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Journal articles on the topic 'Filial imprinting'

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Author: Grafiati
Published: 11 March 2023

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1

Miura, Momoko, and Toshiya Matsushima. "Biological motion facilitates filial imprinting." Animal Behaviour 116 (June 2016): 171–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.03.025.

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2

van Kampen, Hendrik S., and Gerrit J. de Vos. "Familiarity interferes with filial imprinting." Behavioural Processes 38, no. 1 (October 1996): 55–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0376-6357(96)00011-3.

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3

VAN KAMPEN, Hendrik S., and Gerrit J. DE VOS. "Effects of Primary Imprinting On the Subsequent Development of Secondary Filial Attachments in the Chick." Behaviour 125, no. 3-4 (1993): 245–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853993x00272.

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AbstractThis study reinvestigates the effects of primary imprinting of chicks with either a naturalistic stimulus or an artificial object on subsequent imprinting with artificial objects. Initial experience with a live chick (group C) or a yellow cylinder (group Y) had differential effects on the development of a secondary filial attachment in chicks. In chicks of both groups, growth of attachment to the novel imprinting object manifested itself rather abruptly, but the change in response to the novel object occurred later in C- than in Y-chicks. There was no difference between the groups in the outcome of secondary imprinting: chicks in groups C and Y eventually became equally strongly attached to their novel imprinting stimulus, and when exposed to a third object, chicks in both groups imprinted equally well on this object. Thus, (1) initial imprinting on a naturalistic stimulus postponed, but did not block secondary imprinting on an artificial object, and (2) within the lengths of exposure used, the capacity to form new filial attachments was not limited, contrary to the prediction of the competitive exclusion model for imprinting. Secondary imprinting was delayed for a longer time when chicks were exposed to the novel imprinting stimulus in an unfamiliar environment. This indicates that induction of fear in chicks interfered with the occurrence of secondary imprinting. This effect may havc contributed to the difference between groups C and Y in the length of delay of secondary imprinting. Possibly, separation from the first stimulus and exposure to the second stimulus was more fearful to C-chicks than to Y-chicks. Introduction Imprinting was originally described by LORENZ (1935, 1937) as an irreversible process. This does not necessarily mean that a young animal cannot form secondary filial attachments after having been imprinted on a
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4

Bolhuis, Johan J., and R. C. Honey. "Within-event learning during filial imprinting." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 20, no. 3 (1994): 240–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0097-7403.20.3.240.

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5

Scheich, H. "Neural correlates of auditory filial imprinting." Journal of Comparative Physiology A 161, no. 4 (1987): 605–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00603664.

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6

Lemche, Erwin. "Research evidence from studies on filial imprinting, attachment, and early life stress: a new route for scientific integration." acta ethologica 23, no. 3 (June 8, 2020): 127–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10211-020-00346-7.

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Abstract Attachment is a concept that was developed and researched in developmental psychology in uptake of findings on filial imprinting from ethology. In the present period, however, attachment concepts are increasingly applied to and investigated in animal research, thereby translating back criteria that were established for human infants. It herein appears that findings on filial imprinting are becoming more and more forgotten, whilst basic findings in human infants are not reflected in investigations on attachment in animals. To re-integrate both domains, the present article undertakes the effort in briefly reviewing and recapitulating basic findings in human attachment and recent research on filial imprinting. In specific, replicated were critical roles of the conversion of thyroid prohormone by 2 iodothyronine deiodinase (Dio2) into triiodothyronine (T3) in the regulation of the timing of imprinting learning. Because of the interactions of T3 with oxytocinergic and dopaminergic neurones of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus, these findings provide new neuroendocrinological insight for possible relations with both attachment and metabolic sequelae of early life stress. Necessary is a mutual integration of all recent advances in the yet separated fields.
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7

Bock, Jörg, and Katharina Braun. "Differential Emotional Experience Leads to Pruning of Dendritic Spines in the Forebrain of Domestic Chicks." Neural Plasticity 6, no. 3 (1998): 17–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/np.1998.17.

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Auditory filial imprinting induces quantitative changes of synaptic density in the forebrain area mediorostral neostriatum/hyperstriatum ventrale of the domestic chick. The aim of the present study was to examine the time window and the extent and quality of experience that is required for the induction of these synaptic changes. We found that a brief (30 min) experience with the imprinting situation (tone stimulus + mother surrogate) is sufficient to induce spine elimination, which is detectable on postnatal day 7, but not 80 min after the presentation of the imprinting stimuli. This synaptic reorganization requires the association of the acoustic imprinting tone with an emotional reward (mother surrogate); acoustic stimulation alone does not lead to detectable synaptic changes. The results of the present study provide further evidence that juvenile emotional learning events, such as filial imprinting, lead to a selective synaptic reorganization.
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8

Van Kampen, Hendrik S. "Filial Imprinting and Associative Learning: Similar Mechanisms?" Netherlands Journal of Zoology 43, no. 1-2 (1992): 143–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156854293x00269.

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9

Bolhuis, Johan J., and Gabriel Horn. "Generalization of learned preferences in filial imprinting." Animal Behaviour 44, no. 1 (July 1992): 185–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0003-3472(05)80773-0.

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10

Junco, Félix. "Simulated maternal care facilitates the formation of filial imprinting in domestic chicks." Behaviour 154, no. 3 (2017): 313–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1568539x-00003423.

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The potential effects of maternal care-related stimuli on imprinting in domestic chicks were examined. In the first phase, one group of chicks received a simulated brooding experience with a primary imprinting object during two training sessions, whereas chicks in another group received exposure to the object without being brooded. In subsequent testing, the brooded chicks showed a robust preference for the primary imprinting object, whereas the non-brooded chicks showed a weaker preference for the object. In the second phase, one group of chicks was exposed to a secondary imprinting object associated with a feeding opportunity, whereas another group received exposure to the object in the absence of such an experience. In subsequent testing, the fed chicks showed a strong preference for the secondary imprinting object, whereas the non-fed chicks showed no preference. These results suggest that stimuli experienced through usual maternal care may be an important factor in filial imprinting.
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11

Town, Stephen Michael, and Brian John McCabe. "Neuronal Plasticity and Multisensory Integration in Filial Imprinting." PLoS ONE 6, no. 3 (March 10, 2011): e17777. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0017777.

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12

Cook, S. E. "Retention of primary preferences after secondary filial imprinting." Animal Behaviour 46, no. 2 (August 1993): 405–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1993.1205.

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13

Bolhuis, Johan J., and Hendrik S. Van Kampen. "Auditory Learning and Filial Imprinting in the Chick." Behaviour 117, no. 3-4 (1991): 303–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853991x00607.

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14

Bolhuis, Johan J., and Hendrik S. VAN KAMPEN. "An Evaluation of Auditory Learning in Filial Imprinting." Behaviour 122, no. 3-4 (1992): 195–230. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853992x00516.

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15

Chitadze, Lela, Giorgi Margvelani, Maia Meparishvili, Lia Tsverava, Ekaterine Mikautadze, Marine Kikvidze, Vincenzo Lagani, Brian J. McCabe, and Revaz Solomonia. "Chicken cognin interactome and the memory of filial imprinting." NeuroReport 31, no. 5 (March 2020): 399–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/wnr.0000000000001417.

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16

Van Kampen, Hendrik S., and Johan J. Bolhuis. "Interaction between auditory and visual learning during filial imprinting." Animal Behaviour 45, no. 3 (March 1993): 623–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1993.1074.

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17

Junco, Felix. "Filial Imprinting in an Altricial Bird: the Blackbird (Turdus Merula)." Behaviour 106, no. 1-2 (1988): 25–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853988x00070.

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18

Csaba, György, and Ágnes Inczefi-Gonda. "Transgenerational effect of a single neonatal benzpyrene treatment on the glucocorticoid receptor of the rat thymus." Human & Experimental Toxicology 17, no. 2 (February 1998): 88–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/096032719801700203.

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Hormonal imprinting is provoked perinatally by the appropriate hormone on its receptor, causing a life-long adjustment of the connection between the two participants. Faulty imprinting is caused by the presence of molecules similar to the hormone in this critical period, which results in a persistent alteration of the receptor. In the present experiment the transgenerational imprinting effect of a steroid-like environmental pollutant, benzpyrene, on the receptor binding capacity of filial thymic dexamethasone and uterine estrogen receptors was studied. The receptor density (Bmax) of the thymic glucocorticoid receptors of the males was reduced up to the third (F2) generation. In females this reduction was observed only in the F1 generation of treated animals. There was no change in receptor affinity (Kd). Uterine estrogen receptors were not subjected to transgenerational imprinting. The experiments demonstrate (1) the possibility of the transgenerational transmission of imprinting effect, (2) the differences of steroid receptors in different organs, and (3) the differences of male's and female's reactions from this aspect. The results call attention to the dangers of perinatal aromatic hydrocarbon exposition to the progeny generations.
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19

MORIYAMA, TETSUMI. "Effects of Pairing of Chicks During the Imprinting Period on Filial Responses to an Imprinting Stimulus." Annual of Animal Psychology 37, no. 2 (1988): 81–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.2502/janip1944.37.81.

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20

Honey, R. C., Gabriel Horn, and Patrick Bateson. "Perceptual Learning during Filial Imprinting: Evidence from Transfer of Training Studies." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section B 46, no. 3b (August 1993): 253–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14640749308401088.

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Chicks were first imprinted by exposing them to a moving training stimulus, B or C, that was projected onto a screen at one end of an experimental cabinet. Subsequently, subjects selectively approached the stimulus to which they had been exposed. On the following day, the chicks were placed into a chilled experimental cabinet (15°C) and received trials on which two stimuli (A and B) were projected onto screens located at opposite ends of the cabinet. If the subject approached Stimulus A, a stream of warm air was delivered; if it approached B, the trial terminated, and no heat was presented. For subjects that had been imprinted with Stimulus B, those in Group B, Stimulus A was novel, and Stimulus B was familiar. For chicks that had been imprinted with Stimulus C, Group C, both A and B were novel. In two experiments, Group B acquired the discrimination more rapidly than did Group C. This observation, made using a novel training procedure, was taken to support the suggestion that imprinting results in a form of perceptual learning in which the familiar imprinting object has become more discriminable from other novel objects.
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21

Lynn, Brian L., Colleen Reichmuth, Ronald J. Schusterman, and Frances M. D. Gulland. "Filial Imprinting in a Steller Sea Lion (Eumetopias jubatus)." Aquatic Mammals 36, no. 1 (January 1, 2010): 79–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1578/am.36.1.2010.79.

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22

Bolhuis, Johan J., and Patrick Bateson. "The importance of being first: a primacy effect in filial imprinting." Animal Behaviour 40, no. 3 (September 1990): 472–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0003-3472(05)80527-5.

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23

Cate, Carel Ten. "Does behavior contingent stimulus movement enhance filial imprinting in Japanese quail?" Developmental Psychobiology 19, no. 6 (November 1986): 607–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/dev.420190611.

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24

Town, Stephen Michael. "Preliminary evidence of a neurophysiological basis for individual discrimination in filial imprinting." Behavioural Brain Research 225, no. 2 (December 2011): 651–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2011.08.018.

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25

Junco, Félix. "Filial imprinting in blackbird nestlings, Turdus merula, after only one feeding session." Animal Behaviour 45, no. 3 (March 1993): 619–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1993.1073.

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26

Gruss, M., J. Bock, and K. Braun. "Haloperidol impairs auditory filial imprinting and modulates monoaminergic neurotransmission in an imprinting-relevant forebrain area of the domestic chick." Journal of Neurochemistry 87, no. 3 (October 1, 2003): 686–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1471-4159.2003.02025.x.

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27

van Kampen, H. S. "A framework for the study of filial imprinting and the development of attachment." Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 3, no. 1 (March 1996): 3–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/bf03210738.

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28

Cate, Carel. "Stimulus Movement, Hen Behaviour and Filial Imprinting in Japanese Quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica)." Ethology 82, no. 4 (April 26, 2010): 287–306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1989.tb00509.x.

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29

Yamaguchi, Shinji, Naoya Aoki, Takaaki Kitajima, Toshiya Matsushima, and Koichi Homma. "Upregulation of immediate early genes mRNA accompanying the filial imprinting in domestic chicks." Neuroscience Research 71 (September 2011): e184. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neures.2011.07.793.

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30

Collias, Nicholas. "FILIAL IMPRINTING AND LEADERSHIP AMONG CHICKS IN FAMILY INTEGRATION OF THE DOMESTIC FOWL." Behaviour 137, no. 2 (2000): 197–211. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853900502024.

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AbstractExperiments are reported on filial imprinting and leadership among white leghorn chicks in relation to family integration. Chicks hatched in isolation were given their first exposure to certain parental stimuli (a moving person or clucking sounds recorded from a broody hen) at various ages after hatching from the first to 10th day. Logistic regression and multiple likelihood analysis of the results showed that a significant tendency to follow or to be attracted to parental stimuli was much the greatest during the first day after hatching and then declined exponentially during the rest of the first week. There was a significant correlation between visual and auditory responses to parental stimuli, as well as between a chick's positive responses to clucking and the giving of distress cries by the chick when clucking ceased. Some individual chicks showed a significant tendency to lead the other chicks of a group to stimuli representing the mother, such as a source of warmth, or to the maternal voice (recorded clucking from a speaker).
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31

Lowndes, M., D. C. Davies, and M. H. Johnson. "Archistriatal Lesions Impair the Acquisition of Filial Preferences During Imprinting in the Domestic Chick." European Journal of Neuroscience 6, no. 7 (July 1994): 1143–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.1994.tb00612.x.

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32

Bolhuis, J. J., B. J. McCabe, and G. Horn. "Androgens and imprinting: Differential effects of testosterone on filial preference in the domestic chick." Behavioral Neuroscience 100, no. 1 (1986): 51–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0735-7044.100.1.51.

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33

Hadden, L. E. "Modeling interactions between filial imprinting and a predisposition using genetic algorithms and neural networks." Neurocomputing 42, no. 1-4 (January 2002): 215–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0925-2312(01)00595-1.

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34

DE VOS, Gerrit J., and Hendrik S. VAN KAMPEN. "Memory for the Spatial Position of an Imprinting Object in Junglefowl Chicks." Behaviour 122, no. 1-2 (1992): 26–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853992x00282.

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AbstractThe characteristics of memory for the position of an imprinting object were investigated in junglefowl chicks (Gallus gallus spadiceus). Subjects were exposed individually and continuously to an imprinting object located in one of the two back quadrants of their home cage ('training quadrant'). Positioning of chicks in a test cage was studied from 7 to 1 days after hatching. In experiment 1 chicks preferred the training quadrant over the other back quadrant when tested in an empty cage, but not when two identical training objects were present, one in each back quadrant. In tests with one training object present, chicks showed more shrill calling when the object was in a novel position than when it was in the training position, but only during the first minute of a 5-min test. The strength of position preferences was independent of the effectiveness of the training object as an imprinting stimulus. In experiment 2a, chicks switched the position preference in an empty cage from the training quadrant to the other back quadrant after 2 h of exposure to the training object in that back quadrant of the home cage. In experiment 2b however, chicks still preferred the original training shape to a novel shape, after 2 h of exposure to an object with that novel shape. These results show that position memory in filial behaviour is less stable than memory for the physical properties of the imprinting object, and that position responses occur when chicks are motivated to seek contact with the object.
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35

Aoki, Naoya, Chihiro Mori, Toshiyuki Fujita, Shouta Serizawa, Shinji Yamaguchi, Toshiya Matsushima, and Koichi J. Homma. "Subtype-selective contribution of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors for filial imprinting in newly-hatched domestic chicks." Behavioural Brain Research 424 (April 2022): 113789. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2022.113789.

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36

GVARYAHU, G., N. SNAPIR, and B. ROBINZON. "Research Note: Application of the Filial Imprinting Phenomenon to Broiler Chicks at a Commercial Farm." Poultry Science 66, no. 9 (September 1987): 1564–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.3382/ps.0661564.

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37

Yamaguchi, Shinji, Naoya Aoki, Daisuke Kobayashi, Eiji Iikubo, Toshiya Matsushima, and Koichi Homma. "Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) / TrkB signaling is involved in filial imprinting of domestic chicks." Neuroscience Research 68 (January 2010): e401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neures.2010.07.1779.

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38

Town, Stephen Michael. "The effects of social rearing on preferences formed during filial imprinting and their neural correlates." Experimental Brain Research 212, no. 4 (June 19, 2011): 575–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00221-011-2769-x.

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39

Kesar, Alpana G. "Effect of prenatal chronic excessive sound exposure on auditory filial imprinting area of chick forebrain." Journal of the Anatomical Society of India 62, no. 2 (December 2013): 125–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasi.2013.11.004.

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40

Yamaguchi, Shinji, Ikuko Fujii-Taira, Sachiko Katagiri, Ei-Ichi Izawa, Yasuyuki Fujimoto, Hideaki Takeuchi, Tatsuya Takano, Toshiya Matsushima, and Koichi J. Homma. "Gene expression profile in cerebrum in the filial imprinting of domestic chicks (Gallus gallus domesticus)." Brain Research Bulletin 76, no. 3 (June 2008): 275–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresbull.2008.02.002.

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41

Rosa-Salva, Orsola, József Fiser, Elisabetta Versace, Carola Dolci, Sarah Chehaimi, Chiara Santolin, and Giorgio Vallortigara. "Spontaneous Learning of Visual Structures in Domestic Chicks." Animals 8, no. 8 (August 6, 2018): 135. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani8080135.

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Effective communication crucially depends on the ability to produce and recognize structured signals, as apparent in language and birdsong. Although it is not clear to what extent similar syntactic-like abilities can be identified in other animals, recently we reported that domestic chicks can learn abstract visual patterns and the statistical structure defined by a temporal sequence of visual shapes. However, little is known about chicks’ ability to process spatial/positional information from visual configurations. Here, we used filial imprinting as an unsupervised learning mechanism to study spontaneous encoding of the structure of a configuration of different shapes. After being exposed to a triplet of shapes (ABC or CAB), chicks could discriminate those triplets from a permutation of the same shapes in different order (CAB or ABC), revealing a sensitivity to the spatial arrangement of the elements. When tested with a fragment taken from the imprinting triplet that followed the familiar adjacency-relationships (AB or BC) vs. one in which the shapes maintained their position with respect to the stimulus edges (AC), chicks revealed a preference for the configuration with familiar edge elements, showing an edge bias previously found only with temporal sequences.
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42

GVARYAHU, G., D. L. CUNNINGHAM, and A. VAN TIENHOVEN. "Filial Imprinting, Environmental Enrichment, and Music Application Effects on Behavior and Performance of Meat Strain Chicks." Poultry Science 68, no. 2 (February 1989): 211–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.3382/ps.0680211.

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43

Bock, Jorg, and Katharina Braun. "Filial imprinting in domestic chicks is associated with spine pruning in the associative area, dorsocaudal neostriatum." European Journal of Neuroscience 11, no. 7 (July 1999): 2566–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1460-9568.1999.00713.x.

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44

McCabe, B. J., G. Horn, and K. M. Kendrick. "GABA, taurine and learning: release of amino acids from slices of chick brain following filial imprinting." Neuroscience 105, no. 2 (July 2001): 317–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0306-4522(01)00186-5.

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45

Yamaguchi, Shinji, Eiji Iikubo, Naoki Hirose, Takaaki Kitajima, Sachiko Katagiri, Ai Kawamori, Ikuko Fujii-Taira, Toshiya Matsushima, and Koichi J. Homma. "Bioluminescence imaging of c-fos gene expression accompanying filial imprinting in the newly hatched chick brain." Neuroscience Research 67, no. 2 (June 2010): 192–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neures.2010.02.007.

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46

Yamaguchi, Shinji, Sachiko Katagiri, Naoya Aoki, Eiji Iikubo, Takaaki Kitajima, Toshiya Matsushima, and Koichi J. Homma. "Molecular function of microtubule-associated protein 2 for filial imprinting in domestic chicks (Gallus gallus domesticus)." Neuroscience Research 69, no. 1 (January 2011): 32–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neures.2010.09.002.

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47

Nordgreen, Janicke, Andrew M. Janczak, and Morten Bakken. "Effects of prenatal exposure to corticosterone on filial imprinting in the domestic chick, Gallus gallus domesticus." Animal Behaviour 72, no. 6 (December 2006): 1217–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.02.025.

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48

Bolhuis, Johan J., Steve Cook, and Gabriel Horn. "Getting better all the time: improving preference scores reflect increases in the strength of filial imprinting." Animal Behaviour 59, no. 6 (June 2000): 1153–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/anbe.2000.1413.

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49

O'Reilly, Randall C., and Mark H. Johnson. "Object Recognition and Sensitive Periods: A Computational Analysis of Visual Imprinting." Neural Computation 6, no. 3 (May 1994): 357–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/neco.1994.6.3.357.

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Using neural and behavioral constraints from a relatively simple biological visual system, we evaluate the mechanism and behavioral implications of a model of invariant object recognition. Evidence from a variety of methods suggests that a localized portion of the domestic chick brain, the intermediate and medial hyperstriatum ventrale (IMHV), is critical for object recognition. We have developed a neural network model of translation-invariant object recognition that incorporates features of the neural circuitry of IMHV, and exhibits behavior qualitatively similar to a range of findings in the filial imprinting paradigm. We derive several counter-intuitive behavioral predictions that depend critically upon the biologically derived features of the model. In particular, we propose that the recurrent excitatory and lateral inhibitory circuitry in the model, and observed in IMHV, produces hysteresis on the activation state of the units in the model and the principal excitatory neurons in IMHV. Hysteresis, when combined with a simple Hebbian covariance learning mechanism, has been shown in this and earlier work (Földiák 1991; O'Reilly and McClelland 1992) to produce translation-invariant visual representations. The hysteresis and learning rule are responsible for a sensitive period phenomenon in the network, and for a series of novel temporal blending phenomena. These effects are empirically testable. Further, physiological and anatomical features of mammalian visual cortex support a hysteresis-based mechanism, arguing for the generality of the algorithm.
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50

Malecki, I. A., and P. K. Rybnik-Trzaskowska. "325. INVESTIGATION INTO THE EXPRESSION OF HUMAN FRIENDLY BEHAVIOUR IN THE OSTRICH (STRUTHIO CAMELUS) - EFFECT OF IMPRINTING." Reproduction, Fertility and Development 22, no. 9 (2010): 125. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/srb10abs325.

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Abstract:
In birds, filial imprinting to humans occurs after artificial hatching, which may lead to human following and sexual imprinting. We investigated the effect of imprinting on expression of favourable to human behaviours in juvenile ostriches. For the first seven days from hatching, the birds were exposed to a dummy female. At 12 months of age, a year before ostriches reach sexual maturity, the males (n = 25) were given testosterone intramuscularly in five every second day injections to induce precocial sexual behaviour. Additional six males, not exposed to the dummy, received the vehicle. Two weeks after the first injection, behavioural data collection commenced and, a range of behaviours were scored in five times over the period of 2 weeks from the last injection. The behaviours were given a score of 1 (behaviour present) or 0 (behaviour not present). The males exposed to a dummy female (n = 11) scored less for friendly to human behaviours than those not exposed to a dummy. No courtship type behaviour was observed in all males. Plasma testosterone concentrations increased and reached maximum levels by day 6 post-injection in exposed and not exposed to a dummy males but the levels were not different from the control (vehicle). We conclude that exposure to a dummy led to less friendly to human behaviour, while absence of the dummy led to more friendly behaviour towards humans. Testosterone injections failed to induce precocial sexual behaviour possibly because the amount given was insufficient or the birds could not yet express sexual behaviour to humans. The levels of testosterone in blood plasma occurred coincidently as they were probably associated with pre-pubertal development.
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