglings look identical to those of its primary host, the baywing ( Agelaioides badius ). Such a resemblance has been proposed as an adaptation in response to host discrimination against odd-looking young, but evidence supporting this idea is scarce. Here, we examined this hypothesis by comparing the survival rates of young screaming cowbirds and non-mimetic shiny cowbirds ( Molothrus bonariensis ) cross-fostered to baywing nests and quantifying the similarity in plumage colour and begging calls between host and cowbird fledglings. Shiny cowbirds suffered higher post-fledging mortality rates (83%) than screaming cowbirds (0%) owing to host rejection. Visual modelling revealed that screaming cowbirds, but not shiny cowbirds, were indistinguishable from host young in plumage colour. Similarly, screaming cowbirds matched baywings' begging calls more closely than shiny cowbirds. Our results strongly support the occurrence of host fledgling mimicry in screaming cowbirds and suggest a role of visual and vocal cues in fledgling discrimination by baywings.

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Hahn, D. Caldwell, Roger D. Price, and Peter C. Osenton. "Use of Lice to Identify Cowbird Hosts." Auk 117, no. 4 (October 1, 2000): 943–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/auk/117.4.943.

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Abstract Brood-parasitic nestlings have a unique opportunity to encounter host-specific lice (Phthiraptera). Lice are permanent ectoparasites found strictly on the body of the host, and they are transferred almost exclusively by bodily contact during copulation and care of young. We investigated whether Brown-headed Cowbird (Molothrus ater) nestlings become infested with lice from their host parents and carry these after fledging, in effect bearing ectoparasite indicators of the species that raised them. Examining lice on cowbirds to identify foster parents would be less costly than determining parasitism patterns in the conventional way by finding many host nests. The 244 cowbird fledglings that we examined carried 11 species and 6 genera of lice, almost the entire spectrum of louse genera known from passerines. We also examined 320 songbirds from 30 species of hosts. As a group, the diversity of louse species on hosts was comparable to that on fledgling cowbirds: 13 species and 7 genera. In contrast, most individual host species yielded only one or two louse species, significantly fewer than on cowbird fledglings. Of 44 fledgling cowbirds with lice, 11 were linked with probable avian foster parents, and 18 other fledglings were linked with one of two possible foster parents. We conclude that cowbird fledglings carry away host lice and that our technique provides a partial assessment of parasitism patterns. The incomplete state of louse taxonomy requires that users of the technique obtain a reference collection of lice from host species in addition to the sample collection from cowbird fledglings. Lice from cowbird fledglings can be identified by a taxonomist and linked to particular host species, and the principal difficulty is the scarcity of skilled louse taxonomists. We also found an unusually rich louse fauna on 219 adult cowbirds, which supports the interpretation that lack of opportunity due to physical isolation has been the fundamental factor in the host specificity of lice in certain avian orders.

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23

Bures, Oldrich. "Europol's Fledgling Counterterrorism Role." Terrorism and Political Violence 20, no. 4 (September 18, 2008): 498–517. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09546550802257218.

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24

Moore, Rebecca R. "China’s Fledgling Civil Society." World Policy Journal 18, no. 1 (2001): 56–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/07402775-2001-2006.

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25

Streby, Henry M., and David E. Andersen. "Survival of Fledgling Ovenbirds." Condor 115, no. 2 (May 2013): 403–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/cond.2013.110178.

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26

Knight, C., and T. Rogers. "Factors influencing fledgling production in little penguins (Eudyptula minor)." Wildlife Research 31, no. 3 (2004): 339. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr03071.

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An eight-year study was conducted on the breeding biology of the little penguin population at Lion Island. Forwards-selection Poisson regressions were used to determine whether variables such as year, date of lay, years since banding of each parent (indicator of age) and habitat influenced the fledgling numbers and average fledgling weight for adult pairs. 'Date of lay' provided the most significant model of fledgling numbers, while 'habitat' and 'year' as single-variable models also significantly influenced fledgling numbers. 'Date of lay' provided the most significant model of average fledgling weight. Future monitoring of the Lion Island colony therefore should focus on monitoring egg laying at the start of the breeding season, and maintaining high-quality nesting habitat.

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Hinke, Jefferson T., George M. Watters, Christian S. Reiss, Jarrod A. Santora, and M. Mercedes Santos. "Acute bottlenecks to the survival of juvenile Pygoscelis penguins occur immediately after fledging." Biology Letters 16, no. 12 (December 2020): 20200645. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2020.0645.

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Estimating when and where survival bottlenecks occur in free-ranging marine predators is critical for effective demographic monitoring and spatial planning. This is particularly relevant to juvenile stages of long-lived species for which direct observations of death are typically not possible. We used satellite telemetry data from fledgling Adélie, chinstrap and gentoo penguins near the Antarctic Peninsula to estimate the spatio-temporal scale of a bottleneck after fledging. Fledglings were tracked up to 106 days over distances of up to 2140 km. Cumulative losses of tags increased to 73% within 16 days of deployment, followed by an order-of-magnitude reduction in loss rates thereafter. The timing and location of tag losses were consistent with at-sea observations of penguin carcasses and bioenergetics simulations of mass loss to thresholds associated with low recruitment probability. A bootstrapping procedure is used to assess tag loss owing to death versus other factors. Results suggest insensitivity in the timing of the bottleneck and quantify plausible ranges of mortality rates within the bottleneck. The weight of evidence indicates that a survival bottleneck for fledgling penguins is acute, attributable to predation and starvation, and may account for at least 33% of juvenile mortality.

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28

Cohen, Emily B., and Catherine A. Lindell. "Survival, Habitat Use, and Movements of Fledgling White-Throated Robins (Turdus Assimilis) in a Costa Rican Agricultural Landscape." Auk 121, no. 2 (April 1, 2004): 404–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/auk/121.2.404.

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Abstract We used radiotelemetry to study behavior of White-throated Robins (Turdus assimilis) during the postfledging dependent period. The study was conducted in a mixed agricultural and forested landscape in southern Costa Rica from March through August of 2001 and 2002. A transmitter was attached to one fledgling per brood (n = 53). Each bird was located daily prior to dispersal. We compared survivorship, habitat use, and movements of fledglings from (1) nests in coffee plantations and (2) nests in cattle pastures. The probability of surviving the first three weeks out of the nest was 0.67 ± 0.07 (SE) for fledglings from nests in all habitats, 0.58 ± 0.10 for fledglings from nests in coffee, and 0.74 ± 0.26 for fledglings from nests in pasture. Fledglings from nests in pasture left their nesting habitat at younger ages than did those from nests in coffee, and most birds from both habitats moved into forest when they left their nesting habitat. Pasture was rarely used during the postfledging period, whereas coffee plantations were used extensively. Fledglings that remained in agricultural habitats (coffee or pasture) were less likely to survive until dispersal than were those that moved into forested areas. Average daily distances from the nest gradually increased until fledglings dispersed away from the natal area, always into forest, and were not different for birds from pasture or coffee. White-throated Robins can nest successfully in agricultural habitats, but use of forest positively influenced survivorship of young during the postfledging dependent period.

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29

Glynis M. Breakwell. "The Fledgling Science of Neuroeconomics." American Journal of Psychology 123, no. 2 (2010): 238. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/amerjpsyc.123.2.0238.

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30

REISCH, MARC. "Courtaulds pushes fledgling films business." Chemical & Engineering News 69, no. 43 (October 28, 1991): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cen-v069n043.p012.

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31

Rubinov, Mikail, and Ed Bullmore. "Fledgling pathoconnectomics of psychiatric disorders." Trends in Cognitive Sciences 17, no. 12 (December 2013): 641–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2013.10.007.

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32

Ratliff, William. "Latin America's Fledgling, Fumbling Democracies." Review of Policy Research 23, no. 2 (March 2006): 295–310. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-1338.2006.00202.x.

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33

Burger, Jan A. "Fledgling prognostic markers in CLL." Blood 110, no. 12 (December 1, 2007): 3820–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-08-109413.

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34

Lutz, Michael E. "Ascending Paralysis in Fledgling Mockingbirds." Journal of the Association of Avian Veterinarians 5, no. 3 (1991): 128. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/27671028.

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35

Collinson, Helen. "Underground tools aid fledgling hackers." Computers & Security 14, no. 7 (January 1995): 615. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-4048(96)81698-1.

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36

Vega Rivera, J. H., C. A. Haas, J. H. Rappole, and W. J. McShea. "PARENTAL CARE OF FLEDGLING WOOD THRUSHES." Wilson Bulletin 112, no. 2 (June 2000): 233–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1676/0043-5643(2000)112[0233:pcofwt]2.0.co;2.

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37

KERSHNER, ERIC L., and ERIC C. MRUZ. "NEST INTERFERENCE BY FLEDGLING LOGGERHEAD SHRIKES." Wilson Journal of Ornithology 118, no. 1 (March 2006): 75–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1676/1559-4491(2006)118[0075:nibfls]2.0.co;2.

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38

BAUM, RUDY. "Fledgling firm targets drug discovery process." Chemical & Engineering News 68, no. 10 (March 5, 1990): 10–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cen-v068n010.p010.

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39

Liszewski, Kathy. "Fledgling Steps toward Regenerative Medicine Superpowers." Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News 39, S4 (August 2019): S7—S9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/gen.39.s4.03.

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40

Marshall, Catherine, and Barbara A. Mitchell. "The Assumptive Worlds of Fledgling Administrators." Education and Urban Society 23, no. 4 (August 1991): 396–415. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013124591023004004.

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41

SOTO, J. L. P. "Spain: A Fledgling Parliament 1977-1997." Parliamentary Affairs 50, no. 3 (July 1, 1997): 410–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.pa.a028740.

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42

Lee, Aie-Rie. "Intolerance in the Fledgling Korean Democracy." Asian Affairs: An American Review 27, no. 2 (January 2000): 67–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00927670009598831.

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43

Rodgers, James A. "Fate of artificially supported Snail Kite Rostrhamus sociabilis nests in central Florida, U.S.A." Bird Conservation International 8, no. 1 (March 1998): 53–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959270900003622.

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SummaryTwenty Florida Snail Kite Rostrhamus sociabilis plumbeus nests in imminent danger of collapsing at four lakes in central Florida, U.S.A. during 1987-1993 were stabilized or artificially supported. Most nests (n=17, 85.0%) were in either cattail Typha spp. or bulrush Scirpus validus. Nine supported nests (45.0%) successfully fledged young; the remaining nests were either abandoned (n=8, 40.0%) or ultimately collapsed (n=3, 15.0%). The overall rate of 0.75 fledgling per nest for supported nests was similar to the 0.79 fledgling per nest for unaltered nests. If the 160 nests that collapsed during the study had been supported, 72 nests saved from collapsing could have produced an additional 54 fledgling kites. Nest support may be effective where kite populations are low or during drought conditions.

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44

Drummond, H., C. Rodríguez, and D. Oro. "Natural ‘poor start’ does not increase mortality over the lifetime." Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 278, no. 1723 (March 30, 2011): 3421–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2010.2569.

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Poor nutrition and other challenges during infancy can impose delayed costs, and it has been proposed that expression of costs during adulthood should involve increased mortality rather than reduced reproduction. Demonstrations of delayed costs come mostly from experimental manipulations of the diet and hormones of captive infants of short-lived species, and we know very little about how natural poor starts in life affect wild animals over their lifetimes. In the blue-footed booby, sibling conflict obliges younger brood members to grow up suffering aggressive subordination, food deprivation and elevated stress hormone, but surviving fledglings showed no deficit in reproduction over the first 5–10 years. A study of 7927 individuals from two-fledgling and singleton broods from 20 cohorts found no significant evidence of a higher rate of mortality nor a lower rate of recruitment in younger fledglings than in elder fledglings or singletons at any age over the 20 year lifespan. Development of boobies may be buffered against the three challenges of subordination. Experimental challenges to neonates that result in delayed costs have usually been more severe, more prolonged and more abruptly suspended, and it is unclear which natural situations they mimic.

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45

Riska, Diane E. "An Analysis of Vocal Communication in Young Brown Noddies (Anous stolidus)." Auk 103, no. 2 (April 1, 1986): 351–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/auk/103.2.351.

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Abstract Nestlings and young fledglings of the Brown Noddy (Anous stolidus) produce three structurally different vocal signals. The postures of the chicks and the contexts in which these signals are produced differ for each call. Nestlings produce all three calls within one day after hatching. One is given during pipping, when the chick is moving on or near the nest, or when it is isolated from the nest. The second is given by begging chicks. The third is given when an intruder approaches. The repertoire is composed of frequency-modulated tonal elements and broad-band bursts of sound. Although changes occur in the temporal and frequency patterns of the calls during the nestling and fledgling stages, there is little resemblance to the adult repertoire during these periods.

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46

Wascher, Claudia A. F., Josef Hemetsberger, Kurt Kotrschal, and Didone Frigerio. "Leucocyte Profiles and Family Size in Fledgling Greylag Geese (Anser Anser)." Avian Biology Research 10, no. 4 (November 2017): 246–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.3184/175815617x15036738758871.

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In precocial species, large brood sizes are usually considered as beneficial and individuals in larger broods grow faster and are more dominant compared to individuals in small broods. However, little is known whether family size also beneficially affects the offspring's physiology. In the present study, we investigated whether leucocyte profiles in fledgling Greylag Geese ( Anser anser) are affected by (1) family size, (2) individual characteristics, i.e. age, body condition or sex, or (3) characteristics of the parents, i.e. previous reproductive success. From spring 2013 to autumn 2015, we collected blood samples from 100 juvenile Greylag Geese from 20 different pairs. From these samples we determined the absolute leucocyte number, an individual's differential blood cells count and an individual's haematocrit (HCT). The number of fledglings in a family and therefore the number of siblings a focal individual had, was positively related to the percentage of basophils, negatively to the heterophils/lymphocytes ratio (H/L), and tended to be negatively related to the percentage of monocytes and eosinophils in a sample. H/L ratio was negatively related to age in days and tended to be negatively related to body condition, whereas the percentage of basophils tended to be positively related to it. Absolute leucocyte number did not differ between individuals depending on family size. However, composition of different leucocyte types (basophils, eosinophils, H/L ratio) was modulated mostly by the social environment (family size) and not by the characteristics of the individual or the parents. In conclusion, even though we did not find clear evidence of a positive health effect, i.e. a better immune system, in fledgling Greylag Geese of large versus small families, our results suggest that family size modulates different components of the immune system hinting at its stress-reducing effect.

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47

Troy, Jeff R., Nick D. Holmes, and M. Clay Green. "Modeling artificial light viewed by fledgling seabirds." Ecosphere 2, no. 10 (October 2011): art109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/es11-00094.1.

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48

Łapińska, Magdalena. "Memory-dependent grief in Octavia Butler’s Fledgling." Crossroads. A Journal of English Studies, no. 15(4) (2016): 82–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.15290/cr.2016.15.4.07.

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49

Stamps, Judy, Barbara Kus, Anne Clark, and Patricia Arrowood. "Social relationships of fledgling budgerigars, Melopsitticus undulatus." Animal Behaviour 40, no. 4 (October 1990): 688–700. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0003-3472(05)80698-0.

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50

Lynam, Donald R. "Fledgling psychopathy: A view from personality theory." Law and Human Behavior 26, no. 2 (2002): 255–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/a:1014652328596.

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