Relevant bibliographies by topics / Fatigue of bearing alloys

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  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters
  5. Conference papers
  6. Reports

Academic literature on the topic 'Fatigue of bearing alloys'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 1 February 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "Fatigue of bearing alloys"

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Ali, M. S., P. A. S. Reed, S. Syngellakis, Andrew J. Moffat, and Carl Perrin. "Microstructural Factors Affecting Fatigue Initiation in Various Al Based Bearing Alloys." Materials Science Forum 519-521 (July 2006): 1071–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.519-521.1071.

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Microscale fatigue damage mechanisms in various Al-Sn-Si based bearing alloys used as linings of plain automotive bearings are reported. Extensive work on previously developed alloys has concluded that secondary phase particles such as Sn and Si are potential fatigue initiation sites with a complex combination of various particle geometry parameters. A newly developed alloy contains a number of complex widely scattered intermetallics with much finer and fewer Sn and Si particles. This alloy system appears to be more resistant to initiate microscale fatigue damage compared to the previous systems.
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Busby, A. K., and J. W. Martin. "Fatigue crack propagation in Al–Sn bearing alloys." Materials Science and Technology 5, no. 7 (July 1989): 689–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/mst.1989.5.7.689.

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Syngellakis, S., M. S. Ali, and P. A. S. Reed. "Microstructural modelling of fatigue initiation in aluminium-bearing alloys." International Journal of Computational Methods and Experimental Measurements 1, no. 3 (May 16, 2013): 249–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.2495/cmem-v1-n3-249-264.

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Seyyedi, J. "Thermal Fatigue of Low-Temperature Solder Alloys in Insertion Mount Assembly." Journal of Electronic Packaging 115, no. 3 (September 1, 1993): 305–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2909333.

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Thermal fatigue resistance was investigated for insertion mount solder joints, manufactured with 58Bi-42Sn (wt. %), 43Sn-43Pb-14Bi, 52In-48Sn and 40In-40Sn-20Pb low-temperature alloys. Accelerated thermal cycling was used in conjunction with metallographic analysis to determine the fatigue resistance and to elucidate the failure mode for each solder composition. Additionally, the behavior of each solder alloy was compared to that of 63Sn-37Pb solder, tested under identical conditions. A two-phase microstructure with lamellar morphology was observed in 58Bi-42Sn, whereas a globular morphology was prevalent in the remaining alloys. The Bi-containing solders demonstrate fatigue resistance comparable to 63Sn-37Pb, but greater than the In-bearing alloys. These differences and microstructure changes prior to and during thermal fatigue testing are discussed.
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Della Corte, Christopher. "Novel Super-Elastic Materials for Advanced Bearing Applications." Advances in Science and Technology 89 (October 2014): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ast.89.1.

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Tribological surfaces of mechanical components encounter harsh conditions in terrestrial, marine and aerospace environments. Brinell denting, abrasive wear and fatigue often lead to life-limiting bearing and gear failures. Novel superelastic materials based upon Nickel-Titanium (NiTi) alloys are an emerging solution. NiTi alloys are intermetallic materials that possess characteristics of both metals and ceramics. NiTi alloys have intrinsically good aqueous corrosion resistance (they cannot rust), high hardness, relatively low elastic modulus, are chemically inert and readily lubricated. NiTi alloys also belong to the family of superelastics and, despite high hardness, are able to withstand large strains without suffering permanent plastic deformation. In this paper, the use of a hard, resilient NiTi alloy for corrosion-proof, shockproof bearing and gear applications is presented. Through a series of bearing and gear development projects, it is demonstrated that NiTi’s unique blend of material properties lead to significantly improved load capacity, reduced weight and intrinsic corrosion resistance not found in any other bearing materials. NiTi thus represents a new materials solution to demanding tribological applications.
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Gawarkiewicz, Rafał, Jan Sikora, and Boguslaw Siwek. "Problems of Analytical Determination of Journal Bearing Bush Fatigue Strength Estimates." Key Engineering Materials 490 (September 2011): 247–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.490.247.

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Problems connected with determination of stress distribution in sliding layer of thin-walled bearing bushes, investigated in bearing fatigue test rigs, have been presented. Using an example of plain bearings tested in the fatigue machine SMOK (built at the Gdańsk University of Technology) problems with obtaining a convergence of iterative procedure for determining the fatigue strength estimators of bearing alloy surface layer are analyzed. Calculations consisting in successive iterations of pressure distribution in oil film and corresponding elastic deformation of the bearing bush and housing were based on finite-element method and utilized ANSYS program. The objective of calculation was the estimation of values of radial, tangential, axial and reduced stresses in surface layer of the bearing bush corresponding to experimentally determined load magnitudes leading to fatigue cracks initiation. The convergence of analytical procedure has been achieved by the use of a relaxation method.
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Mizobe, Koshiro, Edson Costa Santos, Takashi Honda, Hitonobu Koike, Katsuyuki Kida, and Takuya Shibukawa. "Effect of Repeated Quenching on the Rotating Bending Strength of SAE52100 Bearing Steel." Advanced Materials Research 457-458 (January 2012): 1025–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.457-458.1025.

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Martensitic high carbon high strength SAE 52100 bearing steel is one of the main alloys used for rolling contact applications where high wear resistance are required. Due to its high fatigue strength, SAE 52100 is recently being used not only for the production of bearings but also shafts. Refining of prior austenite grain through repeated quenching is a procedure that can be used to enhance the material’s strength. In this work, the microstructure of repeatedly quenched SAE 52100 steel and its fatigue strength under rotating bending were investigated. It was found that repeated furnace heating and quenching effectively refined the martensitic structure and increased the retained austenite content. Repeated quenching was found to improve the fatigue strength of SAE 52100.
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Watanabe, Chihiro, and Ryoichi Monzen. "Effects of Microstructures on Fatigue Behavior of an Al-Mg-Sc Alloy at an Elevated Temperature." Materials Science Forum 706-709 (January 2012): 426–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.706-709.426.

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Polycrystalline Al-1wt%Mg-0.27wt%Sc alloys bearing Al3Sc particles with different average sizes of 4 and 11nm in diameter have been cyclically deformed at 423K under various constant stress amplitudes, and the relationship between fatigue characteristics and microstructure of the alloy has been investigated. The specimen bearing 11 nm particles exhibited a cyclic hardening to saturation, while in specimens with the small particles a cyclic softening was observed after initial hardening. In the specimen with large particles, dislocations were uniformly distributed under all applied stress amplitudes, whereas the specimens bearing small particles, in which cyclic softening occurred exhibited clearly developed slip bands. The cyclic softening for the latter specimen was explained by particle shearing within the strongly strained slip bands. The width of precipitate free zones (PFZs) has been found to be one of the factors affecting the fatigue life of the specimens at 423K. The two-step aging decreases the width of PFZs, resulting in increase in the fatigue life.
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Nakane, Kazuaki, Koshiro Mizobe, Edson Costa Santos, and Kida Katsuyuki. "The Quantization of the Structure of Fisheyes via Homology Method." Applied Mechanics and Materials 307 (February 2013): 409–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.307.409.

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Martensitic high carbon high strength SAE 52100 bearing steel is one of the main alloys used for rolling contact applications where high wear resistance are required. Due to its high fatigue strength, SAE 52100 is recently being used not only for the production of bearings but also shafts. In this work, quenched SAE 52100 steel fatigue strength under rotating bending was investigated. Especially, we focus on “fisheye around inclusion” where the fatigue crack starts. Quantitative evaluation of its optical micrograph has not been enough carried out. In order to develop easy evaluation method for the fisheye area, we apply homology technique to the optical observation.
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Averbach, B. L., Bingzhe Lou, P. K. Pearson, R. E. Fairchild, and E. N. Bamberger. "Fatigue crack propagation in carburized high alloy bearing steels." Metallurgical Transactions A 16, no. 7 (July 1985): 1253–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02670330.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Fatigue of bearing alloys"

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Busby, A. K. "Structure-property relations in some bearing alloys." Thesis, University of Oxford, 1986. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.376887.

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Harrison, M. "Fracture studies in aluminium alloys : An investigation of the effect of manganese-bearing and zirconium-bearing dispersoids on the fatigue properties of peak aged Al-Zn-Mg alloys." Thesis, University of Oxford, 1986. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.376914.

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Szost, Blanka Angelika. "Hydrogen trapping in bearing steels : mechanisms and alloy design." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2013. https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/244934.

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Hydrogen embrittlement is a problem that offers challenges both to technology and to the theory of metallurgy. In the presence of a hydrogen rich environment, applications such as rolling bearings display a significant decrease in alloy strength and accelerated failure due to rolling contact fatigue. In spite of these problems being well recognised, there is little understanding as to which mechanisms are present in hydrogen induced bearing failure. The objective of this thesis are twofold. First, a novel alloy combining the excellent hardness of bearing steels, and resistance to hydrogen embrittlement, is proposed. Second, a new technique to identify the nature of hydrogen embrittlement in bearing steels is suggested. The new alloy was a successful result of computer aided alloy design; thermodynamic and kinetic modelling were employed to design a composition and heat treatment combining (1) fine cementite providing a strong and ductile microstructure, and (2) nano-sized vanadium carbide precipitates acting as hydrogen traps. A novel technique is proposed to visualise the migration of hydrogen to indentation-induced cracks. The observations employing this technique strongly suggest that hydrogen enhanced localised plasticity prevails in bearing steels. While proposing a hydrogen tolerant bearing steel grade, and a new technique to visualize hydrogen damage, this thesis is expected to aid in increasing the reliability of bearings operating in hydrogen rich environments.
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Josi, Georg. "Fatigue of bearing-type shear splices." Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 1999. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp01/MQ40066.pdf.

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Dudgeon, Helen D. "Fatigue of aluminium-lithium alloys." Thesis, University of Oxford, 1990. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.276536.

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Hunt, Anthony W. "Fatigue of commercial aluminium alloys." Thesis, Aston University, 1986. http://publications.aston.ac.uk/11901/.

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Fatigue crack propagation has been observed for a number of commercial aluminium alloys. Comparable data was obtained for a variety of crack and specimen geometries over a range of crack lengths for a given alloy. Where crack propagation only was of interest the initiation event has been excluded by pre-cracking the specimen using a fin of material adjacent to the crack face. By this method a controlled defect size is introduced in to the specimen. By modification of the D.C. potential drop method it has been shown possible to measure the growth of cracking from 0.12mm by this method. Crack growth from defects greater than 0.6mm have been shown to give conventional crack propagation deduced by principle of similitude. Fatigue fracture surface analysis has been conducted for cracking from both free surfaces and from blunt notches. A `quasi cleavage' feature has been identified and is shown to be prominent when the fatigue stress intensity range is below 10 MNm-3/2.
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Yang, Xiaofan. "Corrosion and passivation of molybdenum-bearing alloys." Thesis, University of Surrey, 1995. http://epubs.surrey.ac.uk/843256/.

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Molybdenum-bearing alloys are widely used in industry because of their excellent corrosion resistance. However, the role of molybdenum in passivation is a subject which has been a matter for discussion and controversy for many years. In the previous work carried out in this laboratory, Professor Castle and Dr Qiu suggested that molybdenum oxide might provide the nuclei for formation of the passive film. This hypothesis is the basis of the present work. In order to find out the evidence for the existence of the molybdenum oxide nuclei, furthermore, to establish a model of passivation for the molybdenum-bearing alloys, the passivation of molybdenum-bearing alloys are investigated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM), especially in-situ AFM, in conjunction with SEM and TEM. During the passivation study, it was found that the chemical composition on anodically polarised surfaces varied with potential. For 516 alloy, the peak value of molybdenum in the surface is at the low potential of the passive region close to the Flade potential. Therefore, molybdenum exerts its greatest function in this potential region. A further AFM study at this potential revealed, surprisingly, that a platelet layer formed on the passivation surface. The dendritic structure on the surface of the platelets presented under the high resolution of STM, which shows the crystallization property of the platelets. These platelets are mainly composed of chromium and molybdenum oxides and they are only found in the passivation of the molybdenum-bearing alloy, so the formation of the platelets may be associated with molybdenum nucleation in passivation. The in-situ AFM studies provide the evidence for the formation and disappearance of the platelets during the passivation of molybdenum-bearing alloys, i.e. the platelets form at the early stage of passivation and they gradually merge into the passive film if they are not disturbed by the environment. Based on the above finding, the role of molybdenum in passivation is proposed as following: molybdenum oxide precipitated on the surface seeds chromium oxide to form platelets at the early stage of passivation and the formed platelet layer prohibits the dissolution of the passive species from the metal. By this way, molybdenum facilitates the formation of the passive film on alloys. Using Fe-Cr-Mo duplex stainless steels, the corrosion of molybdenum-bearing alloys are studied in HCl and the kinetics of the corrosion are traced by in-situ AFM. During corrosion, it was observed that the ferritic phase in duplex stainless steel dissolves more rapidly than the austenitic phase and the dissolution occurs on the austenite preferentially along grain boundaries, sub-grain boundaries and the planes with high energy. By switching the electrochemical condition from active dissolution to passivation and then changing it back, it is found that under the passivation condition after the active dissolution, the corrosion changes from selective dissolution of the crystallographic feature to general corrosion. This situation persists even though the electrochemical condition changes back to the active condition from the passivation condition. Since AFM is a new technique and this is one of the first attempts at applying it to a corrosion study, an in-depth explanation of the images obtained from a corroded rough surface is an important topic on which so far little work has been reported. In this study, therefore, the artifacts and the reality of the structure in AFM images obtained in the corrosion study are discussed.
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Mohin, Ma. "Fatigue crack growth assessment and fatigue resistance enhancement of aluminium alloys." Thesis, University of Hertfordshire, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/2299/20824.

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Fatigue damage of aluminium alloys is one of the key concerns in transport industries, particularly in the aerospace industry. The purpose of the project is to develop new knowledge and techniques against fatigue failure for these industries through a systematic investigation of fatigue resistance and crack growth behaviours of aluminium alloys. Fatigue and fracture mechanics have been investigated analytically, numerically and experimentally in this project. Overload transient effect on fatigue crack growth has been examined by considering various parameters including crack closure, overload ratio (OLR), load ratio (R ratio), baseline stress intensity factor range, (∆K)_BL and geometry. It was found that crack closure can be correlated qualitatively and quantitatively to all other parameters associated with overload transient behaviour. It is proposed that the effect of crack tip plasticity on the non-linearity of the compliance curve can be separated to obtain reliable crack closure measurement. In this project, different methods are used to better understand the transient retardation process so that the damage tolerance design (DTD) of the components made of aluminium alloys can be enhanced. Another important parameter for fatigue and damage tolerance design (DTD) of engineering components is the threshold stress intensity factor range for fatigue crack growth, ∆K_th. A small variation in identification of ∆K_th can lead to a big change in overall estimation of fatigue life. In this project, an analytical model has been developed for aluminium alloys by fitting an analytical curve with raw crack growth data in order to identify the ∆K_th. This model has the capacity to identify ∆K_th for different aluminium alloys at various R ratios. There is a great demand for enhanced fatigue life of aluminium alloys in the transport industry. This project has carried out a detailed investigation of electromagnetic treatment (ET) in the form of electropulsing treatment to develop an efficient technique for fatigue resistance enhancement. ET parameters including the treatment intensity, treatment time and the number of applications have been optimised. It is suggested that the duration of ET treatment can be used as the main parameter among all these to control the fatigue resistance of the aluminium alloy. The improvement in fatigue resistance has been explained by the change in microhardness and conductivity of aluminium alloy due to ET. Additionally, the fracture morphology was analysed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The precipitates and dislocation characteristics were also studied using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The outcomes of this investigation will help improve structural integrity by enhancing fatigue resistance of aluminium alloys.
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Ali, Muhammad Sarfraz. "Microstructural modelling of fatigue in layered bearing architectures." Thesis, University of Southampton, 2007. https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/64768/.

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Small automotive plain engine bearings are used to provide the relative motion between the engine block and the crankshaft via the connecting rod. Under rapidly changing engine loads, these bearings may suffer fatigue damage during service. In modern multilayered bearing designs, fatigue resistance is a complex function of engine loading coupled with the layer architecture and a multiphase lining alloy. This research has mostly focussed upon micro-scale fatigue damage initiation on thin (0.2-0.3mm thickness) lining surface and its subsequent growth leading towards gross failure. The systems examined comprise Al alloys and sintered bronze as relatively soft and conformable lining layers. The weight percent composition of Al lining alloy was Al-6.5Sn-2.5Si-1Cu-1Ni-0.25Mn roll bonded to a stiffer and thicker backing steel layer (1.5-1.8mm thick) via an even thinner Al foil (0.04mm) as an interlayer. The other system comprised an Al lining (Al-20Sn–1Cu) alloy spray coated on to a medium carbon steel layer in the form of a flat bar. All these systems were compared with the previously investigated Al based designs with lining compositions: Al-12Sn-4Si-1Cu and Al-20Sn-1Cu-0.25Mn (manufactured by roll bonding processes). The performance evaluation was based upon the investigation of microstructural features involved in early fatigue initiation and their effect upon short crack growth on the surface. Subsurface crack growth through the layers has also been assessed and finally the observed fatigue life of various components linked to these behaviours. A 3-point bend test configuration was adopted for laboratory fatigue tests. Fatigue comparison was made on the basis of lining surface plastic strain amplitude vs. number of cycles to failure according to a uniform predefined criterion for all the systems. Maximum plastic strains developing at the lining surface were estimated using a combination of finite element analysis (FEA) and strain gauge measurements so that the fatigue life of all systems studied was presented as strain-life data. Specimens in the form of both finished bearings and flat bars were tested. Similar fatigue behaviour was observed for the two testing geometries, giving greater confidence in the fatigue evaluation process and allowing detailed observations of small crack initiation and growth processes in flat bars to be related to behaviour of the actual bearing geometry. In the previous research, the coarser Si particles in the Al-12Sn-4Si-1Cu lining and Sn particles in the Al-20Sn-1Cu-0.25Mn alloys were identified as potential crack initiation sites, though the relationship between particle geometry and arrangement/clustering was found to be important. The newly developed Al-6.5Sn-2.5Si-1Cu-1Ni-0.25Mn lining alloy with finer and fewer Sn and Si particles showed a delayed initiation of short fatigue cracks compared to the previous systems. However, a large number of widely scattered intermetallics in the new linings were observed to fracture causing early fatigue initiation at the micro-scale level with some more complex processes of detaching Sn layers from harder intermetallics and Si particles. Using the mechanical property data for bulk lining and secondary phase particles obtained from tensile testing and instrumented hardness testing, stress fields were investigated within the hard particles (intermetallics), surrounding thin layers and the matrix on the basis of the analytical and numerical modelling. On the basis of these modelling results, optimum particle shapes were defined to minimize tensile stresses (within the particles) and hydrostatic stresses (at the particle matrix interfaces). The experimental growth data of a dominant crack when combined with a Hobson type growth model based upon measured particle distributions and experimental crack growth rates, helped in predicting fatigue life of a similar component at different stress levels. Surface crack driving force reduces considerably when subsurface crack deflection occurred within softer Al interlayer. Replacing this interlayer with a harder brazed sheet did not give any significant difference in the observed fatigue life. In the HVOF systems, crack initiation was observed to be from the weaker interface between a harder matrix and softer circular unmelts as well as from various scattered pores. The overall fatigue life of the HVOF systems was comparable to the previous roll bonded systems; however subsurface deflection of crack at the lining-backing interface resulted in the debonding of the lining and hence the observed lining fatigue resistance may not be a good indication of the overall performance in a bearing system. At similar lining surface plastic strain levels, the bronze bearing with very thin Sn and Ni as overlay layers (~7 microns each) showed comparable fatigue resistance to the currently investigated RB Al based designs. However annealing this system resulted in the formation of hard Ni3Sn intermetallics at the Sn-Ni interface, and the observed fatigue resistance of this system was higher than the RB systems. This has been linked to very fine scale local crack deflection in the overlay layers (although these have not been observed clearly). All these layered bearing systems provide a complex fatigue problem. Factors which reduce initiation /early growth behaviour are likely to offer the best service performance enhancements in view of the relatively HCF nature expected in service.
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Dandre, C. A. "Computer modelling of fatigue in titanium alloys." Thesis, Swansea University, 1995. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.636342.

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A computer package has been developed that models the inter-granular stress distributions that are considered to be responsible for the fatigue crack initiation and short crack growth stages in near-α titanium alloys. The computer package incorporates the finite element method, and by modelling stress distributions at the microstructural level, this research is placed at the forefront of the field. A computer program generates at hypothetical uniform grain structure consisting of hexagonal grains. However, in order to model the anisotropic nature that is inherent in titanium alloys, a texture is developed for the computer generated structure. The directional variations for elastic and plastic properties are incorporated into the model by allocating crystallographic orientations to each grain individually. Since failure in near-α titanium alloys has been attributed to slip on the basal plane, the grain orientations describe the inclination of the basal plane to the direction of applied stress. The computer package models the principal inter-granular stress redistributions that occur at grain discontinuities, where 'weak' grains off-load stress onto adjacent 'strong' grains. Certain grains that are suitably orientated for slip experience an increased stress. When resolved onto the basal plane, this is evident as a unique combination of tensile and shear stresses that are considered to activate the separation of slip bands that have formed. In order to support the theoretical model, a limited material testing programme was devised which was considered to provide important information regarding the failure mechanisms. Four-point bend tests were performed on IMI 829 barstock material which was heat-treated to produce a coarse grain structure consisting of colonies of aligned α-platelets. SEM measurements were taken to determine the texture at crack initiation sites. The computer package was implemented to model the inter-granular stresses for these local textiles. Stress contour plots indicated that significant inter-granular stress distributions existed which were unique to each initiation site. These results were supported by the fatigue observations in the bend specimen.
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Books on the topic "Fatigue of bearing alloys"

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Tack, Andrew J. The effect of microstructure and loading variables on fatigue crack propagation in three aerospace bearing steels anda low alloy steel. Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 1989.

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Hunt, Anthony William. Fatigue of commercial aluminium alloys. Birmingham: Aston University. Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, 1986.

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Piascik, Robert S. Environmental fatigue in aluminum-lithium alloys. Hampton, Va: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Langley Research Center, 1992.

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Trail, Stephen John. Fatigue of gamma based titanium aluminide alloys. Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 1996.

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Piascik, Robert S. Environmental fatigue of an Al-Li-Cu alloy. Hampton, Va: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Langley Research Center, 1992.

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Piascik, Robert S. Environmental fatigue of an Al-Li-Cu alloy. Hampton, Va: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Langley Research Center, 1991.

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Berkovits, Avraham. Modelling fatigue damage accumulation in nickel base superalloys: Final report. Haifa: Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, 1992.

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Troshchenko, Valeriĭ Trokhymovych. Soprotivlenie ustalosti metallov i splavov: Spravochnik. Kiev: Nauk. dumka, 1987.

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Matsuoka, Saburō. Kikai kōzōyō kinzoku zairyō no hirō ni kansuru shihyō tokusei. Tōkyō: Kagaku Gijutsuchō Kinzoku Zairyō Gijutsu Kenkyūjo, 1997.

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Grinʹberg, N. M. Struktura i ustalostnai͡a︡ prochnostʹ magnievykh splavov. Cheli͡a︡binsk: "Metallurgii͡a︡," Cheli͡a︡binskoe ot-nie, 1991.

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Book chapters on the topic "Fatigue of bearing alloys"

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Clausen, Brigitte, Christoph Stöberl, Werner Trojahn, and Hans-Werner Zoch. "Improved Chemical Composition of Low Alloyed High Carbon Martensitic Bearing Steels for Higher Fatigue Strength." In Bearing Steel Technologies: 10th Volume, Advances in Steel Technologies for Rolling Bearings, 1–21. 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959: ASTM International, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1520/stp158020140039.

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Bressers, J. "Fatigue and Microstructure." In High Temperature Alloys, 385–410. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1987. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1347-9_39.

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Kang, Young Sup. "Rolling Bearing Contact Fatigue." In Encyclopedia of Tribology, 2820–24. Boston, MA: Springer US, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-92897-5_375.

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Alderliesten, René. "Bearing Strength." In Fatigue and Fracture of Fibre Metal Laminates, 101–25. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56227-8_6.

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Germain, Guenael, Franck Morel, Jean Lu Lebrun, Anne Morel, and Bertrand Huneau. "Effect of Laser Assistance Machining on Residual Stress and Fatigue Strength for a Bearing Steel (100Cr6) and a Titanium Alloy (Ti 6Al 4V)." In Materials Science Forum, 569–74. Stafa: Trans Tech Publications Ltd., 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/0-87849-414-6.569.

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Wagner, L., and J. K. Bigoney. "Fatigue of Titanium Alloys." In Titanium and Titanium Alloys, 153–85. Weinheim, FRG: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/3527602119.ch5.

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Bhaduri, Amit. "Fatigue." In Mechanical Properties and Working of Metals and Alloys, 317–71. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7209-3_8.

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Zeng, Rong Chang, En Hou Han, and Wei Ke. "Fatigue and Corrosion Fatigue of Magnesium Alloys." In Materials Science Forum, 721–24. Stafa: Trans Tech Publications Ltd., 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/0-87849-968-7.721.

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Pasternak, Hartmut, Agnieszka Chwastek, and Ádám Sebők. "Effects of Welding Repairs on the Load Bearing Capacity and on the Fatigue Life of Fillet Welds of Normal and Low Alloy High Strength Steels." In Design, Fabrication and Economy of Metal Structures, 281–86. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-36691-8_42.

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Liu, K., S. S. Nene, Shivakant Shukla, and R. S. Mishra. "Fatigue Behavior of High Entropy Alloys." In High Entropy Alloys, 411–28. Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2020.: CRC Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9780367374426-17.

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Conference papers on the topic "Fatigue of bearing alloys"

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Haedicke, Lukas, Robert Mergen, Alexander Kari, and Leopold Harreither. "Improved Tin Based Bearing Alloy for Low Emission Two-Stroke Engines." In ASME 2012 Internal Combustion Engine Division Fall Technical Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/icef2012-92118.

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Recent in Two-stroke engine development for marine applications mainly deal with better and increased overall efficiency hereby reducing the CO2 emissions. Besides a mechanical design change the service conditions play a major role in enhanced efficiency. The so increased engine parameters with higher maximum pressure during combustion will inevitable increase the load on the bearings of the reciprocating parts. Since an increase in the bearing area is not possible due to the engine design parameters the object is to increase the specific load bearing capability of the bearing alloy while keeping the tribological benevolence. In particular, the fatigue properties and the strength of the used tin based alloys, commonly known as whitemetals or babbitts. This class of alloys stands out due to its emergency running capabilities, embedability and its high flexibility under edge load. Existing Al-based alloys like AlSn40 have improved fatigue properties but they fall behind on the named essential properties. Also, the dimensions of the AlSn40 bearings are limited due to the roll bonding process by which they are produced. On the other hand spin casting as standard production process of Babbitt bearings is limiting the alloying elements due to centrifugal segregation while solidification of the lining alloy. While tin based alloys are used in an environment of 90°C the homologue temperature is 0,7 which means that classic strengthening mechanisms like work-hardening and grain size effects are only shortly employable. Another restricting fact is the requirement of solid solubility for solid solution strengthening which also includes precipitation hardening. Hence there is a limited amount of elements dissolvable and not environmentally hazardous in tin this mechanism is already used to its maximum in the standard babbitts. In this paper a possible way to circumvent these limits will be presented. The use of high melting elements, compared to Sn, like Co, Ni, Mn, Al and Zn which are partly dissolvable in molten Sn, where used to improve the microstructure and therefor the overall performance of the bearing alloy. These trace elements serve as grain refinement for the primary precipitation of SbSn and CuSn during solidification. The high melting point of these elements anticipates relaxing processes in the alloy caused by diffusion at the high homologue temperature. Due to the smaller precipitations and the finer structure a better performance can be seen during tests. This leads in a higher strength while maintaining its ductility. Alternate bending tests as well as specific bearing test runs show a significant better fatigue, wear and embedability performance than standard alloys.
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Gonza´lez, Jon Plaza, Francisco Javier Echarte Casquero, Javier Va´zquez Mato, and Miguel A´ngel Gonza´lez-Posada. "Blade Bearing Friction and Fatigue Mathematical Mode." In STLE/ASME 2008 International Joint Tribology Conference. ASMEDC, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/ijtc2008-71147.

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Modern Wind Turbines adjust their blades orientation at different wind speeds for power control and optimum energy production. A big slewing ring about 2 metres diameter placed at each blade root, allows the blade orientation withstanding highly variable heavy loads, vibrations, continuous rotating oscillations and severe ambient conditions. The blade pitch system design and control strategy in a WTG is strongly conditioned by the load dependant friction of the bearing that shall be accurately defined for cost-effective designs. The pitch system is also the main brake of the rotor requiring high reliability for their components under fatigue loads, and in particular for the slewing rings due to its inherent difficulties for maintenance or replacement. The present methodology allows the fatigue and friction estimation of slewing rings, based on rolling bearing models and classical theories like Hertz, Lundberg-Palmgren, and Miner fatigue cumulative damage. This approach simulates the stress supported by each ball in the contact with the raceways, estimates the bearing friction due to these contact stresses, and the fatigue life of the overall bearing.
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Mergen, Robert, Falko Langbein, and Leopold Harreither. "New Approaches on Material Design for High-Performance 2-Stroke Engine Bearings." In ASME 2010 Internal Combustion Engine Division Fall Technical Conference. ASMEDC, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/icef2010-35139.

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When looking at the performance criteria of bearings for the application in Two-Stroke engines, properties like emergency running capabilities, embedability and the fatigue properties are vital to the performance of these engines. The typical approach is to use materials with a soft Tin matrix and hard intermetallic phases commonly known as “Babbitt” alloys. In a second, more recent approach, Aluminium alloys with elevated Tin content are more and more often chosen. Babbitts outmatch any bearing alloys by their outstanding tribological performance but have very limited mechanical properties. Oppositely, the Aluminium alloys have substantial higher strength but leak somehow with regard to emergency running properties. Whereas the poorer running properties of Aluminium Alloys can be overcome by using suitable running-in coatings, the strength increase of the Tin matrices of Babbitts is rigorously limited by the production technology of spin casting and the ban of hazardous alloying elements such as Cadmium. In order to satisfy the needs of engines manufacturers for a material which combines the advantages of Aluminium- and Tin-base alloys, a new approach which combines both metallurgical alloy development and process technology redesign is necessary. By a fundamental process analysis, the limiting effect with regard to alloy tuning of the existing production technology for steel-babbitt bearing shells will be shown in this paper. Further more, new process routings with the effect of enabling the production of Babbitt bearings with never practized alloy compositions with enhanced mechanical properties are presented.
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Allameh, Seyed M., Avery Lenihan, Roger Miller, and Hadi Allameh. "Fatigue Properties of 3D Welded Thin Structures." In ASME 2020 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/imece2020-23135.

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Abstract Additive manufacturing technology has matured enough to produce real industrial components. A newer method of 3D printing is the deposition of molten metal beads using a MIG weld torch. This involves a 3D printer equipped with a MIG torch layering the metals in desired shapes. It allows the fabrication of components made of MIG weld wires, currently available from various elements including Cu, Al, steel and alloys. Some of these structures made by 3D welding will have applications in critical load bearing conditions. The reliability of such components will be vital in applications where human lives are at stake. Tensile tests are conducted to verify the required strength of the fabricated parts which will undergo monotonic loading; however, fatigue tests are required for cases where cyclic loading will take place. Conventional tensile and fatigue testing requires macro-scale samples. With MIG welding, it is possible to make thin-walled structures. Fatigue testing on samples extracted from thin walls is made possible by microtesting. This study is focused on the mechanical properties of 3D welded structures made from MIG welding wires. Our earlier results showed orientation dependence of mechanical properties in 3D welded structures. They also showed the effect of substrates in expression of the orientation dependence. Welding on metal substrate produces weld beads that are harder at the substrate interfacial area. However, for structures welded on ceramics, the opposite is true. They exhibit a softer substrate interfacial area and a relatively harder top. Our newer results show fatigue properties of structures made by 3D welding. Microsamples measuring 0.2 mm × 0.2 mm × 1.0 mm were extracted from metal beads using a CNC mill along with an EDM. The contours of the samples were machined by milling and the back side was cut by electro discharge machining. Specimens were then polished to the desired size and mounted in the grippers of an E1000 Instron load frame. WaveMatrix® application software from Instron was used to control the machine and to obtain testing data. Fatigue tests were performed, and life cycles were determined for various stress levels up to over 5 million cycles. The preliminary results of tensile tests of these samples show strength levels that are comparable to those of parent metal, in the range of 600–950MPa. Results of fatigue tests show high fatigue lives associated with relatively high stresses. The preliminary results will be presented and the implications of the use of 3D welded rebar in 3D printing of reinforced concrete structures will be discussed.
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Mason, Michael A., Charles P. Cartin, Parham Shahidi, John E. Speich, and James Hargraves. "Contact Stress Modeling in Railway Bearings for Imperfect Contact Geometries." In 2015 Joint Rail Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/jrc2015-5808.

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The connection between bearing raceway condition and fatigue in tapered roller bearings utilized in the railroad environment is of interest. Roller bearings for railroad applications are typically precision ground to exact dimensions with crowned contact geometries for optimal loading of components. This normally results in completely elastic Hertzian contact stresses under standard railcar loads with original equipment manufacturer raceway contact geometries. However, with extremely uneven bogie load distributions, impact damage, corrosion and spall repair, imperfect stress distributions can occur on bearing raceways utilized in the railroad environment. Railroad bearing applications in North America have the added complexity that the life of the product is not defined in the same way as in other industries. For example, the definition of spalling remains consistent across all industries and is outlined in the Association of American Railroads (AAR) Manual of Standards and Recommended Practices. However, an inconsistency compared to other industries is that the fatigue life of the product in the rail industry is not always considered complete at the first evidence of fatigue spalling. Although some other industries allow for the remanufacture and restoration of bearing assemblies, the aggressive raceway fatigue regrinding practices allowed by the AAR are not commonly permissible in other industries. These remanufacturing practices adversely influence subsurface stress magnitudes below the raceway surface, as they reduce the effective length of the raceway and can create stress risers. Engineering tools like the novel modeling method presented in this paper can be used by bearing designers to evaluate the impact of surface discontinuities, at the center or edge of the raceway, on the overall stress state of bearing raceways. For the various types of raceway conditions detailed above, a new tool was developed using finite element methods to simulate the stress state of the bearing under complex raceway contact geometries or adverse load conditions. The finite element contact stress tool was successfully validated using proven Hertzian contact theory. Peak maximum shear and von Mises subsurface stress predictions between the finite element model and conventional contact theory agreed within .001 inches, with regards to peak stress depth below the surface, and 10,000 psi, with regards to peak stress magnitude. This newly developed methodology will be used in future studies to analyze other load conditions and raceway contact geometries that cannot be analyzed with basic Hertzian contact theory, in order to illustrate practical application of the tool. Specifically, overload conditions are analyzed in the work presented. Furthermore, a proposed methodology for future work related to the examination of the stress state created by current AAR bearing reconditioning acceptance standards related to raceway impact damage and spall repair will be introduced.
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Gorges, Roger, and Ronald Brock. "High-Performance Lead-Free Electroplated Composite Bearing Overlay for Heavy Duty Applications." In ASME 2013 Internal Combustion Engine Division Fall Technical Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/icef2013-19086.

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Material selection for engine internal components, e.g. bearings, is becoming increasingly more complex and demanding as the operating environments become more aggressive with the introduction of new technologies for the reduction of CO2 emissions. Historically, engine bearings contained lead, which has excellent fundamental bearing properties such as compatibility (run satisfactorily under conditions of marginal lubrication), conformability (deform and accept small scale geometrical inaccuracies of the crankshaft), and embeddablity (tolerance to dirt and other foreign materials) whilst being readily alloyed to achieve good wear and fatigue resistance. However, facing new challenges, many Original Equipment Manufacturers have started development programs to replace lead-containing with lead-free engine components in order to comply with new end-of-life vehicle directives or anticipated future directives. For more than fifteen years, MAHLE has been successfully supplying the light, medium and heavy duty market, with premium electroplated leaded composite bearings, which are designed to improve wear resistance. Some of this market now demands a switch to lead-free materials, while maintaining or exceeding its aforementioned requirements on bearing material properties. Composites of hard particles in a softer metal matrix are in this context ideally suited bearing materials as they can be tailored to obtain the optimal mix between soft and hard properties for the individual application. Typical hard particles that are commonly used comprise of metal oxides, nitrides or carbides. In addition to higher load carrying capabilities and longer service life, new engine technology trends demand that bearings also must operate under mixed or boundary lubrication conditions without having any adverse effect on the performance and integrity of the engine system. Boundary lubrication is commonly observed upon starting the engine before the elastohydrodynamic oil film is fully established. In this state, load is carried by surface asperities rather than by the lubricant. So far, the incorporation and even distribution of the hard particles into an electroplated lead-free matrix was not achievable using conventional direct current electroplating techniques. MAHLE, therefore, has developed a patented pulse plating technique in order to incorporate hard particles into the overlay metal matrix. The refined and modified crystal structure of the resulting lead-free overlay, with incorporated hard particles, yields a premium electroplated bearing with superior wear and fatigue resistance. Corresponding rig and engine test results have been completed to support the material development.
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Nam, Tae-hyun, Dong-joo Yoon, Jai-koan Jin, Byeong-jin Jeong, Bok-Han Song, and Chang-nam Park. "The Influence of Heat Treatment Process and Alloy on Microstructure and Rolling Contact Fatigue Life of High Carbon Chromium Bearing Steels." In SAE 2000 World Congress. 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA, United States: SAE International, 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.4271/2000-01-0788.

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McGhee, Paul, Devdas Pai, Sergey Yarmolenko, Jagannathan Sankar, Zhigang Xu, Sudheer Neralla, and Yongjun Chen. "Directional-Tribological Investigation of Magnesium Alloys Under As-Cast and Hot Extrusion Conditions." In ASME 2015 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/imece2015-51920.

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In recent years, magnesium (Mg) and its alloy are being studied for their potential use in orthopedic implants with the novel ability to biodegrade after the implant serves its therapeutic function. Pure Mg, by itself, would not be suitable for use in a load-bearing implant application, due to its high corrosion rate and poor tribological properties. However, through proper alloying, this degradable metal is capable of achieving good mechanical properties reasonably similar to bone, a retarded rate of corrosion and enhanced biocompatibility. Previous studies have shown that alloying Mg with aluminum, lithium, rare earth (RE), zinc (Zn), and calcium (Ca) result in lower corrosion rates and enhanced mechanical properties. Despite the growing popularity of Mg and it alloys, there is relatively little information in the literature on their wear performance. In this paper, we report on an investigation of the directional tribological properties of Mg and Mg-Zn-Ca-RE alloy fabricated via two different manufacturing processing routes: as-cast and hot-extruded after casting, with extrusion ratios of 10 and 50. Pure Mg was cast 350°C. After casting, Mg-Zn-Ca-RE alloy was heat-treated at 510°C. Another Mg-Zn-Ca-RE alloy was hot-extruded at 400°C. Dry sliding wear tests were performed on as-cast and hot-extruded pure Mg and Mg-Zn-Ca-RE alloys using a reciprocating test configuration. Wear rate, coefficient of friction and wear coefficient were measured under applied loads ranging from 0.5–2.5N at sliding frequency of 0.2 Hz for 120 cycles, using microtribometery. Wear properties of the extruded specimen were measured in cross-section and longitudinal section. In the longitudinal section studies, wear properties were investigated along the extrusion direction and the transverse direction. Hardness properties were evaluated using microindentation. Cross-section and longitudinal section were indented with a Vickers indenter under applied load of 2.94 N. Alloying and extrusion enhanced the mechanical properties significantly, increased hardness by 80% and wear resistance by 50% compared to pure Mg. Despite the low hardness in both Mg and the Mg alloy cross-sections, the cross-sections for both displayed higher wear resistance compared to the longitudinal section. In the longitudinal section, wear resistance was higher along the transverse direction of the longitudinal section for both Mg and the Mg alloy. The wear coefficient was used to evaluate how the wear behavior of the material varied with respect to alloying, fabrication process, and direction of wear. The wear coefficient of pure Mg decreased as the extrusion ratio increased, thus, increasing the specific wear rate. The opposite behavior was found in the Mg alloy: as the wear coefficient increases, the specific wear rate decreases. The active wear mechanisms observed on the worn surface of Mg were fatigue, abrasive, adhesive and delamination wear. The same wear mechanisms were observed in the Mg alloy except for fatigue wear. Surface microstructure and topographical characterization were conducted using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy mechanical stylus profilometry, and optical profilometry.
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Kerroumi, Sanaa, Lanto Rasolofondraibe, and Xavier Chiementin. "Dynamic Classification: A Tool for Fault Detection and Vibration Behavior Monitoring of Bearings." In ASME 2013 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/imece2013-64250.

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The emergence of a defect in a mechanical system is always associated with a change in the vibration’s behavior in the spectral and temporal domains. Fault detection by vibration analysis is based on monitoring the behavior of a mechanical component by examining the evolution of fault indicators in real time. However, mere traditional bearing diagnosis is not sufficient to ensure effective and reliable assessment of the component’s health condition. Coupling several fault indicators extracted by different signal processing technique adds more reliability and accuracy to the diagnostic process. Classifications methods are used to analyze the evolution of fault, yet only static methods are solicited which results in overlooking a great source of useful information. In fact, fault indicators issued from turning machine are evolving; they change constantly over time, particularly when the defect is growing. In such situations, static classification methods are a poor choice that deprives the user of the information conveyed in the evolution of the indicators over time. The dynamic classification of fault indicators in dynamic classes can provide useful information about the behavior of the damaged bearings. This information can also be used to predict the end of life of the components. Unlike the static classification, the dynamic classification introduces a new dimension (time), which allows real-time detection of the fault and better visibility of the bearing behavior revealed by the motion and the temporal evolution of classes formed by the indicators. This paper proposes a dynamic classification method that uses several fault detectors to assure the accuracy of the diagnostic and follow up any changing in the behavior of the bearing by analyzing the classes’ time evolution. The proposed multi-features dynamic classification is a new method for fault detection and health condition monitoring for bearings; this technique utilizes multiple features, including traditional features extracted from the raw signal, two special features extracted by wavelet analysis, and the spectral kurtosis, coupled with a nonlinear principal component analysis. This method of classification clusters the multi-features into several classes, the first class represents the healthy state of the bearing, and the other classes represent different damaging state. Monitoring the evolution of the” defective condition” class allows us to draw several useful information, such as the rate of degradation, the relationship between the cluster’ surface and density and the bearing state. The chosen dynamic classification method will be validated by analyzing several degradation bearings from a fatigue bench of thrust ball bearings SNR51207.
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Thies, Philipp R., Lars Johanning, and George H. Smith. "Lifecycle Fatigue Load Spectrum Estimation for Mooring Lines of a Floating Marine Energy Converter." In ASME 2012 31st International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/omae2012-84101.

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One of the key engineering challenges for the installation of floating marine energy converters is the fatigue of the load-bearing components. In particular the moorings which warrant the station-keeping of such devices are subject to highly cyclic, non-linear load conditions, mainly induced by the incident waves. To ensure the integrity of the mooring system the lifecycle fatigue spectrum must be predicted in order to compare the expected fatigue damage against the design limits. The fatigue design of components is commonly assessed through numerical modelling of representative load cases. However, for new applications such as floating marine energy converters numerical models are often scantily validated. This paper describes an experimental approach, where load measurements from tank tests are used to estimate the lifecycle fatigue load spectrum for a potential deployment site. The described procedure employs the commonly used Rainflow cycle analysis in conjunction with the Palmgren-Miner rule to estimate the accumulated damage for individual sea states, typical operational years and different design lives. This allows the fatigue assessment of mooring lines at a relatively early design stage, where both information from initial tank tests and the wave climate of potential field sites are available and can be used to optimise the mooring design regarding its lifecycle fatigue conditions.
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Reports on the topic "Fatigue of bearing alloys"

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Ravichandran, K. S. Fatigue of Bet Titanium Alloys. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, March 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada375114.

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Laura Carroll, Julian Benz, and Richard Wright. Creep-Fatigue of Advanced Austenitic Alloys. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), August 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/993156.

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McEvily, A. J. The Fatigue of Powder Metallurgy Alloys. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, March 1985. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada158591.

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Pao, P. S., and R. L. Holtz. Corrosion-Fatigue Cracking in Al 7075 Alloys. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, December 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada613246.

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Brockenbrough, J. R., R. J. Bucci, A. J. Hinkle, J. Liu, and P. E. Magnusen. Role of Microstructure on Fatigue Durability of Aluminum Aircraft Alloys. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, August 1993. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada272116.

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Brockenbrough, J. R., R. J. Bucci, A. J. Hinkle, J. Liu, and P. E. Magnusen. Role of Microstructure on Fatigue Durability of Aluminum Aircraft Alloys. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, April 1993. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada265627.

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Qu, Jun, and Yan Zhou. Compatibility of Anti-Wear Additives with Non-Ferrous Engine Bearing Alloys. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), January 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1342689.

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Williams, J. J., and N. Chawla. Environmental Effects on Fatigue Crack Growth in High Performance Aluminum Alloys. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, March 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada501490.

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Wei, R. Corrosion fatigue of iron-chromium-nickel alloys: Fracture mechanics and chemistry. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), January 1990. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/5069522.

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Ruther, W. E., W. K. Soppett, and T. F. Kassner. Corrosion fatigue of alloys 600 and 690 in simulated LWR environments. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), April 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/219363.

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