Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Feral goats'

The ability of feral herbivores to reduce the amount of food available to domestic livestock has rarely been quantified. This thesis seeks to examine the degree to which feral goats (Capra hircus) reduce the availability of pasture and shrub biomass for other herbivores. The interaction between feral goat populations and their food supply will be explored using a modelling approach. In addition to this it will also examine the cost of controlling goats and attempt to identify the cost efficient target densities for control operations. The implications of this information for management will be discussed. There are two ways an animal population can interact with its food supply, through: (1) intrinsic food shortages, and (2) extrinsic food shortages. Intrinsic food shortages occur when a negative feed-back loop exists between the animal population and their food supply. This means the animals affect the availability of their food and their food supply affects the dynamics of the animal population. Since the animals are affecting their own food supply it could be said that they will also affect the availability of that food to other herbivores if they consume the same species. Extrinsic food shortages occur when there is no feed-back from the animals to their food supply. Food availability is determined by extrinsic factors such as rainfall and is unaffected by the animal population. To determine how feral goats interact with their food supply several models will be examined, and these include: (1) single species models which use data from the animal population only. These have historically been used to identify density dependence which is commonly caused by the animal population being regulated through their food supply in the case of large herbivores, and (2) trophic models which incorporate data from at least two trophic levels in an ecosystem, in this case those being the animal population and the vegetation they are thought to consume. These models allow a more direct examination of the relationship between the feral goat population and their food supply. The various models were fitted to data collected on the field sites and the following results were obtained: (1) the dynamics of the feral goat populations could not be represented by single-species models. This was most probably due to the stochastic environment in which they lived causing the level of density dependence experienced by the goats to vary greatly masking its presence. (2) the rate of increase of the goat population could be predicted by the numerical response of rate of increase to pasture biomass. This demonstrated that food availability influenced the dynamics of the goat population. (3) goat density affected the availability of some species of shrub biomass. There was, however, no response seen in the availability of pasture species to changes in goat density. Since the study was conducted during a drought this is in agreement with other studies which indicated that goats will primarily browse during dry spells but switch to pasture species when conditions improve following rainfall. These results indicate that a negative feed-back loop does exist between feral goat populations and their food supply since the goats affected the availability of some shrub species and so they suffer intrinsic food shortages. This means goats have the ability to reduce the availability of food to other herbivores providing both are eating the same species. Cost-efficiency analysis showed that the cost of removing individual feral goats increases exponentially as density decreases because the search time per animal becomes greater. This relationship was used to construct a model that predicted the cost of achieving a target density. The model describing cost of control over density was also combined with a productivity model based on the numerical response of feral goats to pasture biomass to predict the cost of maintaining target densities under different environmental conditions. Using these models the most cost-efficient density identified was 11 goats/km2. From this study we can make the following conclusions: (1) feral goats have the ability to reduce the amount of shrub biomass available to other herbivores during dry conditions (2) their ability to influence the availability of pasture species remains unknown (3) given the cost of initial and ongoing control and the minimal benefits that result it would be difficult to justify controlling goats during a drought on the field sites.

Feral goats are a continuing threat to conservation values in New Zealand. First introduced in 1773 feral goats have spread to occupy many areas of public conservation land. Organised control of feral goats by private landholders began in the early 1900s, but it was not until the mid 1930s that organised government control began. From the 1960s onwards substantial changes are evident in the philosophy governing the control of introduced herbivores in New Zealand, changes that have marked a move away from emphasising the pests per se to focusing upon the resource under threat.

Includes bibliographical references (leaves 246-280) and index. Deals with the domestication of the goat and the history of the cashmere industry; investigates fibre physiology and production in general; and gives a detailed account of skin histology and fibre production of goats with particular reference to the cashmere-bearing animal; followed by research related to cashmere fibre production

(1) Reliable measures of population abundance are essential for managing wildlife effectively. Aerial surveys provide a rapid and efficient means of surveying large mammals and many techniques have been developed to adjust for the inability to count all animals within transects. The probability of detection varies according to a range of factors which are important to consider when estimating density. Standardised survey methods developed in flat country are not readily transferable to steep terrain due to safety, access and difficulties delineating transect widths. Other methods have logistic constraints and must adhere to various other assumptions. (2) Density estimators are seldom examined using actual population size, hence their ability to correct for true bias is unknown. Studies that compare techniques are difficult to interpret because of the uncertainty of adherence to their respective assumptions. Factors influencing detection probability, estimators that correct for bias, the validity of their assumptions and how these relate to true density are important considerations for selecting suitable methods. The aim of this study was to obtain accurate and reliable methods for estimating the density of feral goats by improving predictions of detection probability, investigating the assumptions of aerial surveys, and examining the accuracy of 15 density estimators by comparing with total counts of feral goats. (3) Group size, vegetation and observer were the most important factors influencing the probability of observing a group of goats during aerial surveys. However, different approaches to analysing these data influenced the significance of variables and the predicted probabilities. Goat colour, type of helicopter, site and rear observer experience in hours were also found to be significant (P<0.05) when using likelihood equations based on all animals in the population rather than only those in the sample. The slope of the terrain was also shown to significantly (P=0.014) affect the probability of detection. (4) Indices are commonly used in wildlife management for their simplicity and practicality, but their validity has been questioned because of variable probability of detection. Results of this study suggest aerial survey indices are useful in monitoring a range of medium-sized mammal species across space and time if differences in detection probability between species, group size, vegetation and observer are considered and their effects are standardised. (5) An assumption of most sampling regimes that is fundamental but rarely examined is that animals are not counted more than once. In this study the behavioural responses of feral goats to helicopters were investigated as a basis for estimating the probability that goats were recounted. No long-term consequences were evident in feral goat behaviour of responses to helicopters. However, helicopter surveys were found to alter the structure of 42% of groups observed, with 28% of groups merging with others and 14% splitting into separate groups. Therefore, group size estimated from the air should not be considered as biologically important, and when estimating density, researchers should also avoid using group sizes determined from independent ground observations to correct group sizes determined from aerial surveys. Goats were also more likely to flush further when helicopters were within 150 m, which is close to or within standard helicopter strip widths. Substantial movement occurred between transects and 21% of goats were estimated to be available for recounting in adjacent transects. (6) Different detection probabilities between groups of goats may be particularly relevant when using double-counting, where multiple observers are �capturing� and �recapturing� animals in the same instant. Many analyses test and adjust for this �unequal catchability� assumption in different ways, with the approaches of Huggins and Alho allowing prediction of unique probability values for a range of co-variates. The approach of Chao attempts to correct for skewed distributions in small samples. The Horvitz-Thompson approach provides a useful basis for estimating abundance (or density) when detection probability can be estimated and is known to vary between observations according to a range of independent variables, and also avoids errors associated with averaging group size. (7) After correcting for recounting, the Alho estimator applied to helicopter surveys was the most accurate (Bias = 0.02) and reliable of all techniques, which suggests that estimates were improved by taking into account unconditional detection probability and correcting individual observations according to their characteristics. The positive bias evident in the Chao (Bias = 0.28) and Petersen (Bias = 0.15) aerial survey estimators may have been a result of averaging detection probability across all observations. The inconsistency and inaccuracy of the ground-based area-count technique emphasises the importance of other assumptions in density estimation, such as representative sampling and availability bias. The accuracy of index-manipulation-index techniques was dependent on the indices used. Capture-recapture estimates using mustering showed slight negative bias (Bias = -0.08), which was likely a result of increased probability of re-capture (i.e. trap happy). Ground-based capture-resight estimates were labour intensive and positively biased (Bias = 0.13), likely due to underestimating the area sampled, or overestimating the number of unmarked individuals with each sample. (8) Helicopter survey using double-counting is recommended for estimating the density of feral goats in steep terrain. However, consideration of recounting under intensive sampling regimes and adjustments for the factors that influence unconditional detection probability is required.

A vegetation assessment was conducted to understand the effect of feral goats (Capra hircus) on the vegetation of Isolated Hill Scenic Reserve located in Southern Marlborough. New Zealand forests evolved without the pressure of mammalian herbivores but following human settlement they became subject to intensive browsing following the introduction of exotic mammals. This study focuses on the presence of feral goats. Interest arises from the settlement of other countries and the subsequent liberations of feral goats which are now considered to be responsible for the significant removal of native vegetation as well as playing a dominant role in erosion. Changes in plant communities have occurred with the pressure of goat browsing as well as secondary effects such as habitat degradation The purpose of this research was to investigate the changes in plant species composition since the initial and subsequent research conducted in 1985 and 1994. An analysis of previous work on the diet of multiple introduced ungulate species was also conducted. Previous studies were not limited to only feral goat studies and included other introduced herbivores to provide a broad overview of diets. The New Zealand Forest Service implemented a programme for monitoring the seral forest in Isolated Hill Scenic Reserve using standard Forest Service vegetation quadrants. 32 quadrants were established, including three exclosures, in various locations around the Reserve to allow assessment of feral goat impacts on seral forests (forest whose constituents are of varied age classes). Nine forest service plots, including three exclosures were re-measured and an additional nine plots were measured. Given the progression of vegetation change that has been observed during the course of this study, both analytically and observationally, Isolated Hill Scenic Reserve in its current state, involving the notable presence of feral goats and the vegetation types will continue to diminish in diversity.

Merino sheep are the most numerous domestic livestock in Australia and feral goats are wide-spread and locally abundant in many of the regions where sheep are grazed. Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a disease of ungulates that causes severe economic hardship to countries where outbreaks occur or where it has become endemic. In India, Africa, Greece and recently the United Kingdom and Eire, sheep and goats have been implicated in the spread and maintenance of FMD. In Australia, there are contingency plans (AUSVETPLANS) for dealing with an outbreak of FMD. Included in those plans are strategies for control of the disease in feral ungulates including feral pigs and feral goats. Modelling has provided assistance in developing strategies to combat outbreaks in feral pigs and for controlling outbreaks in domestic livestock. No models have been constructed to aid decisions about controlling FMD in feral goats where they co-occur with merino sheep. In Australia, the greatest densities of free-ranging feral goats and domestic livestock occur in the high rainfall zone (> 500 mm mean annual rainfall) along the eastern tablelands and adjacent slopes of the Great Dividing Range. Previous studies of feral goat biology, population dynamics and behaviour in Australia have concentrated on arid and semi-arid zones or on islands. Interactions between free ranging feral goats and merino sheep have not previously been studied in the high rainfall zone. My study investigated the ecological and behavioural characteristics of feral goats and their interactions with sympatric merino sheep at a high rainfall site in central eastern New South Wales. The population dynamics, biological and behavioural parameters of feral goats and sheep were then used to model FMD in such an environment. Deterministic temporal models and a new spatial stochastic model were used. Of particular interest were the rates of contact within and between subgroups of feral goats (termed herds and mobs), within and between subgroups of merino sheep (termed flocks and mobs), and between subgroups of the two species. Feral goats at the study site were found to be numerous (mean density = 34.94 goats km-2, from aerial surveys), in good condition, fecund and had high adult survival and low annual adult mortality (survival= 0.81�1.00) in the absence of harvesting and hunting. They had an observed instantaneous rate of increase of 0.112 per year. Annual rate of increase was similar to other sites in Australia without sustained harvesting pressure. Home ranges were small for both males (3.754 km², s.e. = 0.232, n = 116 goats) and females (2.369 km², s.e. = 0.088, n = 241 goats). From this and other Australasian studies, an inverse power function was found to be an excellent descriptor of the relationship between mean annual rainfall and female home range size. A resource selection function was fitted in a geographic information system to observational data of feral goats. The habitat selection of feral goats included a preference for wooded vegetation on eastern and north eastern aspects at higher elevations. The resource selection function was also used to set the probabilities of occurrence of feral goats in 1 ha areas of the landscape and these probabilities were used to generate heterogeneity in a spatial model of foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV) transmission. Daily per capita contact rates were estimated from observed contacts in the field where a contact between individuals was recognised when one approached within 1 body length ([approx] 1m) of another. The contacts between feral goats within herds were frequent and occurred at a rate of 6.96 (s.e. = 1.27) goat�goat contacts day-1. Sheep to sheep contacts were slightly less frequent (4.22 sheep�sheep contacts day-1, s.e. = 0.65) but both estimates were most likely negatively biased because of observer errors in estimating the number of individual animals coming in contact with observation subject (focal) animals. Contacts between herds of feral goats were not common and those between adjacent populations were fewer than 1 per year. In sheep, flock to flock contact was largely governed by husbandry practices and occurred at a mean daily rate of 0.0014 flock�flock contacts. Contacts between sheep and feral goats were less frequent but nonetheless common (2.82 goat�sheep contacts day-1, s.e. = 0.40). In feral goats the size of the mob in which focal goats were observed was found to be the most important factor in determining contact rates between individuals and a counter-intuitive inverse relationship was identified. Contacts were heterogeneous and density was not an important determinant of contact rates implying that, because of the uniformly high densities at the site, saturation had occurred. The temporal models of FMDV transmission showed that the rate of contact within and between species was such that FMD was predicted to spread rapidly throughout an infected herd or flock. Control strategies of intense culling of feral goats at the population level were predicted to allow the disease to persist at low prevalence, with a small peak corresponding to the annual lambing pulse in sheep. However, the same level of control (>90% reduction) at the herd level was predicted to eliminate FMD and allow the safe reintroduction of sheep. Extreme control that left very small groups (<3 individuals) may be counter productive because such small groups are likely to join the reintroduced sheep in an effort by the goats to meet gregarious urges. The spatial model was more reassuring. It predicted that FMD would die out in a mixed sheep and feral goat population in less than 90 days because of the low rate of herd to herd contact and herd to flock contact. For similar environments, the contingency planning consequences are that an outbreak of FMD introduced into feral goats from sympatric sheep is likely to be containable by removing all the sheep, determining the extent and likely range of the feral goats, then removing a substantial proportion of or eradicating each herd. Feral goats, being relatively sedentary, are unlikely to spread to adjacent populations and the disease will die out through lack of contact between herds and populations. Because feral goat home ranges overlap and are centred on one or two small catchments, a containment ring of feral goat control, set to encompass the home range of a target herd and that of adjacent herds, should be adequate to limit spread of FMD.

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Four experiments have been performed to evaluate the efficiency of ultrasound to detect precocious uterine alterations, pregnancy and sex of the fetus in goat and sheep. The first study determined the incidence of hydrometra and mucometra in Saanen, Alpine American, Boer and Anglo-Nubiana breeds submitted to ultrasound examination to detected early pregnancy using linear (6.0 and 8,0 MHz) and micronconvex (5.0 and 7,5 MHz) transducers. The females that showed uterine liquid or mucus were examined 15 days later to confirm the pathological state and treated with 0.5 mg prostaglandin that did not present estrus. Out of the 143 females examined, 63 (41.9%) were pregnant, 67 (51.6%) were non-pregnant, 11 (6.4%) had hydrometra and 2 (1.6%) had mucometra, corresponding to an incidence of 11%. Moreover, out of the 13 treated females 100% were pregnant. It was concluded that ultrasound is an important tool to detect uterine alterations and that prostaglandin is an efficient treatment for hydrometra and mucometra. The second study tested the viability transrectal linear (6.0 and 8.0 MHz) versus transvaginal micro-convex (5.0 and 7.5 MHz) ultrasound transducers for pregnancy diagnosis in Saint Ines sheep (n = 145). In Group (G) I females (n = 30) were between 15th to 29th days of gestation, in Group II (n = 28) were between 30th to 59th days, in Group III (n = 35) were between 60th to 89th days, in Group IV (n = 32) were between 90th to 139th days and Group V (n = 20) was formed by non-pregnant females. The average time, in seconds, to accomplish the pregnancy diagnosis using either transrectal or transvaginal method was 9.02±5.57 and 11.74±7.06 in GI, 13.90±16.49 and 11.37±12.19 in GII, 56.07±41.21 and 128.33±66.23 in GIII, 5.37±3.40 and 2.69±1.90 in GIV and 14.27±17.60 and 20.35±18.17 in GV, respectively. The transrectal examination was faster (P<0.05) in GI, GIII and GV and slower in GIV and equal (P> 0.05) in GII. It was concluded that pregnancy diagnosis in sheep can be carried out through both methods considering the accessibility, however, the transrectal method was suggested to be faster. In the third study Saint Ines sheep was used to determine the efficiency of ultrasound to evaluate embryonic-fetal development, especially to determine the date of first sign of pregnancy. Sixty pregnant sheep 15th to 45th days of gestation were subjected to ultrasound using a linear transrectal transducer with double frequency (6 and 8 MHz). The identification of earliest and the latest parameters of evaluation were performed between days 15th to 19th (16.7±1.3), day for intra-uterine fluid. The presence of embryonic vesicle was determined between days 16th to 22th (18.6±1.4), day of embryo between 18th to 26th (22.8±1.9), placentoms between days 20th to 29th (25.1±2.0), heartbeat between days 24th to 29th (25.9±1.4), amniotic membrane between days 24th to 32th (27.4±1.8), head and upper body differentiation between days 30th to 37th (33.4±2.2), fetus movement between days 30th to 38th (34.2±2.0), umbilical cord between days 32th to 39th (35.1±1.5), button of the anterior and posterior members between days 34th to 39th (36.7±1.5), ocular globe between days 39th to 43th (40.9±1.2). These results allowed to conclude that the first signs of gestation can be identified as soon as day 15 days of gestation. However, it is wise diagnose pregnancy after day 24 when it is possible to visualize the fetus and the heart beat. In the fourth study the objective was ultrasound during the initial phase of pregnancy to determine embryonic and fetal losses and to identify the sex of the conceptus of Saint Ines sheep. The females (n = 132) were examined in the 30th day to confirm pregnancy and determine embryo viability or loss. The sex or loss of the fetus was determined on days 40th, 50th and 60th using a linear transrectal transducer (6.0 and 8.0 MHz). The sex was identified through the localization of the genital tubercle or the visualization of the external genital. Out of the 160 conceptus examined there was 10.0% (16/160) of losses, being 5.6% (9/160) during embryonic phase and 4.4% (7/160) during the fetal phase, showing no difference (P> 0.05) between both phases. In single gestation there was less conceptus losses 3.9% (73/76) (P< 0.05) which occurred between days 40th and 50th day as well 50th and 60th. One concludes that the ultrasound is an efficient tool to diagnosis early gestation, to monitor embryonic and fetal loss and to identify to the sex Saint Ines of embryos from 50th day of gestation.
Foram conduzidos quatro experimentos para avaliar a eficiência da ultra-sonografia na detecção precoce de alterações uterinas, gestação e constatação do sexo fetal de caprinos e ovinos. No primeiro estudo determinou-se a incidência de hidrometra e mucometra em fêmeas das raças Saanen, Alpina Americana, Boer e Anglo-Nubiana submetidas a exame ultra-sonográfico para diagnosticar precocemente a gestação utilizando-se transdutores linear (6,0 e 8,0 MHz) e micro-convexo (5,0 e 7,5 MHz). As fêmeas com útero contendo líquido ou muco foram novamente examinadas 15 dias depois e, confirmando-se o estado patológico, receberam 0,5 mg de prostaglandina (Dinoprost) que foi repetida 11 dias após naquelas que não mostraram estro. Das 143 fêmeas examinadas, 63 (41,9%) estavam prenhes, 67 (51,6%) não prenhe, 11 (6,4%) com hidrometra e 2 (1,6%) com mucometra, correspondendo a uma incidência de 11% dessas patologias e das 13 fêmeas tratadas 100% apresentaram-se gestantes. Conclui-se que a ultra-sonografia é uma importante ferramenta para detectar alterações uterinas e que a prostaglandina é eficiente no tratamento da hidrometra e mucometra. No segundo testou-se a viabilidade do diagnóstico de gestação em ovelhas Santa Inês (n = 145) pelas vias transretal e transvaginal utilizando, respectivamente, os transdutores linear (6,0 e 8,0 MHz) e micro-convexo (5,0 e 7,5 MHz). No Grupo I, as fêmeas (n = 30) encontravam-se entre o 15º e o 29º dia de gestação, no Grupo II (n = 28) entre o 30º e o 59º dia, no GIII (n = 35) entre o 60º e o 89º dia, no GIV (n = 32) entre o 90º e o 139º e o GV (n = 20) foi formado por fêmeas vazias. O tempo médio, em segundos, para a realização do diagnóstico de gestação, respectivamente, pelas vias transretal e transvaginal foi de 9,02±5,57 e 11,74±7,06 no GI, 13,90±16,49 e 11,37±12,19 no GII, 56,07±41,21 e 128,33±66,23 no GIII, 5,37±3,40 e 2,69±1,90 no GIV e 14,27±17,60 e 20,35±18,17 no GV. O exame transretal foi mais rápido (P < 0,05) no GI, no GIII e no GV, mais lento no GIV e igual (P > 0,05) no GII. Conclui-se que o diagnóstico de gestação em ovelhas pode ser realizado por ambas as vias considerando a acessibilidade, todavia, é sugerida a via transretal quando é considera a rapidez do exame. No terceiro estudo teve-se o objetivo de avaliar ultra-sonograficamente o desenvolvimento embrionário-fetal de ovinos da raça Santa Inês, com o intuito de identificar a data da primeira visualização dos principais parâmetros da gestação. As avaliações ultra-sonográficas foram realizadas com transdutor linear de dupla freqüência (6 e 8 MHz) por via transretal, utilizando-se 60 ovelhas gestantes, entre o 15° e o 45° dia de gestação. A identificação mais precoce e mais tardia dos parâmetros avaliados ocorreu entre o 15º e o 19º (16,7±1,3) dia de gestação para líquido intra-uterino, entre o 16º e o 22º (18,6 ± 1,4) dia para vesícula embrionária, entre o 18° e o 26º (22,8±1,9) dia para embrião, entre o 20º e o 29º (25,1±2,0) dia para placentomas, entre o 24º e o 29º (25,9±1,4) dia para batimento cardíaco, entre o 24º e o 32º (27,4 ± 1,8) dia para membrana amniótica, entre o 30º e o 37º dia (33,4±2,2) para diferenciação entre cabeça e tronco, entre o 30º e o 38º (34,2±2,0) dia para movimento do feto, entre o 32º e o 39º (35,1±1,5) dia para cordão umbilical, entre o 34º e o 39º (36,7±1,5) dia para botão dos membros anteriores e posteriores e entre o 39º e o 43º (40,9±1,2) dia para globo ocular. Os resultados permitem concluir que é possível identificar os primeiros sinais de gestação já no 15º dia, todavia, é prudente que o diagnóstico de gestação somente seja emitido a partir do 24º dia, quando é possível visualizar o embrião e seus batimentos cardíacos No quarto estudo objetivou-se monitorar, ultra-sonograficamente, a fase inicial da gestação para determinar as perdas embrionária e fetal e identificar o sexo dos conceptos de ovelhas Santa Inês. As fêmeas (n = 132) foram examinadas no 30º dia após a cobertura para diagnosticar a gestação, no 35º para confirmar a gestação e observar a viabilidade ou a perda embrionária e no 40º, 50º e 60º dias para avaliar a perda e identificar o sexo dos fetos, utilizando-se um transdutor linear (6,0 e 8,0 MHz) por via transretal. O sexo foi identificado através da localização do tubérculo genital ou da visualização da genitália externa. Dos 160 conceptos monitorados foram registradas 10,0% (16/160) de perdas, sendo 5,6% (9/160) durante a fase embrionária e 4,4% (7/160) na fase fetal, não havendo diferença (P > 0,05) entre ambas as fases. Nas gestações simples, a perda de conceptos, 3,9% (3/76), foi menor (P < 0,05) do que nas múltiplas, 15,5% (13/84). A acurácia da sexagem fetal no 40º dia da gestação foi inferior (P < 0,05) ao do 60º dia, não havendo diferença (P > 0,05) entre o 40º e o 50º dia, bem como entre o 50º e o 60º dia. Conclui-se que a ultra-sonografia é eficaz para diagnosticar precocemente a gestação, monitorar as perdas embrionária e fetal e identificar o sexo de fetos da raça Santa Inês a partir do 50º dia de gestação.

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This paper aims to evaluate the embryo-fetal development in Moxotó breed animals by using fetal measurement in order to obtain more informations about measures and breed standards. Tests were performed every seven days during the first 60 days of pregnancy to evaluate embryonic vesicle, HR, head/torso differentiation, placentons, umbilical cord, CRL, BPD, TD and AD. After 60 days, the tests were carried out every 14 days, evaluating the following parameters: placentons, crown-rump length (CRL), biparietal diameter (BPD), thoracic diameter (TD), abdominal diameter (AD), vertebral column and femur length. In this study it was possible to correlate TD/placentons (r=0,94), BPD/CRL (r=0,97), TD/BPD, AD/TD, CRL/placentons, BPD/placentons and TD/CRL (r=0,99). The means and standard errors for nulliparous and primiparous females were also compared, as well as for single pregnancy and twin pregnancy animals, but no statistical difference was found. According to the findings, it is possible to state that there was a high correlation between crown-rump length (CRL), placentons, biparietal diameter (BPD), thoracic diameter (TD) and abdominal diameter (AD) during gestation. In addition, it is possible to state that the high correlation between placentons and gestational age allows for its use as a parameter for the determination of the fetal age in Moxoto breed goats, especially when it comes to animals at an advanced gestational age, when it is difficult to obtain images of fetal structures due to its size.
Pretendeu-se com o presente trabalho avaliar através da fetometria, o desenvolvimento embrionário/fetal em fêmeas da raça Moxotó, visando maiores informações acerca das mensurações e do padrão racial. Foram realizados exames a cada sete dias até os 60 dias de gestação, para avaliação de vesícula embrionária, FC (frequência cardíaca), diferenciação cabeça/tronco, placentônios, cordão umbilical, botões dos membros, CCC (comprimento crâniocaudal), DBP (diâmetro biparietal), DT (diâmetro torácico), DA (diâmetro abdominal) e, após os 60 dias os exames foram realizados com intervalos de 14 dias, sendo avaliados os parâmetros: placentônios, CCC, DBP, DT, DA e comprimento do fêmur (CF). Neste estudo, pôde-se correlacionar o DT/placentônios (r = 0,94), DA/placentônios (r = 0,91), DBP/CCC (r = 0,97), DT/DBP, DA/DT CCC/placentônios, DBP/placentônios e DT/CCC (r = 0,99). Foram ainda comparadas as médias e erros-padrão de fêmeas nulíparas e pluríparas, bem como fêmeas que tiveram gestações simples e gemelares, porém não houve diferença estatística entre elas. Diante dos achados pode-se afirmar houve alta correlação entre Comprimento craniocaudal (CCC), Placentônios, Diametro biparietal (DBP), Diâmetro torácico (DT) e Diâmetro abdominal (DA) no decorrer da gestação. E ainda assegurar que a alta correlação dos placentônios com a idade gestacional possibilita seu uso como parâmetro para a determinação da idade fetal em cabras da raça Moxotó, principalmente em se tratando de animais com gestação avançada, onde há dificuldade de se obter imagens de estruturas fetais devido ao tamanho deste.

A Ipomoea carnea, pertencente à família das Convolvulaceae, é uma planta tóxica que tem ampla distribuição pelo país, tendo como principal princípio ativo a suainsonina. É uma das poucas plantas que se conserva verde durante a seca, podendo servir como fonte de matéria verde para bovinos, ovinos e caprinos, é nesse período, quando normalmente ocorrem os casos de intoxicação, sendo a espécie caprina a mais susceptível. Até o momento, não há relatos sobre efeitos tóxicos desta planta em conseqüência da possível passagem transplacentária da suainsonina. Assim, o objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar os possíveis efeitos teratogênicos da I. carnea, em caprinos. Foram usados 20 cabras, divididas em 4 grupos iguais: 3 experimentais e 1 controle. As cabras dos grupos experimentais receberam a partir do 27° dia de prenhez até o final da gestação 1,0; 5,0 e 7,5 glkg/dia de I. carnea. Nas fêmeas gestantes foi feito o exame clínico periódico, colheita de sangue para avaliação do hemograma e bioquímica sanguínea, exames fetais ultra-sonográficos (US) e acompanhamento do parto. Ao nascimento, todos os filhotes foram avaliados para identificação de malformações, alguns foram submetidos à eutanásia, para a realização do estudo anatomopatológico e nos demais avaliou-se o ganho de peso, hemograma e bioquímica sanguínea. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que apenas as fêmeas que receberam 7,5g/kg de I.carnea apresentaram sintomatologia nervosa. No estudo US feito na 5°, 7° e 9° semana, observou-se redução significante dos movimentos fetais, de todos os animais experimentais. Alterações hematolágicas e na bioquímica sérica (como o aumento dos níveis sérico de glicose, aspartato amino transferase, uréia, fosfatase alcalina, albumina e diminuição dos níveis sé ricos de gama-glutamil transferase e colesterol) foram observadas em cabras dos grupos experimentais. No estudo histopatológico foram observadas vacuolizacões em diversos tecidos (fígado, rim e no sistema nervoso central). Na 10° semana de gestação uma cabra, tratada com a maior dose, abortou espontaneamente um feto, o qual apresentou artrogripose e ausência do fechamento da cavidade abdominal. Ao nascimento, verificou-se a ocorrência de mal formações fetais em filhotes caracterizada por retroagnatia, contratura congênita múltipla dos membros e artrogripose. Estes achados permitem concluir, que a ingestão da I. carnea durante a gestação de cabras, além de causar toxicidade materna, pode causar efeitos teratogênicos e que o US pode ser útil para acompanhar a ocorrência de efeitos nocivos desencadeados pela planta, durante a vida intra-uterina.
Ipomoea carnea (Convolvulaceae) is a toxic plant largely distributed throughout Brazil. The alkaloid swainsonine is the major active compound present in the plant. I. Carnea is resistent to drought, serving during this adverse climatic condition as a food source for cattle, sheeps and goats. It is well known that the ingestion of the plant promotes toxic effects to the animais, in particular to goats, the most susceptible specie. There are no reports about toxic effects of the plant to fetuses as a consequence of a possible placental transportation of the compound swainsonine. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the possible teratogenic effects of I. Carnea in goats. In the study 20 female goats were employed, divided into 4 groups: 3 experimental and 1 control. The experimental goats received from gestation day (GD) 27 to parturition day 1.0, 5.0 or 7.5 g/Kglday of I.carnea fresh leaves. Duringpregnancy the females were periodically accompanied by hematologic studies as hemograms and serum biochemical assays, ultrasonographic (US) fetuses assays and were accompanied during parturition. At post-natal day (PND) 01 ali the pups were evaluated for identificationof physical anormalities. Some were euthanized for histopathologic studies and the others had weight gain, hemograms and biochemical blood tests recorded during development. The obtained data showed that only the 7.5 g/Kg/day treated dams presented neurologic effects. The US study realized at the 5th,6thand th weeks of gestation, showed that ali the experimental groups presented significant reduction of the fetal intrauterine moviments. Hematologic and serum blood biochemical alterations (Iike increased levels of glucose, aspartate-amine transferase, urea, alkaline phosphatase, albumine and reduced levels of gamma-glutamyl transferase and cholesterol) were observed in goats of the experimental groups. The histopathologic study showed vacuolization in several tissues (liver,kidneys and brain). At the 10thweek of gestation one goat, treated with the increased dose, aborted a fetus. This fetus presented arthrogriposis and no closure of the abdominal cavity.At parturition(PND01) fetal malformationswere observed and characterized as retrognatia, multiple congenit contracture of the members and arthrogriposis. The present data showed that I. Carnea ingestion by pregnant goats promoted maternal toxicityand fetal teratogenic effects. In addition, the US showed to be an important tool to monitorize the toxic effects promoted by the plant ingestion during intrauterine life.

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In this work the objective was to identify the fetal sex in pregnant uterus, between 5 and 10 weeks, of goats and ewes obtained in slaughterhouse. The sex was defined taking into consideration the localization of the GT and visualization of external genitalia. The uterus of goats (n = 108) and ewes (n = 64) were examined after immersion in a water containing recipient, with 6.0 and 8.0 MHz linear transducer. In single pregnancies, the correct fetal determination was 85.7% (48/56) in goats and 94.7% (36/38) in ewes and in twin pregnancies was 76.9% (40/52) in goats and 84.6% (22/26) in ewes. There is no mistake in fetal quantification and the accuracy from the all fetuses scanned was 81.5% (88/108) in goats and 90.6% (58/64) in ewes, being not observed difference (P > 0.05) between species, by analyse of standard errors of the difference among proportions. The results allow to conclude that the ultrasonography is efficient to identify previously the fetal sex in small ruminants and that the experience of operator is important to reduce and even eliminate the failures in diagnose.
Neste trabalho teve-se o objetivo de definir o melhor período para diagnosticar o sexo fetal nas espécies ovina e caprina pela ultra-sonografia em tempo real utilizando-se transdutor linear (6 e 8 MHz) por via transretal e convexo (5 e 7,5 MHz) por via transabdominal. Foram examinados 298 fetos de 223 ovelhas e 532 fetos de 334 cabras de diferentes raças, oriundos de monta natural e de transferência de embriões. No primeiro experimento foram examinados 64 úteros de ovinos e 108 de caprinos imersos em recipiente contendo água, obtendo-se acurácia de 90,6% na sexagem dos fetos ovinos e de 81,5% nos caprinos. Quanto à migração do tubérculo genital (TG) nos experimentos relativos à espécie ovina constatou-se que nos fetos originados de monta natural ocorre entre os dias 37 e 46 (42 ± 2,0) de gestação na raça Santa Inês, 38 a 51 (45,0 ± 3,0) dias na raça Damara, 36 a 45 (39,2 ± 2,3) dias nos mestiços ¾ Damara-Santa Inês, 36 a 46 (39,5 ± 2,9) dias na raça Morada Nova e de 38 a 48 (43,0 ± 2,8) dias na raça Dorper. Nos fetos provenientes de transferência de embriões congelados, a migração do TG ocorre entre os dias 42 e 52 (48,5 ± 3,3) de gestação na raça Morada Nova e de 36 a 58 (46,1 ± 4,7) dias na raça Dorper, registrandose que a migração do TG desses fetos é mais tardia (P < 0,05) do que naqueles de monta natural. Na espécie caprina, a migração do TG ocorre ente os dias 44 e 49 (46,2 ± 1,3) de gestação nos fetos da raça Anglo-nubiana, entre o 43º e o 54º (47,4 ± 6,5) dia nos da raça Boer, entre os dias 48 e 53 (50,5 ± 1,54) nos mestiços, entre os dias 41 e 51 (46,4 ± 2,1) nos da raça Alpina Americana e entre os dias 45 e 55 (48,9 ± 1,8) nos da raça Saanen. A comparação efetuada entre as duas últimas raças evidenciou que a migração do TG é mais precoce (P < 0,05) nos fetos da Alpina Americana. A acurácia da sexagem fetal dos exames repetidos, seja a intervalos de 12, 24 ou 48 horas, nas gestações simples foi de 100% em todas as raças caprinas avaliadas e de 100% em ovinos da raça Santa Inês, Damara, ¾ Damara-Santa Inês, e Dorper, sendo de 92,3% em fetos da raça Morada Nova provenientes de TE. Nas gestações múltiplas dos ovinos, a acurácia variou de 83% (dupla) a 100% (tripla) na raça Santa Inês, 50% (dupla proveniente de TE) a 92,9% (dupla proveniente de MN) na raça Morada Nova, sendo de 83% na raça Damara, 100% nos mestiços ¾ Damara-Santa Inês e 88,9% na raça Dorper,. Nos caprinos variou de 66,6% (tríplices) a 100% (duplas) na raça Anglo-nubiana, de 96,9% (duplas) a 100% (tríplices) na raça Boer, de 66,7% (tríplices) a 87,5% (duplas) na raça Alpina Americana, de 50% (quádrupla) a 80,9% (dupla) na raça Saanen, sendo de 75% nas gestações duplas dos fetos mestiços. Quanto ao exame único, a acurácia nas gestações simples, nos ovinos, foi de 100% nas raças Santa Inês, Morada Nova e Dorper. Nos caprinos foi de 100% na raça Anglo-nubiana, de 94,4% na raça Boer, de 85,7% na raça Alpina Americana, de 100% na raça Saanen e de 72% nas gestações dos fetos mestiços. Nas gestações múltiplas dos ovinos, somente a raça Santa Inês foi submetida a exame único, obtendo-se a acurácia de 85,7%. Já nos caprinos variou de 63% (tríplices) a 82,5% (duplas) na raça Anglo-nubiana, de 80,8% (duplas) a 100% (tríplices) na raça Boer, de 66,7% (tríplices) a 72,7% (duplas) na raça Saanen, sendo de 80% (duplas) na raça Alpina Americana. Nos fetos mestiços submetidos a exame único, a acurácia nas gestações duplas foi de 80% pela via transretal e de 55,3% pela via transabdominal. Os resultados permitem concluir que o método ultra-sonográfico de identificação do sexo de fetos caprinos e ovinos, visualizando o TG e a genitália externa, é eficiente a partir do 50° dia de gestação nos fetos ovinos originados de monta natural e a partir do 55º dia naqueles provenientes de transferência de embriões congelados, bem como nos fetos caprinos oriundos de monta natural. É também possível concluir que, nem sempre, a repetição de exames aumenta a acurácia da sexagem, seja porque o feto não se posiciona adequadamente para permitir a visualização das estruturas responsáveis pela sexagem ou porque não é possível identificar, principalmente nas gestações múltiplas, o sexo de todos os fetos no mesmo exame. Finalizando, ainda é possível concluir que as gestações múltiplas comprometem geralmente a acurácia da sexagem fetal e que a experiência do operador é fundamental para minimizar e até mesmo eliminar a emissão de diagnósticos equivocados.

It has been reported that globally we have achieved Millennium Development Goal (MDG) Target 7C, to halve the proportion of the population without access to safe drinking water; however, there is a major flaw with this statement. While Target 7C calls for access to `safe' drinking water, what is actually being measured and reported is access to an `improved' water source. The World Health Organization (WHO) maintains that they must use this proxy measure because the methods for water quality testing are too expensive and logistically complicated, but by doing so, they may be over reporting safe water coverage. This was shown to be true in Tamatave, Madagascar, where thermotolerant coliforms were detected in water from a type of `improved' source, the Pitcher Pump system. This research looked at several parameters - Pitcher Pump system depth, sampling neighborhood, requirement of pump priming, frequency that the system was repaired, distance from on-site sanitation, and number of users - to see if they were influencing water quality. Of all the parameters tested, only priming was found to be significantly associated with the levels of thermotolerant coliforms detected (Fisher exact test p = 0.03). Using a Mann-Whitney U test, it was shown that the median thermotolerant coliform concentration was significantly higher in primed wells (41.3 cfu/100 ml) than unprimed wells (3.5) (p = 0.01 cfu/100 ml). A pilot study was conducted to look at only the effect of depth and to determine if a depth could be identified that could provide safe drinking water. The result of the pilot study showed that, while thermotolerant coliform concentration did decrease with increasing depth, even at the deepest well of 9.4 m, levels were still above 100 cfu/100 ml. Additional research was conducted to investigate the performance and cost of three test kits for both total coliform and Escherichia coli quantification for water quality analysis in developing countries. IDEXX Colilert Quanti-trays[reg] (Colilert), Micrology Laboratories Coliscan[reg] Membrane Filtration tests (Coliscan MF) and a modified method for 3-M PetrifilmTM Coliform/E. coli plates (modified 3-M) were compared with standard membrane filtration (standard MF) methods under a range of incubation temperature conditions (22.0, 35.0 and 44.5[deg]C). Each test method was also performed by inexperienced volunteers, with the results compared to those of an experienced technician. At non-standard temperatures, Coliscan MF proved to be the most accurate when compared to standard methods, with a significant difference with only total coliforms at 44.5[deg]C. Modified 3-M had the poorest correlation with standard MF over the range of temperatures tested, with significant differences noted for all the temperatures except for E. coli at 44.5[deg]C. Inexperienced university volunteers found Colilert easiest to use, but Coliscan MF produced E. coli results that were most similar to the experts. Coliscan MF was found to have the overall best performance and lowest cost in this study; however, it did produce high numbers of false positive results.

Dissertação de Mestrado Integrado em Medicina Veterinária
A cabra-montesa (Capra pyrenaica) é uma espécie endémica da Península ibérica, uma das mais emblemáticas do Parque Nacional da Peneda-Gerês. Contam-se 13 anos desde o regresso deste ungulado silvestre a território português depois de a espécie ser considerada extinta em 1890. A presença crescente de gado doméstico e assilvestrado, sobretudo de caprinos, nas áreas ocupadas pelas cabras montesas constitui uma das principais ameaças à conservação da espécie, quer devido ao aumento da prevalência e transmissão de doenças, quer devido à competição pelos recursos naturais. Posto isto, torna-se importante a monitorização e controlo deste tipo de rebanhos. Neste contexto, elaborou-se um estudo sobre a parasitofauna de 27 núcleos de caprinos residentes na área do PNPG através da recolha de 50 amostras de fezes, pertencentes a cabras-montesas (Capra pyrenaica, n=22), cabras domésticas (Capra hircus, n=20) e cabras assilvestradas (Capra hircus, n=8). Em Portugal, é a primeira vez que se realiza um estudo deste género na cabra-montesa. No total das 50 amostras, 98% (n=49) apresentaram formas parasitárias pertencentes a pelo menos um dos 9 géneros/espécies identificados e com as seguintes prevalências: Muellerius capillaris (100%, n=22 cabra-montesa, n=20 cabra doméstica, 75%, n=6 cabra assilvestrada), Nematodirus (100%, n=20 cabra doméstica, 95,5%, n=21 cabra-montesa, 25%, n=2 cabra assilvestrada), Teladorsagia (65%, n=13 cabra doméstica, 22,7%, n=5 cabra-montesa, 12,5%, n=1 cabra assilvestrada) Trichostrongylus (45%, n=9 cabra doméstica, 13,6%, n=3 cabra-montesa, 12,5%, n=1 cabra assilvestrada), Moniezia benedeni (35%, n=7 cabra doméstica, 22,7%, n=5 cabra-montesa, 12,5%, n=1 cabra assilvestrada), Dicrocoelium dendriticum (5%, n=1 cabra doméstica), Trichuris ovis (5%, n=1 cabra doméstica), Eimeria (70%, n=14 cabra doméstica, 59,1%, n=13 cabra-montesa, 37,5%, n=3 cabra assilvestrada) e Cryptosporidium (20%, n=4 cabra doméstica, 13,6%, n=3 cabra-montesa, 12,5%, n=1 cabra assilvestrada). De uma forma geral, a parasitofauna encontrada nas 3 populações foi muito semelhante, tendo-se registado intensidades parasitárias baixas, o que não invalida a necessidade da continuação de estudos de monitorização destas populações de caprinos.
ABSTRACT - Parasitological survey on wild, feral and domestic goat’s populations from Peneda-Gerês National Park - The Iberian ibex is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula, one of the most emblematic species from Peneda-Gerês National Park. Is has passed 13 years since the return of this wild ungulate to Portuguese territory, after this specie be considered extinct at 1890. The increasing presence of livestock, specially domestic and feral goats, at the Iberian ibex’s range, is one of the main threats to ibex conservation, either because of the increase of diseases prevalence and transmission rates, but also due the competition to natural resources. Therefore, it’s important to monitor and control these types of flocks. In this context, a parasitological study was developed in 27 goat’s nuclei inhabiting the national park’s range from the collection of feces bellowing to Iberian ibexes (Capra pyrenaica, n=22), domestic goats (Capra hircus, n=20) and feral goats (Capra hircus, n=8). In Portugal this was the first study of this kind on Iberian ibex. In a total of 50 samples, 98% (n=49) shown to be positive for at least one parasite of the 9 identified genera/species and there were the following prevalences: Muellerius capillaris (100%, n=22 Iberian ibex, n=20 domestic goat, 75%, n=6 feral goat), Nematodirus (100%, n=20 domestic goat, 95,5%, n=21 Iberian ibex, 25%, n=2 feral goat), Teladorsagia (65%, n=13 domestic goat, 22,7%, n=5 Iberian ibex, 12,5%, n=1 feral goat) Trichostrongylus (45%, n=9 domestic goat, 13,6%, n=3 Iberian ibex, 12,5%, n=1feral goat), Moniezia benedeni (35%, n=7 domestic goat, 22,7%, n=5 Iberian ibex, 12,5%, n=1 feral goat), Dicrocoelium dendriticum (5%, n=1 domestic goat), Trichuris ovis (5%, n=1 domestic goat), Eimeria (70%, n=14 domestic goat, 59,1%, n=13 Iberian ibex, 37,5%, n=3 feral goat) e Cryptosporidium (20%, n=4 domestic goat, 13,6%, n=3 Iberian ibex, 12,5%, n=1 feral goat). In general, the parasitic fauna encountered at the three goat’s population was very similar, with low parasitic’s intensity, but it cannot be underestimated the need of continuing the monitoring study’s on these goat’s population.

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Cells which grow in vitro culture is divided into three categories: primary, secondary or crop finite line and continuous line, that can be grown indefinitely. These tumors derived from transformed cells or artificially or naturally. This work describes a cell line of fetal goat cornea (CorFC) and its growth in media supplemented with low FBS aimed at producing virus antigens caprine arthritis-encephalitis for antibodies by agar gel immunodiffusion. The cell line has CorFC fibroblastic appearance and has been cultivated for more than two years, more than 40 passages without noticeable change in the morphology or the rate of cell multiplication. Of the 163 serum samples tested by micro-AGID with antigen (Ag) commercial (Biovetech, Brazil), 29 (17.79%) were positive, of these, 28 were also positive for micro-AGID-MEM with Ag and Ag -DMEM/12 Ag and 29 with RPMI-1640. We observed excellent agreement adjusted kappa (k) between the micro-AGID tests employing the commercial Ag, Ag-MEM and Ag-DMEM/F12 (k = 0.98) between the antigen and perfect commercial and Ag-RPMI 1640 (k = 1,00). Due to their growth characteristics of cells CorFC have behaved as a continuous lineage, which can only be definitively confirmed with continued passages. The studied cell culture media (MEM, DMEM/F12 and RPMI 1640) showed to be adequate to nourish the cell lineage CorFC. However, considering jointly the medium RPMI 1640 was the most recommended for cultivation, in supplementation of 2% FBS for scheduling and 0.1% to manutenção.As CorFC cell line grown in MEM, and DMEM/F12 RPMI 1640 proved to be highly permissive to CAEV replication of the virus in medium with low FBS, with production of higher quality antigens, reducing input costs and simplify the processes of purification of proteins, especially when the RPMI 1640 is used.
As células que crescem em cultivo in vitro estão divididas em três classes: primárias, de linhagem finita ou cultivos secundários e de linhagem contínua, que podem ser multiplicadas indefinidamente. Estas derivam de tumores ou células transformadas artificial ou naturalmente. Neste trabalho é descrita uma linhagem de células de córnea de feto caprino (CorFC) e seu cultivo em meios suplementados com baixo teor de SFB visando à produção de antígenos do vírus da artrite-encefalite caprina para pesquisa de anticorpos pela imunodifusão em gel de Agar. A linhagem celular CorFC apresenta aparência fibroblástica e vem sendo cultivada há mais de 2 anos, por mais de 40 passagens, sem alteração perceptível na morfologia ou na taxa de multiplicação celular. Das 163 amostras de soros testados pela micro-IDGA, com antígeno (Ag) comercial (Biovetech, Brasil), 29 (17,79%) apresentaram resultado positivo; dessas, 28 também foram positivas à micro-IDGA com Ag-MEM e Ag-DMEM/12 e 29 com o Ag-RPMI 1640. Foi observada ótima concordância ajustada de kappa (k) entre os testes de micro-IDGA empregando-se o Ag comercial, Ag-MEM e Ag-DMEM/F12 (k = 0,98) e perfeita entre o antígeno comercial e Ag-RPMI 1640 (k = 1,00). Devido às suas características de crescimento as células CorFC têm se comportado como de linhagem contínua, o que só poderá ser definitivamente comprovado com a continuação das passagens. Os meios de cultivo celular estudados (MEM, DMEM/F12 e RPMI 1640) demonstraram-se adequados para nutrir as células de linhagem CorFC. Entretanto, considerando em conjunto, o meio RPMI 1640 seria o mais recomendado para seu cultivo, nas suplementações de 2% de SFB para escalonamento e de 0,1% para manutenção.As células da linhagem CorFC cultivadas em MEM, DMEM/F12 e RPMI 1640 mostraram-se altamente permissíveis à replicação do vírus CAEV em meio com baixo teor de SFB, com produção de antígenos de melhor qualidade, redução de custos com insumos e simplificação no processos de purificação de proteínas, sobretudo quando o meio RPMI 1640 é usado.

Petrogale lateralis lateralis (Black-flanked Rock-wallaby) has declined in its mainland distribution to a few isolated populations with extant populations known from six localities in the Wheatbelt, the Cape Range, the Calvert Range, and Barrow and Salisbury Islands (Pearson and Kinnear 1997). The conservation status of P. l. lateralis is classified as endangered. It is therefore extremely important that the threatening processes associated with this species are investigated to ensure appropriate management of the remaining populations. P. l. lateralis is a herbivore with a foraging range restricted to rocky outcrops; competition for resources from introduced herbivores has been implicated as a limiting factor to rock-wallaby populations. The aim of this study was to examine possible dietary overlap between P. l. lateralis and two co-occurring species Macropus robustus (euro) and Capra hircus (feral goat) at Cape Range National Park in order to determine if there is competition for food resources. Vegetation surveys combined with dietary analysis of plant epidermal fragments found in the faecal material of the three species and direct behavioural and feeding observations were carried out at two study sites Mandu Mandu Gorge and Pilgonaman Gorge in Cape Range National Park, Exmouth, Western Australia. A seasonal comparison of the diets of P. l. lateralis, M robustus and C. hircus at the study sites was conducted to highlight the time of year that competition for food resources is most prevalent. Vegetation profiles and the vegetation surveys conducted within the Mandu Mandu Gorge and Pilgonaman Gorge show that plant species vary in abundance and occur in different areas within the gorges. Vegetation surveys showed that the vegetation structure between Mandu Mandu Gorge and Pilgonaman Gorge differed but contained an overlap of plant species. Mandu Mandu Gorge consisted of mainly Triodia grasslands with Acacia sp. The vegetation in Pilgonaman Gorge becomes increasingly dense the farther east into the gorge with the dominant species Ipomoea costata and Ficus brachypoda with a variety of herb and grass species. Hence, the plant species that herbivores forage on in Mandu Mandu Gorge and Pilgonaman Gorge are limited spatially due to changes in vegetation structure within the gorges, with dense patches occurring on the gorge floor and scattered plants occurring around P. l. lateralis refuge sites and on the rocks of the gorge walls. The faecal analysis found that approximately 60% of P. l. lateralis diet consisted of dicotyledon species in summer with consistently higher proportions, (approximately 70% dicotyledons) in winter. The species occurring in the highest proportions in the P. l. lateralis diet at Pilgonaman Gorge in summer were Ficus platypoda (12.5 %), Ptilotus obovatus (11.5%) and Ipomoea costata (7.5%) F. platypoda comprised of (17.6%), I. costata (10.6%), P. obovatus (11.5%) and Plumbago zeylanica comprised (10.6%) of the diet in winter. The percentages of identified dicotyledon species in the summer diet at Mandu Mandu Gorge are as follows; F. brachypoda comprising of (15.7%), I. costata (11.8%), P. obovatus (11.8%), and Solanum sp. (2%) The main plant present in the P. l. lateralis diet in winter at Mandu Mandu Gorge was F. brachypoda (14.5%), followed by I. costata (13.3%), P. obovatus (7.2%), then Solanum sp. (3.6%), P. zeylanica (2.4%) and Achyranthes aspera (2.4%) The proportion of monocotyledon and dicotyledon species for M robustus remained constant between both summer and winter in both gorges. There was little variation in the proportion of monocot species consumed between summer and winter in Mandu Mandu Gorge and Pilgonaman Gorge. Approximately 25 % of the diet consisted of dicotyledon species. M robustus consumed Myrtaceae sp., Sida sp. Ptilotus obovatus and Ipomoea costata in Pilgonaman Gorge in summer and Myrtaceae sp., Sida sp., P. obovatus and Ficus brachypoda in winter. In Mandu Mandu Gorge, M robustus consumed Myrtaceae sp., Sida sp. and P. obovatus in summer and Sida sp and P. obovatus in winter. A high proportion of the C. hircus diet in this study consisted of dicot species. There was little variation in the percentage of dicot species consumed in summer and winter for C. hircus in both Mandu Mandu Gorge (63% in summer and 65% in winter) and Pilgonaman Gorge (67% in summer and 69% in winter). The identified dicot species in the C. hircus diet in the winter months at Pilgonaman Gorge comprised of I. costata (12.4%), P. zeylanica (9%), P. obovatus (9%), Sida sp. (5.6%), F. brachypoda 4.5%, Solanum sp. 3.3%, A. aspera (2.3%) and Myrtaceae sp. (1 %). The dicot species consumed by C. hircus at Mandu Mandu Gorge include Sida sp. (3.5 %), P. obovatus (17.5%), I. costata (8.8%), F. brachypoda (7%) and Solanum sp. (5.3%) of the summer diet. The winter diet for C. hircus at Mandu Mandu Gorge comprised of P. obovatus (15.1%), I. costata (8.1%) F. brachypoda (10.5%) and Solanum sp. (4.7%) Direct observations of P. l. lateralis eating support the identification of plant species found within their faeces during the scat analysis of this study. Furthermore, physical evidence of grazing on leaves within Pilgonaman Gorge suggests that herbivores are actively grazing upon F. brachypoda, Malvaceae sp., Solanum sp., I. costata, Sida sp., P. zeylanica and Cenchrus ciliaris. P. l. lateralis, M robustus and C. hircus were found to consume a selection of these species in various proportions in the scat analysis. A significant dietary overlap of plant species was found to occur between C. hircus, M robustus and P. l. lateralis in Pilgonaman Gorge and Mandu Mandu Gorge. P. l. lateralis, M robustus and C. hircus had a dietary overlap consuming the same plant species; Myrtaceae sp., Sida sp. C. ciliaris, I. costata and F. brachypoda and P. obovatus at differing percentages. C. hircus was found to forage on the following species in common with P. l. lateralis; Myrtaceae sp. Sida sp. C. ciliaris, I. costata and F. brachypoda, P. obovatus, Solanum sp., P. zeylanica and A. aspera. M robustus consumed Myrtaceae sp., Sida sp. C. ciliaris, I. costata and F. brachypoda, P. obovatus and E. caevuless in common with P. l. lateralis. The dietary overlap between C. hircus, M robustus and P. l. lateralis in Pilgonaman Gorge in summer was found to be significant with a probability of N= 22 W= 43.46 and P < 0.01. The dietary overlap between the species was consistent in winter N=22 and W= 41.02 and had the same probability value of P < 0.01. A significant dietary overlap occurred in summer with a probability of N=ll, W= 20.8 and P < 0.05 and winter N= 12, W= 24.25 and P < 0.02 in Mandu Mandu Gorge. Finally, behavioural observations on interactions between feral goats and the rockwallabies indicate that when feral goats are at close range they are disruptive to the normal activities of rock-wallabies. This suggests that the goats are not only competing for food resources but that they may also elicit a form of interference competition. Implications of competition are discussed and recommendations for further research and management are considered.

Entre los principales impactos y amenazas que sufren hoy las comunidades insulares destacan las bioinvasiones y entre estas sobresalen las de cabras. La mayoría de las islas, reportadas en la literatura, son ecosistemas donde la vegetación evoluciono en ausencia de grandes herbívoros. En la isla de Mallorca se sabe de la presencia ancestral de un ungulado pre-humano endémico, Myotragus balearicus, que hace pensar en los herbívoros como un factor de selección siempre presente para la vegetación de la isla. Su nicho ecológico habría sido ocupado hoy principalmente por dos caprinos, que actualmente comparten hábitat y se hibridan, la Cabra Salvaje Mallorquina y la cabra domestica asilvestrada. La presencia de estas cabras ha generado muchas opiniones sobre su efecto en la vegetación de la isla. Por lo que el objetivo de esta tesis fue caracterizar y comparar la composición botánica de la dieta de la Cabra Salvaje Mallorquina y la cabra doméstica asilvestrada en Mallorca, así como del grado del ramoneo sobre los principales componentes de la vegetación y el uso del hábitat realizado por ambas cabras para indagar sobre posibles diferencias de estructura social y de comportamiento que ayuden a dilucidar el nivel de uso de los recursos, así como encontrar posibles evidencias del cambio climático en la dieta del extinto Myotragus balearicus. El estudio se llevo a cabo en seis zonas de la sierra Tramuntana en Mallorca, donde tres zonas son habitadas por la Cabra Salvaje Mallorquina y tres por la cabra domestica asilvestrada. Se realizaron análisis microhistológicos de heces de cada ecotipo de cabra en primavera, verano e invierno durante dos años, así como la evaluación de disponibilidad e intensidad de ramoneo de las especies mas abundantes de la vegetación. El análisis del comportamiento trófico y de los grupos de ambas cabras se realizo mediante focales en tres estaciones del año. La densidad y el índice estomático de fragmentos de epidermis de Buxus sp. encontrados en coprolitos del extinto Myotragus se compararon con epidermis actuales de Buxus balarica y Buxus semprevirens para detectar una posible manifestación del cambio climático. La dieta de la cabra Salvaje Mallorquina y de la cabra domestica asilvestrada fue muy similar sobretodo en épocas de escases (verano). Por lo que el posible daño sobre la vegetación estaría condicionado a una sobrepoblación de cabras, mas que al ecotipo de cabra. Ambos ecotipos de cabras mostraron un comportamiento en la dieta de carácter selectivo, con claras preferencias y rechazos pero también capaz de adaptarse a la disponibilidad ya que hace uso la mayoría de especies disponibles. Unas pocas especies son ramoneadas intensamente en todos los periodos del año, aunque la intensidad de ramoneo de la mayoría de especies estudiadas se puede considerar como moderada. Se encontraron algunas diferencias en el comportamiento trófico de ambas cabras, sobretodo en el tamaño de los rebaños, lo que sugiere un uso más eficiente de los recursos vegetales en la Cabra Salvaje Mallorquina. La densidad y el índice estomático de B. balearica actual, fue considerablemente menor al encontrado en los coprolitos de Myotragus, lo que podría deberse al incremento de CO2. De este estudio se desprende la importancia de gestionar adecuadamente las poblaciones de ambos tipos de cabras de manera que se asegure la conservación de las especies animales y vegetales.
Currently the main impacts and threats to island communities include bioinvasions and standing out the goats between them. Most of the islands reported in the literature, are ecosystems where vegetation evolved in absence of large herbivores. On the island of Mallorca is well known the ancestral presence of a pre-human endemic ungulate, Myotragus balearicus, which suggests that herbivore was a selection factor constantly present to the vegetation in the island. Today, two goats that currently shared habitat and hybridized, have mainly occupied its ecological niche: the Wild Mallorcan Goat and feral domestic goats. The presence of these goats has generated many opinions about its effect on the vegetation of the island. Therefore, the aim of this thesis was to characterize and compare the botanical composition of the diet of the Wild Mallorcan Goat and feral domestic goat in Mallorca. Additionally, the browsing levels on the main components of the vegetation and the habitat use by both goats was evaluated in order to investigate possible differences in their social structure and behavior that help to elucidate the level of resource use and find possible evidences of climate change in the diet of extinct Myotragus balearicus. The study was carried out in six areas of the Sierra Tramuntana in Mallorca; three inhabited by the Wild Mallorcan Goat and three by the feral domestic goats. Microhistological analysis of faeces from each goat ecotype in spring, summer and winter for two years as well as the assessment of availability and browsing intensity of the most abundant species of vegetation were performed. Analysis of the feeding and social behavior in both goat ecotypes was conducted through focal in abovementioned seasons. Stomatal density and index of Buxus sp. epidermis fragments found in coprolites from extinct Myotragus were compared with actual epidermis of Buxus balarica and Buxus semprevirens to detect a possible manifestation of climate change. The diet of the Wild Mallorcan Goat and feral domestic goat was very similar especially in times of scarcity (Summer). Indeed, the possible damage on vegetation would be subject to an overpopulation of goats that goat ecotype itself. Both goat ecotypes showed a selective dietary behavior, with clear preferences and rejections, but also capable to adapt to availability because they use most species available. Few species are heavily browsed in all periods of the year, although the intensity of browsing by almost all studied species can be considered moderate. Some differences in the feeding behavior of the both goat ecotypes were found, especially related with herd size, suggesting a more efficient use of plant resources in the Wild Mallorcan Goat. The current density and stomatal indexes in B. balearica were considerably smaller than those found in Myotragus coprolites, which could be due to increased CO2. This thesis highlights the importance of a properly management of both goat ecotype populations so that ensure the conservation of animal and vegetal species.

The control of feral goats (Capra hircus) and relevant aspects of their biology were studied on Aldabra Atoll, Republic of Seychelles, from October 1993 - May 1994 and November 1994 - May 1995. A total of 832 goats were killed on Aldabra using both the Judas goat technique and traditional hunting methods; a total of 28 Judas goats were used during the entire campaign. The remnant goat populations on Ile Picard (N=13) and Ile Malabar (N=19) were eradicated during the first season. On Grande Terre, a total of 798 (374 M: 424 F) goats were killed. The overall kill rate on Grande Terre was 0.37 goats killed/hour with 1.66 shots fired/goat. A total of 1,042 goats were encountered of which 26.1% escaped. Mean group size was 3.2 with a range of 1 to 20. Judas goat hunting became increasingly important over time with 18.0% (n=85) of goats killed in the first season being in the presence of Judas goats; 42.3% (n=126) of goats killed during the second season were in the presence of Judas goats. The overall kill rate for the project was almost 2 times greater for Judas goat hunting (0.61 goats killed/hr) than traditional hunting (0.32 goats killed/hr); Judas goat hunting was approximately 70% more effective than traditional hunting when compared using multiple linear regression. There was a significant relationship between Judas goat home range size and the number of conspecifics killed. Feral goats on Aldabra may be unique among feral goat populations by apparently not responding to population reductions in a density-dependent manner. For the first season, the intrinsic rate of increase (r) was 0.45; r=0.39 for the second season. Twinning rates were 30.7% and 37.5% in the first and second seasons, respectively. I subjectively estimated approximately 60-120 goats remaining on all of Grande Terre at the end of the project; 84 goats were estimated using the Leslie-Davis removal method of population estimation.
Graduation date: 1998

Low availability and poor nutrient quality of tropical grasses result in low levels of animal production. Browse/shrub legumes such as mulga (Acacia sp.) and calliandra (Calliandra calothyrsus) can be used as supplements to improve animal production. However, their utilisation is limited by the presence of antinutritional compounds, such as tannins. Tannins are polyphenolic compounds that are capable of binding other nutrients to form stable complexes. Tannins comprise hydrolysable (HT) and condensed tannins (CT) with CTs being the major form found in the legumes. Their concentration in feeds determines their effect on animal production. Low levels of tannin (< 40 g.kg DM⁻¹) protect feed protein from degradation by rumen microbes, thereby increasing the amount of protein passing through the rumen, and reducing the potential for bloat. However, high concentrations of tannin retard animal production through the inhibition of enzyme activities of some rumen bacteria, decreasing the availability of protein and fibre, and reducing feed intake. Tannins in high concentrations also bind nutrients such as protein and carbohydrates; tannin-protein or tannin-carbohydrate complexes are difficult to digest by rumen microbes or by enzymes secreted by ruminants in the gastrointestinal tract. This decreases the availability of protein and carbohydrate for the animals, reducing feed intake and decrease animal production. Several methods have been developed to overcome tannin problems in livestock feeds with a focus on the use of biological treatments. Such treatments emphasise the involvement of rumen microorganisms residing in the rumen of feral animals or of animals adapted to feeds with high tannin contents. This approach resulted in the isolation of the tannin-tolerant bacteria, Streptococcus gallollyticus and Selenomonas ruminantium K2, from the rumen of feral goats. However, these bacteria, alone or in combination, were unable to mimic the effect of whole rumen fluid on tannin detoxification. These bacteria may not, therefore, be the only ruminal species that are resistant to, or degrade tannins. Other tannin-resistant (TR) bacteria may also exist in the rumen. Although each of these TR-bacteria may have specific characteristics, they may interact synergistically to promote digestion of tannin-containing browse legumes. Therefore, the present project was aimed at isolating TR-bacteria from the rumen contents of feral goats and camels, and studying their ecology. To achieve these objectives, the research project is divided into three sections as follows : 1. Optimising the method for extracting tannin from legume leaves and selecting the appropriate method to measure tannin content. 2. Isolating TR-bacteria in rumen fluid samples from feral goats and camels, and characterising them phenotypically and by molecular characterisation using restriction analysis of amplified 16S rDNA and 16S rDNA sequence analysis. 3. In vitro studies of dry matter (DM) disappearance of mulga and calliandra with populations of TR-bacteria grown in a monoculture or in a co-culture system. Extracts of condensed tannins (CTs) were used as substrates for isolating TR-bacteria from feral goat and camel rumen fluids. CTs were extracted from legumes using 70% acetone, and used as a substrate in bacterial enrichment studies. The amount of soluble tannin extracted from the samples varied among plant species with mulga containing less free tannin than calliandra. Factors such as processing methods (fresh, freeze-drying and oven-drying), or physical and chemical treatments (autoclaving and phenol extraction) are tested for their effect on yield of extractable tannin. Freeze-drying was selected for processing mulga and calliandra leaves before extraction of CT by the method of Terrill et al. (1992). Measurement of tannins using different methods yielded different values of extractable tannin from the same legume. Since vanillin-HCl, butanol-HCl and H₂SO₄ methods are based on different principles, the standard used, the solvents, and other factors were tested for each method. The H₂SO₄ method was selected to measure the amount of free tannin extracted from the legumes. This selection was made on the basis that the results were comparable to those produced by the butanol-HCl assay procedure, but the H₂SO₄ method would have less interference from water in the microbiology studies. The amount of extractable tannin was expressed as equivalents to quebracho tannins when 70% acetone was used to dissolve the tannin extracts and the standard. Twenty TR-bacteria were successfully isolated from the rumen fluid of feral goats and camels using extractable CT of freeze-dried mulga and calliandra, as well as hydrolysable tannin (tannic acid). These isolates were divided morphologically into several groups : Gram-positive cocci (Group 1), Gram-positive cocci/rods (Group 2 and 4), Gramnegative cocci (Group 3), Gram-negative curved rods (Group 5) and Gram-negative slender rods (Group 6). These bacteria were identified by physiological and biochemical characterisations, and API testing as Streptococcus sp. (Group 1), Lactobacillus sp. (Group 2 and 4), Selenomonas ruminantium (Group 5) and Butyrivibrio sp. (Group 6). A further identification using restriction analysis of amplified 16S rDNA with four restriction endonucleases (AluI, HaeIII, MspI and TaqI) characterised bacteria that belong to the Streptococcus sp. (Group 1) and Selenomonas ruminantium (Group 5). Confirmation of genera of other TR-bacteria was made after integrating the RFLP analysis with amplified 16S rDNA sequence analysis. This identified the bacteria as : Lactobacillus sp. (Group 2 and 4), and Butyrivibrio sp. (Group 6). The genus of Gram-negative coccus (Group 3) was identified as Escherichia (E. coli) coli; however, a further clarification is necessary for the identification Group 3 isolate. These results provide an example of phenotypic identification and molecular characterisations using restriction analysis of amplified 16S rDNA and 16S rDNA sequence analysis for identifying TR-isolates from feral goat and camel rumen fluids. The TR-bacteria had different capabilities of degrading mulga and calliandra as indicated by results of studies on in vitro DM degradability using monocultures of the TRbacteria. The highest DM degradabilities of both legumes were obtained in cultures inoculated with Butyrivibrio spp. (G23A and G53C), and S. gallolyticus. These TR-bacteria are the main TR-bacteria degrading mulga and calliandra. The other TR-bacteria, Lactobacillus spp. (G43C and G33A), E. coli (C43C) and Sel. ruminantium K2, used metabolic products from these main TR-bacteria. Co-culture between the main TR-bacteria (Butyrivibrio spp. (G23A and G53C) or S. gallolyticus) with the bacteria that utilize the metabolic products of tannin degradation (Lactobacillus spp. (G43C and G33A), E. coli (C43C) or Sel. ruminantium K2) could improve mulga and calliandra degradation. Calliandra leaves were more degraded than mulga leaves because calliandra leaves have smoother physical characteristics, and lower concentrations of fibrous components and protein/fibre bound tannins than mulga leaves. Grinding the sample leaves and incubating cultures for 48 h improved degradation of legume leaves; incubation for 48 h was also suitable for TR-bacteria to achieve optimum growth and enzyme secretions. TR-bacterial characteristics and populations, and the nature of legume leaves are important factors affecting degradation of legumes containing tannins. Factors associated with TR-bacterial characteristics are the presence and activity of enzymes for degrading nutrients and antinutrients from the legumes, the presence of substances protecting TRbacteria from the antinutrients present in the legume, and the bacterial growth characteristics during the period of legume degradation. All these factors, consequently, affect TR-bacterial populations in cultures that contain legumes with tannins. Factors related to the nature of legume leaves are the physical characteristics, nutrient composition and concentration, especially the fibrous compounds and the types of tannins or other antinutrients. It is concluded that Streptococcus gallollyticus and Selenomonas ruminantium are not the only tannin-resistant bacteria. Other bacteria from the rumen of feral goats and camels also tolerate tannins extracted from freeze-dried mulga and calliandra leaves, including Butyrivibrio sp., Lactobacillus sp. and E. coli (Gram-negative coccus). These bacteria differ in their abilities to digest the legumes. However, improvement in the legume digestibility can result from the interactions between these tannin resistant bacteria.
Thesis (M.Sc.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, 2012

Feral goat (Capra hircus) populations adversely impact native insular biota and physical habitats worldwide. The effectiveness of the Judas goat technique for eradicating remnant feral goats was studied on San Clemente Island (SCI), California from June 1989 through April 1991. By April 1991, 263 feral goats were killed on SCI; only 2 adult females and their offspring were believed to remain. The length of time required by radio-collared (Judas) goats to establish initial contact with remnant goats was 1 to 5 days, and time to subsequent encounters with new goats averaged 3.5 days. Duration of association between Judas goats and remnant herds ranged from 1-60 days. Judas goat home ranges averaged 4.4 km² and maximum distances Judas goats traveled to find conspecifics averaged 4.8 km. Observations of Judas goats that were associated with remnant feral goats allowed individual identification of most goats and prediction of their temporal and spatial activity patterns. This knowledge greatly expedited the eradication process and likely contributed to the preservation of threatened and endangered endemic species on SCI. Natality, survivorship, and condition of SCI goats were inversely related to decreases in population density when compared to goat populations from other islands. higher and mortality lower than in other feral goat populations, presumably because of the unusually low density of goats on SCI. The Judas goat technique allows removal of low density feral goat herds in a timely manner and should be used by resource managers wherever feral goats threaten native flora and fauna.
Graduation date: 1992

MSCAGR (Animal Science)
Department of Animal Science
The main purpose of this study was to assess the efficiency of ultrasonography in monitoring reproductive organs, pregnancy diagnosis, and foetal gender identification and to verify its reliability by laparoscopy and laparotomy, where applicable. Reproductive organs, pregnancy diagnosis and gender of the foetus were examined by A-mode ultrasound using 3.0 - 8.0 MHz trans-rectal transducer. A Sony Olympus Model laparoscope with a camera transducer was used to monitor the reproductive organs and pregnancy diagnosis. In monitoring the follicular dynamics, daily ultrasonography (ULTS) scanning was done for 17 days in sheep and for 21 days in both goats and cattle. Follicles of diameter ≥ 3 mm were selected for analysis of growth, ovulation and regression. For determining the efficiency of the techniques, laparoscopy (LAPSC) and laparotomy (LAPT) were used on days 3 and 10 of the goats and sheep oestrous cycle. The follicles were grouped into three categories according to their diameter as 3 - 4.9 mm, 5 - 7.9 mm and ≥ 8 mm, whereas the follicles of cattle were grouped as 3 - 4.9 mm, 5 - 9.9 mm and ≥ 10 mm. Early pregnancy diagnosis examinations were carried out from day 18 post insemination until pregnancy was confirmed. Foetal gender examinations were conducted from day 40 of pregnancy until the day the gender of the foetus was confirmed. Follicular development was accompanied by the occurrence of waves of follicular growth at different period of the oestrous cycle. The first follicular wave emerged on day 1.0 ± 0.4 in goats, 1.2 ± 0.4 in sheep and 2.2 ± 0.4 in cattle. The maximum diameter of the dominant follicles of observed follicular waves in goats was 7.3 ± 0.4 mm, 6.6 ± 0.2 mm, 7.3 ± 0.2 mm; in sheep was 6.4 ± 0.4 mm, 6.6 ± 0.4 mm and 6.7 ± 0.7 mm and in cattle was 13.1 ± 0.8 mm, 14.2 ± 0.6 mm and 15.7 ± 0.6 mm in wave 1, 2 and 3, respectively. However, the maximum size of the dominant follicle of the ovulatory wave in cattle was larger than the dominant follicles of both first and second waves, but in goats and sheep the dominant follicles were of similar size throughout the waves. In cattle, the ovulatory wave was shorter (p ˂ 0.05) than the duration of the first and second waves, while in sheep and goats were similar throughout the waves. In goats the total number of follicles counted in right and left ovaries under category 3 - 4.9 mm was lower with ULTS and LAPSC than with LAPT method (p ˂ 0.05). In sheep the mean number of follicles between 3 - 4.9 mm category in both right and left ovaries were different (p ˂ 0.05) between ULTS and LAPT. However, for categories 5 - 7.9 mm and ≥ 8 mm in both goats and sheep the mean numbers of follicles observed by all techniques were similar (p ˃ 0.05). In goats, pregnancy diagnosis accuracy improved from zero percent on day 18 to 100% on day 26 - 28, in sheep pregnancy diagnosis was 40% on day 18 and improved to 100% on day 20 - 22 vi of gestation. In cattle accuracy of pregnancy diagnosis was not possible at day 18 and gradually increased to 100% on day 30 - 32 of gestation. Out of 5 (100%) goat’s foetuses whose gender was determined, the diagnosis was correct in 100% (3/3) of the male foetuses and 100% (2/2) of the female foetuses. In sheep two foetuses were sexed as males while the other three were sexed as females and were both 100%. Out of 60% (3/5) of foetuses examined in cattle, 1 (100%) was identified as male and the remaining 2 (100%) were identified as females. The results obtained confirmed that the accuracy for foetal gender by ultrasonography was 100% in all foetuses observed. The current study demonstrated that trans-rectal ultrasonography examination is an efficient method for monitoring follicular dynamics, diagnosing pregnancy and foetal gender identification and that it is as reliable as laparoscopy and laparotomy where they were applied together.
NRF