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Academic literature on the topic 'Flammable Refrigerants'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 10 December 2022
Last updated: 28 January 2023

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Journal articles on the topic "Flammable Refrigerants"

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Chow, Wan Ki, Tsz Kit Yue, Yiu Wah Ng, Zheming Gao, and Ye Gao. "Clean Hydrocarbon Refrigerant Explosion Hazards." Journal of Civil Engineering and Construction 11, no. 2 (May 15, 2022): 104–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.32732/jcec.2022.11.2.104.

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Explosion hazards are fire safety concerns resulting from the development of clean hydrocarbon refrigerants (environmental friendly flammable refrigerants) to reduce the emission of substances with high global warning potential. Several clean hydrocarbon refrigerants are flammable with propane. Explosion hazards due to flammable refrigerant leakage from refrigerators put inside a small cupboard may give a concentration higher than its lowest flammability. A small amount of ignition energy can ignite the flammable gas to give combustion. Limiting the pressure development in a small cupboard will result in deflagration, and then transition to detonation. Since the compositions of many of environmental friendly flammable refrigerants are not disclosed and odourless, it is very difficult to assess their hazard upon leakage. This study reveals that the hidden hazard of environmental friendly flammable refrigerants would lead to serious consequences using earlier experimental studies on explosion. This is a big problem taking time to solve. Indoor aerodynamics would affect the mixing between leaked refrigerant with air in the room. Appropriate ventilation should be provided to avoid keeping the heavier explosive gas at lower levels. Different ventilation modes with air inlets and outlets at high and low positions should be considered. Use of environmental friendly flammable refrigerants and the ways in protecting against possible explosion hazards for refrigerators commonly put in kitchen cupboards in small rooms, inter alia, economy-class hotel rooms, small apartments, or subdivided units in densely populated cities, such as Hong Kong have to be watched. At the moment, fire safety management must be enhanced to address the problem.
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Piyanut Saengsikhiao and Juntakan Taweekun. "Investigation and Analysis of R438A as an Alternative Refrigerant to R22 with Lower Global Warming Potential." Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences 95, no. 1 (June 18, 2022): 164–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.95.1.164187.

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This research presents the R438A refrigerant that non-flammable refrigerant and develop for retrofit to R404A. The hydrofluorocarbons/hydrocarbon (HFCs/HCs) R463A (GWP=2,265) was zeotropic mixture of R125 (45%), R134a (44.2%), R32 (8.5%), R600 (1.7%) and R600a (0.6%). The R463A refrigerants is no frame propagation class A1 and lower toxicity and used polyol ester oil (POE). The results will investigation and analysis of the environmentally friendly refrigerant for R22 replacement. All refrigerant properties in this research were based on results from the REFPROP and CYCLE_D-HX software of NIST under CAN/ANSI/AHRI540. The results of this work show that HCs R170, R290, R600, R600a, R601, R601a, R1150 and R1270 can be mixed in HFCs R417A, R417B, R422A, R422B, R422C, R422D, R424A, R437A, R438A and R453A and able to be further developed in the future. All refrigerants are non-flammable refrigerants, non-toxic and zero ODP. The R438A mixed with HCs R600 (1.7%) and R601a (0.6%) and is the refrigerant cooling coefficient of performance close to that of R22 refrigerant. In conclusion, it can be used as an environmentally friendly and energy efficiency replacement for R22. The result of R438A normal boiling was lower than R404A 4% that high cooling capacity and zero ODP. All refrigerants are also refrigerants that are matched with the 4th generation refrigerants with the use of natural refrigerants.
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Vali Shaik, Sharmas, and TP Ashok Babu. "Theoretical energy performance assessment and environmental impact of various new ozone-friendly refrigerants used in residential air conditioners." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process Mechanical Engineering 234, no. 4 (May 29, 2020): 367–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0954408920928260.

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This study focuses on energy performance investigation and environmental impact analysis of various new ecofriendly refrigerant blends as alternatives to high global warming potential refrigerant R22 theoretically. In this study, 23 refrigerants were considered at various composition. The present work considered the practical vapour compression refrigeration cycle for the performance assessment of various R22 alternatives. Essential studies such as toxicity, flammability, and total equivalent warming index of various novel refrigerants were also conducted in this study. Results obtained from practical vapour compression refrigeration cycle revealed that the energy efficiency ratio of refrigerants such as R1270 (2.860) and RB03 (R290/R152a of 60/40 in mass %) (2.854) was closer to the energy efficiency ratio of R22 (2.940). Volumetric refrigeration capacity (VRC) of R1270 (3293 kJ/m3) was similar to that of R22 (3297 kJ/m3) whereas VRC of RB03 (2908 kJ/m3) was almost similar to that of R407C (2925 kJ/m3) which was an alternative to R22. Compressor discharge temperature of RB03 was 15.78 ℃ lower when compared to R22. Flammability study revealed that all the new refrigerant blends (RB01 to RB04) were classified into weakly flammable (A2) and flammable (A3) category refrigerants whereas toxicity study revealed that all the investigated refrigerants were classified into non-toxic group (A). Refrigerant blend RB03 was less flammable compared to R1270. Total equivalent warming index analysis revealed that the environmental impact of R422A was 27.88% higher than R22 whereas RB03 has 4.97% lower environmental impact compared to R22. Overall, performance of refrigerant blend RB03 was better compared to 23 investigated refrigerants and it was very nearer to the performance of R22 and hence, it could be considered as an ecofriendly alternative to replace high global warming potential refrigerant R22 used in air conditioners.
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GRZEBIELEC, Andrzej, Artur RUSOWICZ, and Adam SZELĄGOWSKI. "Safety aspects for the R290 (propane) as working medium in small air conditioning installations." Inżynieria Bezpieczeństwa Obiektów Antropogenicznych, no. 2 (June 30, 2021): 22–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.37105/iboa.110.

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Following the entry into force of the Regulation (EU) No 517/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 April 2014 on fluorinated greenhouse gases and repealing Regulation (EC) No 842/2006, the scope of refrigerants, which have so far been commonly used is very limited. All preferred refrigerants are mostly flammable and explosive, and they include R32, R1234yf, R1234ze, R290 (propane), R600a (isobutane), R717 (ammonia). However, it should be noted that refrigerants such as R32, R1234yf, R1234ze are classified as mildly flammable and has been created for them, in accordance with ISO 817 standard, special group called A2L. It is also worth noting that the new classification moved ammonia to the group B2L - that means is toxic and mildly flammable. The article focuses on defining the conditions in which there is possible to build safely split installation in which the propane is a refrigerant. It turns out that small splits are devices which can be used safely with R290 in most cases.
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Khambali, Listiyono, and Vinan Viyus. "PENGARUH REFRIGERAN CAMPURAN HALOKARBON DAN HIDROKARBON TERHADAP TEMPERATUR EVAPORATOR." Jurnal Teknik Ilmu Dan Aplikasi 9, no. 2 (April 28, 2021): 8–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.33795/jtia.v9i2.25.

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Hydrocarbon refrigerant is a type of environmentally friendly refrigerant but it has disadvantages compared to halocarbon refrigerant which is flammable. The purpose of mixing hydrocarbon refrigerants with halocarbons in the study was to determine the effect of the percentage of the refrigerant mixture on the temperature of the evaporator and reduce its flameability. The percentage of the mass of the mixed refrigerant mixture that is loaded and time is used as the independent variable, the evaporator temperature as the dependent variable. So the relationship between time and evaporator temperature will be known for each percentage of the mass of the refrigerant mixture. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa komposisi campuran massa refrigeran hidrokarbon dengan halocarbon berpengaruh terhadap laju perubahan temperatur evaporator. Persentase hidrokarbon dalam campuaran refrigeran HC-HCFC semakin besar dapat meningkatkan laju penurunan temperatur pada evaporator. Semakin besar persentase hidrokarbon dapat menghasilkan pencapaian temperatur semakin rendah pada evaporator.
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Siddiqui, M. U., Amro Owes, F. G. Al-Amri, and Farooq Saeed. "Recent Developments in the Search for Alternative Low-Global-Warming-Potential Refrigerants: A Review." International Journal of Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration 28, no. 03 (September 2020): 2030004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s2010132520300049.

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Conventionally, the CFC-type refrigerants were used until Montreal Protocol which stated that CFC refrigerants cause ozone depletion and should be replaced with alternative refrigerants. The alternative refrigerants are safe for ozone but they have comparatively high flammability, toxicity and global warming potential. Thus they need careful handling. In Kyoto Protocol, it was stated that the currently used refrigerants with high global warming potential need to be replaced with yet other alternative refrigerants with low global warming potential. This paper comprehensively reviews those recent studies that focused on the possible replacement of currently in-use refrigerant with a comparatively more environmental-friendly alternative refrigerant. Initially, the progression of refrigerants through different generations has been described and discussed. A list of currently in-use refrigerants has been presented. Then, the scientific developments for the replacement of listed refrigerants are thoroughly reviewed and critically analyzed. From the comprehensive review, it was found that R1234yf has the most potential to be a suitable low-flammable replacement for R134a for domestic refrigeration and automotive air-conditioning systems. Also, R32 has the most potential to be a suitable alternative of R410A.
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Rosero, Cristhian R., P. Sebastián Espinel, and Pablo V. Tuza. "New Refrigerant Molecules from Structure Optimization." Processes 9, no. 6 (May 27, 2021): 949. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr9060949.

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In the present work, various objective functions were formulated and optimized using the mixed integer nonlinear programming and the generalized reduced gradient nonlinear method from the solver tool of Microsoft® Excel 2016, respectively. The CH3FO2, C2H4F2O, CH2F2O2, CH2F2O, C3H4F2, and the C2H2F2O molecules were found to meet structural feasibility constraints and physical properties from refrigerant molecules and have not previously been reported in the literature. These new refrigerants present global warming potential values similar to that from the R-134a and Freon 12 refrigerants and null ozone depletion potential. Moreover, these molecules are normally flammable, as similar as to R-134a refrigerant. The CH3FO2, C2H4F2O, CH2F2O2, C2H2F2O, and CH2F2O show toxicity values similar to R-134a and Freon 12 refrigerants.
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McLinden, Mark O., Christopher J. Seeton, and Andy Pearson. "New refrigerants and system configurations for vapor-compression refrigeration." Science 370, no. 6518 (November 12, 2020): 791–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abe3692.

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The high global warming potential of current refrigerants in cooling equipment based on the vapor-compression cycle has triggered a major effort to find and implement more environmentally benign alternatives. Here, we review the basics of the vapor-compression cycle together with the safety, environmental, and thermodynamic constraints that have led to the current and next generation of refrigerants. The development of new fluids has focused on fluorinated olefins, known as hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs), and blends that contain HFOs. Many of these are slightly flammable, presenting trade-offs between safety and environmental considerations. Engineers also have options with a resurgence of the “natural refrigerants” (ammonia, carbon dioxide, propane, and isobutane). Innovative system designs that reduce the required quantity of refrigerant may allow a wider choice of refrigerants.
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Kivevele, Thomas. "Propane (HC – 290) as an Alternative Refrigerant in the Food Transport Refrigeration Sector in Southern Africa – a Review." Automotive Experiences 5, no. 1 (January 1, 2022): 75–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.31603/ae.5994.

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Most of the food transport trucks in Sothern Africa are equipped with refrigeration and air conditioning systems filled with fluorocarbon refrigerants such as R404A to facilitate the heat transfer process. These refrigerants are synthetic chemicals and have high potential to cause global warming and damage to the ozone layer. Currently, natural refrigerants are considered as alternatives to these man-made refrigerants to mitigate some of the environmental risks. The natural refrigerants are the substances that occur in nature such as hydrocarbons (HC), ammonia, and carbon dioxide. These type of refrigerants have been in the market for many years, but in some applications such as domestic refrigerators, heat pumps, chillers, and air conditioners, whereas fluorocarbons are the mostly used in the food transport refrigeration systems. Natural refrigerants such as propane (HC – 290) are now penetrating the market in food transport refrigeration systems where previously fluorocarbons were the favoured option. Therefore, this work reports the possibilities of using non-fluorinated hydrocarbon/natural refrigerant (propane – R290) in the food transport refrigerated systems in Southern Africa; a case study of South Africa. R290 has the potential to lower greenhouse gases emissions compared to hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) which are widely used in most of the existing food transport refrigeration systems in South Africa. R290 has negligible Global Warming Potential (GWP) of 3 which is well below the global threshold value of 150. The review revealed that refrigeration capacity of R290 is in the average of 10 – 30% higher than commonly used fluorocarbon refrigerants such as R404A and R134A. Since R290 is labeled as a flammable refrigerant, the present study also reviews its flammability safety measures.
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Yang, Zhao, Ye Li, Qiang Zhu, and Xun Li. "Research on non-flammable criteria on refrigerants." Applied Thermal Engineering 20, no. 14 (October 2000): 1315–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1359-4311(99)00088-5.

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Books on the topic "Flammable Refrigerants"

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Evaporation and condensation heat transfer performance of flammable refrigerants in a brazed plate heat exchanger. Gaithersburg, MD: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Technology Administration, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2000.

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Book chapters on the topic "Flammable Refrigerants"

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"FLAMMABLE REFRIGERANTS IN BUILDINGS FROM FIRE SAFETY POINT OF VIEW." In Proceedings of the enviBUILD 2019, 140–46. Sciendo, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/9788395669699-023.

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Wei, James. "Estimation by Associations and Trends." In Product Engineering. Oxford University Press, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195159172.003.0011.

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Product engineers are often challenged to estimate: 1. the properties of new or obscure classes of material that have not been extensively studied before, or have never been made before; 2. the property changes on a material due to physical and chemical modifications; 3. the properties under a variety of ambient conditions, such as temperatures, pressures, electromagnetic fields, and prolonged environmental exposures and weathering. When theoretical understanding is insufficient and quantitative correlations are not available, we can often make useful qualitative estimations by using fragmentary empirical structure–property relations. The principal tools are observations of associations and trends, which are often the only methods available in biological, health, safety, and environmental properties. Association is based on analogy, or the probabilistic assumption that “similar substances have similar properties.” Does x◦, the material in question, resemble a known substance x1 or a class of substances {x1, x2, . . ., xi , . . .} that have known properties and structure? If we can find such a match, then we can use it to make qualitative property estimates for x◦.We know that metals are nearly always solids at room temperature, but mercury is an exception. Trend is based on the study of the variation of properties among the substances {x1, x2, . . ., xi, . . .} and how they depend on structure variations, which amounts to qualitative and empirical structure–property relations. For example, we know that a larger molecule tends to have higher melting and boiling points, but chlorobenzene has lower melting point than benzene. Thomas Midgley used qualitative trend analysis to help him to discover the chlorofluorocarbons as refrigerants. He did not have a well-organized database, nor did he have an established method of analysis and prediction, and his method was ad hoc and empirical. What he did know was that sulfur dioxide and ammonia were in use as refrigerants. He looked at the periodic table of nonmetallic elements and observed the trend that small compounds of these elements tend to become less flammable when we move from the left to the right of the table, which is certainly true in the sequence CH4, NH3, H2O, and HF.
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Conference papers on the topic "Flammable Refrigerants"

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Dubey, Swapnil. "Study of Different Types of Water Heating Systems - Under Living Lab Conditions." In ASME 2019 13th International Conference on Energy Sustainability collocated with the ASME 2019 Heat Transfer Summer Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/es2019-3944.

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Abstract In Singapore, roughly 20% of the energy consumed by households is used for water heating and almost all the energy consumed by conventional electric water heaters. One of the significant potential energy saving opportunities lies in using energy-efficient water heating appliances. Recently, there has been a move towards energy-saving design and the use of natural refrigerants over fluorocarbons. Unlike conventional electric storage water heaters, which use electricity to heat water directly, heat pump storage water heaters use electricity only to operate a pump that circulates refrigerants around the system. This refrigerant collects heat from the surrounding atmosphere and transfers it to the water. CO2 heat pumps have low global warming potential when compared to other refrigerants based heat pumps, has zero ozone depletion potential, inexpensive, non-flammable, generate high temperature. In this project, a comparative analysis of three different water heater types has been presented based on real-time usage and living-lab conditions under the tropical climate of Singapore. These three types are: 1. Electrical heater storage type 2. Hybrid heat pump with auxiliary electrical heating water heater 3. CO2 heat pump water heater without auxiliary heating Study found significant energy saving using CO2 heat pump compared to other water heating system and also better for environment.
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Yatim, A., E. P. Wijaya, R. Irwansyah, A. S. Auzani, and Y. Liu. "Risk Assessment of Flammable Natural Refrigerant Application in Air Conditioning Systems." In 2022 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management (IEEM). IEEE, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ieem55944.2022.9989964.

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You, Wonwo, Jaeuk Park, and Youngsub Lim. "Explosion Risk Analysis on the Liquefaction Process of LNG-FPSO at the PFD Level." In ASME 2017 36th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/omae2017-62163.

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The potential risk of an offshore processing facility is the major important part in the oil and gas industry due to its limited space causing difficulties in evacuation. An offshore processing facility is normally exposed to flammable oil and gas in the operating phase. Especially, uncontrolled hydrocarbon leaks or ruptures of the equipment present main threats. These failures can lead to fire and explosion disaster. Some studies have proposed fire and explosion assessment methodologies and made fire and explosion assessment tools. These tools can provide risk assessments result using physical effect modelling software and following the related standards or engineering practices according to accident scenarios. Nevertheless, existing fire and explosion assessment procedures are still not comprehensive enough to applicate a specific process due to its complexity and are not clear which stage in a project is appropriate for applying it. This paper focuses only on explosion accidents and discusses the development of an explosion risk analysis procedure possible to apply at process flow diagram (PFD) level. The explosion risk analysis procedure using PFD has 6 steps; modelling of a process, scenario selection, inventory calculation, frequency calculation, consequence modelling and risk estimation. It starts at modelling of a specific process using process simulation software, HYSYS. The process modelling can be optimized by the existing methods and finally provide the PFD for the specific process. In the scenario selection step, the information required to perform a risk analysis is identified. The inventory calculation conducts to calculate the inventory of a defined segment after sizing of the equipment in the PFD. The frequency calculation consists of leak frequency and ignition probability. The leak frequency can be calculated with historical database and the ignition probability can be calculated with a specific ignition probability model. The consequence modelling is conducted by using physical effect modelling software, PHAST. It can provide the distance to specified overpressure. Finally, at the risk estimation step, the risk results are evaluated. This procedure can help to applicate a specific process easily and provide explosion risk assessment tool at PFD level. This paper conducts the case study for a liquefied natural gas floating production storage offloading (LNG-FPSO) which is one of the representative offshore processing facilities. Especially, a natural liquefaction process in a LNG-FPSO, which liquefies the processed natural gas to store in a storage tank of a LNG-FPSO, is the most important process in terms of cost and risk. In the situation the most of ongoing or prospective projects for LNG-FPSO adopt dual mixed refrigerants (DMR) liquefaction process, the representative configurations of the DMR liquefaction processes are evaluated and compared. It can help decision making through providing which configuration has an advantage in terms of explosion accidents.
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Monforte, Roberto, and Luca Caretto. "Safety Issues in the Application of a Flammable Refrigerant Gas in MAC Systems: The OEM Perspective [Revised July, 2009]." In SAE World Congress & Exhibition. 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA, United States: SAE International, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.4271/2009-01-0541.

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Sen, Mihir, and Samuel Paolucci. "The Use of Ionic Liquids in Refrigeration." In ASME 2006 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. ASMEDC, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/imece2006-14712.

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Ionic liquids are salts, usually with organic cations and inorganic anions, that are liquid at room temperature. There are a wide variety of ionic liquids that can be synthesized with different properties for different applications. They are generally non-volatile, non-toxic, and non-flammable with high heat capacity, high density, high thermal and chemical stability. We propose its use as an absorbent in an absorption refrigeration cycle. The refrigerant in this case would be a gas such as carbon dioxide. The present work deals with the desirable properties of ionic liquids for this application. For example, the absorbent must have a high solubility, and the heat and mass transfer coefficients of the absorbent-refrigerant solution must be large. The viscosity of the mixture, on the other hand, should not be so large as to make its pumping difficult.
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Usami, Akio, Naohiko Kishimoto, Hiroki Kusumoto, Fujio Kaneko, and Takehiro Inoue. "Cryogenic leakage risk analysis for FLNG and use of brittle crack arresting material as a risk mitigation measure." In SNAME 5th World Maritime Technology Conference. SNAME, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.5957/wmtc-2015-105.

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Leakage of cryogenic fluid can bring diverse consequences within confined environment like FLNG. In particular, leakage from pressurized refrigerant system is expected to form cryogenic pool, which could initiate brittle fracture of the structure as well as violent evaporation of flammable gas. The authors put the series of different leakage scenarios under light and quantitatively analyzed the potential consequences in an attempt to provide overall pictures of this hazard yet to have been made clear so far. Further, use of brittle fracture arresting steel – a new strain of carbon steel produced through special TMCP technology – was explored on its potential to mitigate the risk.
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Cogswell, Frederick J., David W. Gerlach, Timothy C. Wagner, and Jarso Mulugeta. "Design of an Organic Rankine Cycle for Waste Heat Recovery From a Portable Diesel Generator." In ASME 2011 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. ASMEDC, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/imece2011-65489.

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A 5-kW Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) was designed for mobile 60-kW diesel engine waste heat recovery applications to provide additional electricity for powering air conditioners. The ORC uses a non-flammable, near-zero-global-warming-potential fluid (Novec649) in a supercritical cycle. The system conceptual design and some observations on the component specification are described. The system will utilize an advanced oil-free high speed direct drive turbine. The proposed power generation module has a volume of ∼3 ft3 and contains the turbine, generator, pump, recuperator, and electrical components. The heat rejection heat exchanger is located on the power generation module in a configuration similar to mini-split air conditioners. The heat recovery heat exchanger (supercritical heater) is attached to the diesel generator and placed in series before the OEM muffler. The supercritical heater must be carefully designed to prevent the refrigerant from overheating, while still maintaining a high effectiveness.
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Reports on the topic "Flammable Refrigerants"

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Palmer, Sheila C., W. Vance II Payne, and Piotr A. Domanski. Evaporation and condensation heat transfer performance of flammable refrigerants in brazed plate heat exchanger. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/nist.ir.6541.

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Abdelaziz, Omar, Ahmad Abu-Heiba, Van D. Baxter, Dean Edwards, Ahmed Elatar, Charles E. A. Finney, Viral K. Patel, Miroslav K. Stoyanov, and Mingkan Zhang. Methodology for Estimating Safe Charge Limits of Flammable Refrigerants in HVAC&R Applications - Part 2. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), March 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1506800.

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Baxter, Van D., Omar Abdelaziz, Ahmad Abu-Heiba, K. Dean Edwards, Ahmed F. Elatar, Charles E. A. Finney, Viral K. Patel, and Mingkan Zhang. Milestone Report BTO 3.2.2.25 – Methodology for Estimating Safe Charge Limits of Flammable Refrigerants in HVAC&R Applications – Part 1. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), June 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1460212.

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Pagliaro, John L., and Gregory T. Linteris. Burning velocities of marginally flammable refrigerant-air mixtures. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology, May 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/nist.tn.1988.

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Domanski, Piotr A. Low-GWP Non-Flammable Alternative Refrigerant Blends for HFC-134a:. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/nist.ir.8455.

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Edwards, Dean, Miroslav Stoyanov, Ahmad Abuheiba, and Van Baxter. Completion of initial reduced-order model for flammable refrigerant dispersal in residential spaces. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), March 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1876309.

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