Academic literature on the topic 'Fascist camp'

Ernst Toller's Pastor Hall, one of the first plays to depict life in a concentration camp, counts among the few anti-Nazi dramas translated into English before World War Two. The process by which it came to the British stage reveals the impact of censorship on authors and translators of anti-Fascist plays. It also reveals conflicting aesthetic strategies to tackle fascism. While Toller relied on straightforward documentary realism, one of his translators, W. H. Auden, championed anti-illusionism and distrusted propaganda art. In the cultural fight to reclaim Germany's heritage from the Nazis, German writers in exile viewed translations as urgent messages demanding prompt action, whereas British writers tended to see them as an archive for future generations.

The Jasenovac Concentration Camp, run by the Ustashas in the ISC from 1941 to 1945, was the largest human slaughterhouse in the Balkans and one of the biggest concentration camps in Europe in the Second World War. In was where the crime of genocide was committed in the most cruel fashion against 800 000 Serbs, 40 000 Jews and 60 000 Roma, as well as the murder of around 4000 Croat, 2000 Slovene and 1800 Muslim antifascists. The terrible crimes of genocide were documented by local as well as foreign historical sources and even the very participants in the events. Recently, we have been witnesses to the daily falsifying of not only the number of Jasenovac victims but also the character of the camp itself by Croatian historians and statesmen. Their aim is to redefine the fascist past of Croatia in order to avoid having to face the crime of genocide committed against Serbs not only in the so-called Independent State of Croatia [ISC] (1941-1945) but also during the so-called Homeland War (1991-1995). This presents a very clear danger for the future of so-called Independent State of Croatia (ISC). Also misrepresented is the nature of the camp itself, which is falsely defined as a labor camp or even holiday camp. Amongst others, the persons involved in this altering of facts are: Ivan Supek, Academy member, Josip Pečarić, Academy member, Prof. Stjepan Razum, Igor Vukić, Mladen Ivezić, Franjo Kuharić, the Society for the Study of the Jasenovac Triple Camp [Društvo za istraživanje trostrukog logora Jasenovac], Dr Franjo Tuđman and Stjepan Mesić. The first and greatest distortion of the number of victims and the character of the camp was performed by Dr Franjo Tuđman, who established the foundations for this in his works, and in particular in his book Wastelands of Historical reality. The aim of these falsifications is a redefining of the fascist past of the country, the misrepresentation of fascists as antifascists and antifascists as fascists. All of this represents a serious danger for the future of Croatia, which is failing to come to terms with the past and refusing to condemn the all of the crimes committed, including genocide. Croatia today, an independent and democratic country, is showing signs of Ustasha tendencies, much like those seen in Pavelić's ISC. It is necessary to face this fact and the sooner it is done, the better it will be for the people of the Republic of Croatia.

ITALIAN NATIONALISM: BETWEEN NATIONALITARIANISM AND NATIONAL-FASCISMThe subject of this article is the doctrine of Italian nationalism considered using the approach of the Polish italianist Joanna Sondel-Cedarmas. This doctrine found its most complete expression in the activity and journalism of Italian Nationalist Association Associazione Nazionalista Italiana; ANI, of which the main theorists and leaders were Enrico Corradini, Luigi Federzoni, Alfredo Rocco and Francesco Coppola. Although the organization was active relatively briefly, that is, for 13 years from 1910 to 1923, it played a key role in the transitional period between the parliamentary system and the fascist dictatorship. The historical role of ANI consisted in breaking with the nationalitarian ideology dominating in nineteenth-century Italy and related to the Risorgimento Rising Again movement, which was liberal, democratic and anti-clerical. Instead, ANI adopted integral nationalism, connected with right-wing, conservative, monarchist, anti-liberal and authoritarian ideology and favourable to the Catholic religion. However, in contrast to countries like France, Spain, Portugal or Poland, nationalism of this kind failed to retain its autonomous political position and organisational separation, because after World War I it encountered a strong competitor in the anti-liberal camp — fascism, which as a plebeian and revolutionary movement found a broader support base in the pauperised and anarchy-affected society. Nationalists, forced to cooperate with the National Fascist Party after the March on Rome and the coming to power of Benito Mussolini, modified their doctrine in the spirit of the national-fascist ideology. In spite of that, the nationalists active within the fascist system were preventing that system from evolving towards totalitarianism and defended the monarchy, as well as the independence of the Roman-Catholic Church.

Both The Night Porter (Cavani) and The Gestapo’s Last Orgy (Canevari) are often referred to as exploitation. Exploitation cinema’s focus on empty excess is in line with the exaggeration/superficiality of “Camp”. Despite Susan Sontag’s separation of “Camp” elements and homosexual-Camp elements, subsequent
 commentators have argued that Camp is an exclusively gay critique of the artificial nature of the “performance” of hetero-normative gender roles. My article looks at the ways in which lesbian filmmaker Liliana Cavani discusses queer sexuality through a Camp play on gender roles, and how this same discourse is
 “developed” in Canevari’s virtual remake. German/Italian fascist ideology’s preoccupation with the perfected male body and Hitler’s original acceptance of homosexuality contributed to the presence of a lingering (masculine) homoeroticism in Nazi iconography. Holocaust history of Nazi domination enhanced this masculine image. Accordingly, the two filmmakers use a binary of male (masculine) Nazi dominator and female submissive prisoner, which is possessing of a heterosexual quality made fragile by the history of fascist sexual ambiguity. Essentially, my paper argues that the films’ disruption of the traditional images of Nazi aggressor/innocent victim through the protagonists’ depicted collaboration corresponds with the filmmakers’ blurring of masculine/feminine roles in their individual statements about queer sexuality.

This essay reconstructs the involvement of Nicola Chiaromonte in the Spanish Civil War. For very short this experience was in fact an episode of great importance for his biography(life experience). Chiaromonte was an anti-fascist which was exiled in France. In August 1936 Chiaromente went to Madrid convinced that the defense of the Spanish republic coincides with the beginning of an international mobilization against Fascism. There he becomes a bomber with the air squadron organized by his friend the writer Andre Malraux. At the end of November he returned to France because he feels exhausted revolutionary hopes that had animated the popular resistance to the military coup, also because of the increasingly important role assumed by the Communist International in the republican camp.

Abstract This paper focuses on the vitality of the translation market in fascist Italy, despite the censorship affecting primarily Gramsci as a translator and theorist of translation, and, starting from the 1920 polemic between the idealist philosophers Croce and Gentile, it studies the theories emerging between the two world wars. The anti-fascist Croce denies the possibility of translating in the name of an aristocratic and romantic idea of art, and thus pushes critics in his camp, such as Debenedetti, to resort to different paths. Although Gentile claims to embody the fascist intellectual, his view on art is in contradiction with his view on power: subjective deconstruction and state authoritarianism, interpretive freedom and ideological violence coexist to the point where his reflections on translation get absurdly close to Benjamin’s.

EZRA’S CAGE”. BETWEEN POETRY AND POLITICSEzra Pound 1885–1975 was, next to Thomas Stearns Eliot, the most prominent American poet of modernist. He was considered the creator of vorticism and imagism — modern trends in art and world culture. In his works he reached to different eras and cultural trends. He was as well fascinated by medieval Provençal, Spanish and Italian literature, and Japanese art of haiku. On his work also had an impact scholasticism, Confucianism and Far East literature. In addition to poetry, Pound was also involved in literary criticism, painting and sculpture, he wrote historiosophical es­says and dramas. The greatest fame brought him, however, written for many years, „Canto”. During his stay in the British Isles he also dealt with politics and economics. He was considered a supporter of the theory of Social Credit of Hugh Douglas Clifford, aBritish engineer and economic theorist. In the early twenties Pound went to Italy. Here he became fascinated with fascism and the person of Benitto Musollini. In his works including his poetic works appeared clear fascist and anti-Semitic accents. He criticized Jewish international financiers and banking critique of usury. During World War II he gave propaganda „talks” in the Italian radio. He praised the organization of the fascist state and fascism as an idea, and at the same time warned the threat from international Jewish conspiracy. His views meant that he was accused of collaboration and treason. He was arrested and imprisoned in the US prison camp near Genoa. He spent almost amonth in aclosed cage. During his stay in the camp he had nervous breakdown. After transportation to the United States for many years he was locked out in hospital for mentally ill. After leaving the hospital, he returned to public space. Still creative, he was nominated for the most prestigious literary awards. His works have been translated into many languages around the world, including Polish. He died in Italy in 1975.

AbstractState control over Greece’s agricultural institutions increased during Metaxas’s authoritarian regime (1936–41). Analysing such state control allows us to address, in the Greek context, two questions with regard to fascist agrarian regimes. First, considering the trajectory of agricultural policy before the emergence of these regimes, how much of what they did was new, and how much was not? Second, how did the cadres of agricultural specialists participate in, or at least accommodate, the new regimes? Our research shows that Metaxas received support from the agronomists who had been active in Greece under previous liberal administrations. Such support did not take the form of laudatory statements or ideology-driven activism. It was rather a discreet acceptance of the new circumstances, combined with defection from one’s previous political camp. Metaxas’s dictatorship inherited most traits that made it a fascist agricultural regime from previous liberal administrations.

Abstract Koshe town is the administrative and commercial center of Mareko woreda.1 It is found in Gurage Zone Southern Nation Nationalities and Peoples Regional State. According to the tradition the origin of the name “Koshe” is originated from the plant which called by the name Koshe which abundantly grow in the area. The establishment of Koshe town is directly associated with the five years Italian occupation. Due to the expansion of patriotic movement in the area Italian officials of the area forced to establish additional camp in the area in a particular place Koshe. This paper explores the role of Fascist Italy for the establishment of Koshe town. The former weekly market shifted its location and established around the Italian camp. Following the evacuation of Fascist Italy the Ethiopian governments control the area. During the government of Emperor Haile Selassie Koshe town got some important developmental programs. The most important development was the opening of the first school by the effort of the Swedes.2 The Military regime (Derg)3 also provided important inputs for the urbanization of Koshe town. This research paper observes the development works that flourish in Koshe during the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie and the Military regime, and also asses the role of different organizations for the urbanization of Koshe town.

Resumen: Basado en el análisis de un libro reciente (Pietro Scalisi, L’onore e la viltà. In Memoria di Carmelo Salanitro Martire del Libero Pensiero, 2016), el artículo recorre la vida y el legado de Carmelo Salanitro, un antifascista siciliano condenado por la dictadura italiana y muerto en un campo de exterminio alemán. En la biografía de Salanitro se destaca el estrecho vínculo entre los estudios clásicos, la enseñanza de latín y griego y la búsqueda de la libertad: una relación ejemplar en la historia europea de la primera mitad del siglo XX.Palabras clave: Carmelo Salanitro, antifascismo, Segunda Guerra Mundial, idiomas clásicos, escuela italiana.Abstract: Based on a recent book (Pietro Scalisi, L’onore e la viltà. In Memoria di Carmelo Salanitro Martire del Libero Pensiero, 2016), the article traces the life and the witness of freedom of Carmelo Salanitro, a Sicilian anti-fascist condemned by the Italian dictatorship and died in a German extermination camp. In the biography of Salanitro stands out the close link between classical studies, teaching of Latin and Greek and the pursuit of freedom: an exemplary relationship in the European history of the first half of the 20th century.Keywords: Carmelo Salanitro, Anti-fascism, Second World War, Classical languages, Italian school.

Ferramonti di Tarsia (Cosenza) was the largest fascist internment camp in Italy in terms of both its size and number of internees. Although its existence and the historical events concerning it - i.e. its founding preceding the Italian entry into the Second World War, its liberation on September 14, 1943 and definitive closure in 1945 after a period of British administration – represent an almost forgotten chapter of Italian history – considerable cultural and musical activities took place there. Being characterized by the presence of almost exclusively foreign prisoners, mostly Jews coming from Germany or countries under Nazi occupation (especially Poland, Austria, Czechoslovakia), from the Balkans (significant presence of Croats and Serbs) and from the Italian possessions in the Mediterranean Sea (Rhodes and Benghazi), Ferramonti served as an absurd and random meeting place of cultures, languages, traditions and religions in the inaccessible Calabrian hinterland. Among the prisoners, often with a very high level of education, there were several professional musicians, such as Lav Mirski, Kurt Sonnenfeld, Isak Thaler, Paul Gorin, Oscar Klein, Leon Levitch, Ladislav Sternberg, etc. The extreme cultural diversity was reflected in the musical production and several performing activities accompanied everyday life in the camp: concerts and variety programs, which took place in a barrack serving as a theatre; the establishment of a choir that accompanied both Jewish, Catholic and Greek-Orthodox rituals (a unique case not only with regard to KZ-Musik); musical and general education for children attending the Lagerschule, just to mention few striking aspects. On the basis of personal and administrative sources and documents, this work focuses on the specific relationships between a non-lieu of deportation such as Ferramonti and the musical and human experience of interned musicians; the way in which detention and coexistence within the camp of people of various backgrounds who were forced to interact was indeed a crucial factor, not only for musical production but also for the survival and the future of most of the inmates. The different forms of Lagermusik are analyzed also in comparison with literary production from internment camps and through a philosophical perspective.

Sin dalla sua invenzione, la stimolazione magnetica transcranica (TMS) è stata utilizzata sia per esplorare le funzioni cerebrali nei soggetti sani che per indurre effetti terapeutici nei pazienti. Nonostante la crescente popolarità e risultati comprovati in diversi campi di applicazione, questa tecnica presenta un’elevata variabilità inter ed intra individuale in risposta allo stimolo. Molteplici sono i parametri fisici e fisiologici che influenzano l’efficacia del processo di stimolazione, come il posizionamento e l’orientamento della bobina, l’anatomia del capo e lo stato di attività cerebrale. L’obiettivo generale dei diversi studi che verranno presentati, è proprio quello di esplorare come questa variabilità possa essere spiegata considerando diversi parametri. Nello specifico, si è studiato come la direzione delle fibre neuronali relativamente alla direzione di stimolazione, possa influenzare l’efficacia di stimolo misurata tramite potenziale evocato motorio (PEM). La direzione delle fibre nella regione di interesse è stata calcolata a partire da mappe di trattografia soggetto specifiche calcolate a partire da immagini di RM di diffusione (dMRI) mentre per ognuno dei punti testati, la direzione di stimolazione è stata ricavata dal neuronavigatore. Infine, l’angolo tra le due direzioni è stato correlato con l’ampiezza del PEM al fine di individuare la presenza di un intervallo di valori corrispondenti a stimolazioni più ampie. In un secondo studio, la variabilità del processo di stimolazione è stata valutata mettendo in relazione l’ampiezza del PEM con parametri ottenuti dalla simulazione del campo elettrico indotto dalla stimolazione. Nello specifico, da ogni simulazione effettuata considerando un modello soggetto-specifico del capo, sono stati estratti due parametri: il volume cerebrale interessato dal campo elettrico ed il valore di picco del campo. Infine, la relazione tra questi parametri e l’ampiezza del PEM è stata valutata ricercando un nesso causale che ne motivi la variabilità. I toolbox presenti in letteratura, tra cui SimNIBS, utilizzato per le precedenti simulazioni non permettono la possibilità di caricare mappe di trattografia soggetto specifiche e presentano delle limitazioni riguardo la capacità di gestire dati dMRI per la stima delle conducibilità anisotrope relative alla materia bianca. Perciò si è iniziato lo sviluppo di un nuovo toolbox per la simulazione del campo elettrico che superasse queste limitazioni offrendo la possibilità di considerare dati dMRI acquisiti con protocolli più complessi e permettere la creazione di mappe di trattografia tramite diversi metodi. Il progetto è ad una fase preliminare ma il modello adottato risulta flessibile per diverse applicazioni. I test di fattibilità attuati ne dimostrano il possibile utilizzo anche per applicazioni real-time e per la soluzione del Forward Problem per l’analisi delle sorgenti in dati TMS-EEG ed EEG. Riguardo la variabilità nei dati TMS-EEG, risulta necessaria una standardizzazione dei metodi di analisi e di pre-processing per una corretta valutazione dei risultati. Perciò, è stata sviluppata e testata una pipeline per la rimozione degli artefatti e l’analisi dei dati basata sui principali step presenti in letteratura per garantire risultati affidabili ed omogenei. In conclusione, è stata esplorata la variabilità inter ed intra individuale del processo di stimolazione, considerando diversi aspetti con l’obiettivo di identificare parametri o biomarcatori che ne potessero migliorare l’efficacia. Negli studi presentati, sono stati considerati molteplici metodi di acquisizione del segnale, analizzati diversi tipi di MRI che potrebbero supportare l’utilizzatore una volta caricati all’interno del neuronavigatore ed il nuovo hot topic rappresentato dalle simulazioni del campo elettrico, coprendo così la maggior parte delle metodologie che gravitano attorno a questo strumento.
Since its introduction, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has been used to explore brain functions in healthy participants or to induce meaningful therapeutic effects in patients. Despite its growing popularity and proven results in several application fields, this technique suffers from high inter and intra subject variability in response to stimulation. Different physical and physiological parameters affect the effectiveness and repeatability of the stimulation process such as the coil placement and orientation, the head geometry and the activity state of the brain. The general aim of the studies presented in this dissertation, is to explore how this variability could be explained considering different parameters. Specifically, the first project has the purpose to study how neuronal fiber bundle direction related to the stimulation direction could affect the effectiveness of the TMS outcome determined by the amplitude of the motor evoked potential (MEP). Fiber direction information in the region of interest (ROI) was extracted from the subject specific tractogram obtained from diffusion MRI (dMRI) data, while the direction of stimulation was derived from the neuronavigation system for each of the twelve homogeneous stimulation points tested. The relative angle obtained between the two directions was related to the MEP amplitude to determine the presence of a range of angle values concurrent to wider stimulation outcomes. In the second study, the variability of the stimulation process was evaluated by relating the MEP amplitude with parameters obtained from the simulation of the TMS induced E-field. Specifically, for each of the stimulation directions acquired in the first study the E-field was simulated on the subject specific head model, to extract the volume interested by the E field and its peak value. Finally, a relationship between these parameters and the mean MEP amplitude was assessed searching for a causal link that motivates the outcome variability. The SimNIBS toolbox used for E-field simulation and the alternatives available in the literature presents some limitations regarding the possibility to upload dMRI data for white matter anisotropy conductivity estimation. Furthermore, to date no one offers the possibility to upload subject specific tractogram to study how neuronal fiber bundles are affected by the E-field. Given these premises, we present some preliminary results about the development of a new toolbox for E-field simulation. This toolbox offers the possibility to consider tissues anisotropy extracted from multi-shell dMRI data and create subject-specific fiber tracking maps with different approaches. The work done is at a preliminary stage, but the model adopted is flexible for various applications. In fact, feasibility tests demonstrate its possible use also for real time applications, and forward model solutions for EEG and TMS-EEG source analysis.  Regarding the TMS-EEG data, looking at the literature, a standardization of the preprocessing steps is needed to obtain comparable results. For this reason, the multiplicity of methods adopted for artifact remotion which could generate variability in the results,was inspected. Precisely, a processing pipeline for artifact remotions and data analysis was developed and tested to ensure robust results and a certain level of standardization. In conclusion the inter and intra subject variability in the TMS outcome were explored considering different aspects with the aim of identifying parameters and biomarkers that could improve the effectiveness of this technique. In the presented studies we considered multiple methods of acquisition (EMG-EEG) and analyzed different type of MR images (structural and dMRI) that could support the user once uploaded into the neuronavigation system and, finally, we took into consideration the possibility of modeling the induced E-field, covering most of the methodologies that gravitate around this instrument.

Questo lavoro di ricerca nasce dall’interesse per il tema dell’internamento dei civili messo in opera dal fascismo durante il secondo conflitto mondiale e intende studiare, nello specifico, l’internamento delle donne, analizzando il caso di studio dei sette campi femminili gestiti dal ministero dell’Interno e attivi in Italia fra il 1940 e il 1943: i campi di Treia, Petriolo e Pollenza, in provincia di Macerata, nelle Marche, il campo di Lanciano, in provincia di Chieti, in Abruzzo, i campi di Vinchiaturo e Casacalenda, in provincia di Campobasso, nel Molise, e il campo di Solofra, in provincia di Avellino, in Campania. La tesi si pone il duplice obiettivo di ricostruire la storia di queste sette strutture e di realizzare una schedatura di tutte le internate che vi sono transitate, per cercare di gettare nuova luce sul fenomeno dell’internamento civile fascista, adottando un punto di vista alternativo e inedito, esaminando vicende e personaggi che, in larga parte, non hanno ancora beneficiato di analisi e ricostruzione storica. La tesi è divisa in quattro parti e si apre con un primo capitolo dedicato al contesto storiografico in cui si tratteggiano i motivi del ritardo nello sviluppo di una storiografia sull’internamento, con spunti comparativi in relazione alle altre storiografie nazionali. Il capitolo, dopo un primo paragrafo legato alla memoria del passato fascista e alle rimozioni che l’hanno caratterizzata, procede analizzando gli altri motivi di ritardo, raggruppati intorno ai problemi della centralità del momento resistenziale e della sovrapposizione fra internamento e confino, della frammentazione documentaria e del rapporto con la storiografia sulla Shoah. Questo capitolo ripercorre poi le le fasi dello sviluppo degli studi sull’internamento, dalla seconda metà degli anni ’40 ai giorni nostri, analizzando tutti i principali contributi che la storiografia italiana e internazionale hanno dedicato all’argomento, seguendo tendenzialmente un criterio cronologico ma, in alcuni casi, cedendo il passo a raggruppamenti di tipo tematico o per autore, soprattutto a partire dagli anni ’90, quando i contributi dedicati all’argomento hanno cominciato a moltiplicarsi. Il secondo capitolo ricostruisce la storia dell’internamento civile fascista seguendo, anche in questo caso, un criterio cronologico e mettendolo in relazione con gli sviluppi del conflitto e la situazione internazionale, ripercorrendo l’evoluzione della normativa a partire dalla fine degli anni venti del Novecento, fino agli sviluppi successivi all’armistizio e al termine della guerra. Questo capitolo, attraverso il dipanarsi delle disposizioni diramate in materia di internamento, si pone l’obiettivo di ricostruirne la storia nel suo insieme, evitando divisioni in rapporto alle diverse categorie di internati, per tentare di costruire una narrazione in grado di restituire la complessità di un fenomeno che vede intrecciarsi questioni di politica estera, interna, pubblica sicurezza, stato d’emergenza, normativa bellica e politica razziale. Il terzo capitolo, il più lungo, costituisce il cuore della tesi e si pone l’obiettivo di ricostruire le storie dei sette campi femminili descrivendo le strutture, il loro funzionamento, le modalità di gestione, la vita materiale delle internate al loro interno, le funzioni e il ruolo dei questori, degli ispettori di zona, dei direttori, delle direttrici, del personale di guardia e di tutti quanti, a vario titolo, hanno avuto a che fare con i campi e le donne che vi erano internate, dal personale di servizio ai fornitori, dai commercianti alla cittadinanza che ha interagito e convissuto per tre anni con queste sette strutture e le loro numerose abitanti. La ricostruzione si sofferma dunque in particolare sull’analisi delle dinamiche interne, dell’impatto all’interno dei microcosmi economici e sociali delle comunità locali, dei rapporti con l’autorità nelle sue articolazioni centrali e periferiche, dell’attività di tutela delle internate da parte degli organismi internazionali, dei rapporti fra le internate in relazione ai diversi gruppi di appartenenza e delle loro interazioni con il personale in servizio e con la popolazione civile. In questo capitolo la materia è suddivisa secondo un criterio, innanzitutto geografico – articolata su base provinciale e poi focalizzando sulle singole strutture attive nel territorio di ogni provincia presa in considerazione – e poi cronologico, partendo dai lavori di ricerca per l’individuazione delle strutture idonee all’internamento in ogni singola provincia e poi ricostruendo la storia delle strutture dall’apertura dei campi fino alla loro chiusura, adottando la periodizzazione 1940-1943 ma proseguendo anche oltre, fino ai primi mesi del 1944, laddove l’attività di internamento è proseguita e si è riconfigurata secondo le nuove direttive della Rsi, vale a dire nei campi più settentrionali, nel caso specifico quelli del Maceratese, e soprattutto laddove e fintantoché la disponibilità di documenti lo ha consentito. La sezione relativa alla provincia di Macerata è in effetti la più cospicua riguardando non solo un numero maggiore di campi – per altro i più popolati dei sette presi in considerazione dalla ricerca – ma anche un lasso di tempo più ampio, trattandosi di campi liberati più tardivamente rispetto agli altri: ben nove mesi più tardi rispetto alle province di Avellino e Campobasso. Le strutture maceratesi hanno subito dunque la fase di passaggio tra fascismo monarchico e quello repubblicano e quindi gli effetti della svolta in merito alla politica razziale del fascismo e al nuovo ruolo dell’alleato tedesco nella penisola, che si è cercato di ricostruire sulla base della più scarsa, ma comunque esistente, documentazione disponibile, scrivendo brevemente anche sul campo di Sforzacosta, dove furono trasferiti gli internati della provincia rastrellati dai campi o dalle località di internamento dopo l’armistizio, per poi essere trasferiti nel campo di Fossoli per la successiva deportazione. Ogni contesto provinciale è introdotto da un paragrafo che ricostruisce sinteticamente la situazione della provincia in merito alla presenza di campi e località di internamento, seguendone la storia dalla dichiarazione di guerra alla liberazione del territorio provinciale da parte delle truppe alleate e quindi fino alla chiusura delle strutture e delle ultime pratiche relative all’internamento in quella zona, o almeno fino al punto in cui i documenti consentono di seguirne lo svolgimento, focalizzando sul ruolo e sull’attività dei funzionari localmente coinvolti nella gestione del servizio internati, a partire dall’ispettore di zona, dal prefetto, dal questore e dal personale di prefettura incaricato di funzioni di grande impatto sulla vita delle internate, quali la censura della posta o la vigilanza sulle loro condizioni di vita. Il quarto e ultimo capitolo propone una schedatura analitica delle internate che transitarono per queste strutture, analizzando la popolazione dei campi e la sua composizione in relazione alle diverse categorie di internate, alla nazionalità, allo stato civile, alla professione, alla “razza” e al colore politico. È stato così possibile individuare e schedare 699 internate partendo dagli elenchi delle presenze redatti dai direttori dei campi, integrati, per sopperire alle numerose lacune, con i nominativi intercettati nel corso dell’analisi della documentazione relativa all’amministrazione dei campi e alla loro gestione contabile, integrando e completando i dati con i fascicoli personali delle internate, laddove disponibili, cercando in particolare, oltre all’anagrafica, alla nazionalità e alla “razza”, ulteriori circostanze che possano aver determinato l’internamento, per chiarire meglio la motivazione alla base del provvedimento e quindi cercare di capire chi e per quale ragione sia stata considerata dal fascismo «pericolosa nelle contingenze belliche».

Dissertação de Mestrado em Arte e Património apresentada à Faculdade de Letras
A presente dissertação, intitulada Arquitetura social da FNAT (1938-1974): colónias de férias para os trabalhadores nacionais, pretende abordar, de modo sistematizado e a partir de uma leitura crítica e problematizante do caso português, a temática da operacionalização do turismo social pelos regimes fascistas.Pese embora considerada uma tipologia turística recente, o turismo social, essencialmente estudado pela sociologia e geografia, adquiriu um papel preponderante no panorama mundial que seria pertinente compreender e investigar por outras ciências socias. Reflexo das alterações económicas, sociais e laborais que eclodiram nos finais do século XIX, este tipo de turismo alcançou expressividade e concretização, servindo as pretensões políticas dos regimes, quer liberais, quer fascistas, europeus do século XX que importa analisar no âmbito da historiografia artística.Pretendendo compreender a instrumentalização da tipologia turística durante o Estado Novo, esta dissertação, após analisar sinteticamente a relação entre fascismo, turismo social e arquitetura na conjuntura europeia, foca-se no território nacional e nos programas arquitetónicos direcionados para as colónias de férias desenvolvidos pela FNAT. Não sendo as únicas materializações do turismo social em território nacional durante o regime fascista, as colónias de Férias da FNAT projetadas para os trabalhadores nacionais revelaram-se essenciais para a expansão da tipologia e as suas estruturas influenciaram obras similares, desde 1938 até 1974.
Titled Social Architecture of FNAT (1938-1974): holiday camps for national workers, the present dissertation intends to analyse, in a systematised way and critically focusing on the Portuguese case, the thematic of the operationalisation of the social tourism by fascist regimes. Although considered a recent tourism typology, social tourism, essentially studied by sociology and geography, has acquired a predominant role in the world panorama that would be pertinent to understand and research by other social sciences. Reflecting the economic, social and labour changes that emerged at the end of the 19th century, this type of tourism has gained expressiveness and materialisation, serving the political pretensions of the 20th-century liberal and fascist European regimes that must be analysed in the context of art historiography. In an attempt to understand the instrumentalisation of the tourism typology during the Estado Novo, this dissertation, after providing a summary analysis of the relationship between fascism, social tourism and architecture in the European context, focuses on the national territory and the architectural programs for holiday colonies developed by FNAT. Despite not being the only materialisations of social tourism in the national territory during the fascist regime, the FNAT vacations colonies designed for national workers proved to be essential for the expansion of typology, and their structures influenced similar works from 1938 to 1974.Keywords: Social Tourism – Fascism – Architecture – Estado Novo – FNAT Holiday Camp

Sulla base di un'estesa ricerca d'archivio, svolta sia archivi nazionali e locali sia in Italia che in Cina, si sono ricostruite e documentate le origini del principale fenomeno migratorio cinese radicatosi in Italia e in altri paesi dell'Europa continentale a partire dagli anni Venti del Novecento, quello dei migranti originari dell'entroterra di Wenzhou, nella regione costiera del Zhejiang. Alla ricerca d'archivio si è affiancata una ricerca sul campo nei villaggi d'origine degli emigranti cinesi in Cina, con la consultazione degli archivi storici locali e dei registri genealogici dei principali lignaggi protagonisti della migrazione. La documentazione raccolta, in massima parte inedita, ha consentito di compendiare la letteratura di riferimento in cinese e in altre lingue esistente sulle origini dell'immigrazione cinese in Europa facendo luce sul caso italiano, finora relativamente poco conosciuto. Dato che questa migrazione si è sviluppata e radicata nel contesto nazionale durante il regime fascista, il punto di partenza per la ricerca è stata la ricostruzione dell'identità delle persone cinesi insediatesi in Italia a partire dalla documentazione che il regime raccolse ai fini del controllo dei cinesi residenti sul territorio del Regno e, durante la Seconda guerra mondiale, ai fini dell'internamento di buona parte di loro in campi di concentramento. Nel corso della ricerca d'archivio è stato possibile reperire un certo numero di lettere scritte dagli internati, la cui traduzione ha permesso di comprendere meglio diversi aspetti della loro prigionia e delle loro vicissitudini precedenti all'internamento. Sulla scorta della ricerca svolta, si è potuto dimostrare che le migrazioni successive dal Zhejiang verso l'Italia del dopoguerra si sono innestate su quelle di una o due generazioni prima, coinvolgendo persone originarie dei medesimi villaggi, e appartenenti ai medesimi lignaggi, di chi era emigrati prima della Seconda guerra mondiale. Malgrado buona parte dei cinesi presenti in Italia al termine del secondo conflitto mondiale abbia scelto di essere rimpatriata nel 1946, un centinaio circa di loro scelse di rimanere, sposandosi con donne italiane e costituendo i principali nuclei della presenza cinese in Italia nei decenni a venire, soprattutto nelle città di Milano, Bologna, Genova, Torino, Roma e Firenze. Filo conduttore della ricostruzione storica sono non soltanto i documenti d'archivio, ma anche una ricca scelta di articoli di giornale tratti soprattutto dalle pagine di due quotidiani a tiratura nazionale: Il Corriere della Sera di Milano e la Stampa di Torino. L'identificazione di oltre il 60% dei cinesi internati in campi di concentramento ha permesso il riscontro puntuale e preciso con le fonti d'archivio cinesi, consentendo l'individuazione dei villaggi di provenienza e anche di formulare alcune ipotesi rispetto alle dinamiche migratorie e di costruzione d'impresa. La formazione delle prime attività economiche gestite da imprenditori cinesi è stata documentata a partire dai dati dell'archivio storico della Camera di Commercio di Milano, consentendo di tratteggiare la fisionomia del primo distretto etnico della lavorazione della finta pelle nel capoluogo lombardo. Alcuni tratti caratteristici del modello imprenditoriale cinese degli anni Trenta e Quaranta si preserveranno sostanzialmente intatti fino agli anni Ottanta, quando si riattiveranno pienamente i flussi migratori dal Zhejiang all'Europa.

In 1870 Rome was conquered without military resistance by the young Italian State, causing the Pope to react by organizing “the Catholic opposition” to the State (which lasted until 1929); it was modified in 1919 when Don Luigi Sturzo founded the “Italian Popular Party”, which was independent from the Church and immediately antifascist. The Pope exiled Don Sturzo, and the Catholic world split into the anti-fascist Popular Party and a prevailing party of clerical-fascist leaning. With the rise of the fascist dictatorship in 1926 the popular experience came to an end. In the fight for liberation, De Gasperi stands out as a figure who would lead, together with the Christian Democracy, the birth of the new republican democracy.

AbstractThis chapter explores how Mussolini’s Fascist regime politicized the remembrance of the First World War by linking a narrative of heroism to specific notions of grief. It reveals that, given the scale of Italy’s losses in the war, commemoration of the fallen was a highly emotional issue, which provided the regime with a powerful means of political communication. As the Fascist authorities sought to exploit feelings towards the dead for the purpose of mobilizing the Italian population, emotions came to define the political agenda. In seeking a high degree of emotional control, the Italian dictatorship elaborated strategies of manipulation that were later imitated by other authoritarian powers, including Hitler’s Germany and Franco’s Spain. Ossuaries from the time offer evidence of the political intentions of the Fascist regime and the emotional responses that visitors were meant to feel. Architecture and its surrounding discourse thus acted as carriers of emotional messages with political intent.

AbstractThis chapter will focus on the two decades after 1945, the period of the “post-war society” (1945–1967), which in the historical sciences is also characterized as a period of boom (keywords: “Wirtschaftswunder” (“economic miracle”), expansion of the welfare state, expansion of the educational sector, certainty about the future) and which comes to an end in the 1970s. Germany was undergoing a profound process of change: socio-structural changes in an advanced industrial society, structural changes in the family and a retreat into the private sphere, new opportunities in the areas of consumption and leisure due to the “Wirtschaftswunder,” urbanization and changes in communities, “Western Integration” (“Westbindung”), the ban on the KPD (Communist Party of Germany) in 1956, remilitarization, the development of the mass media and mass motorization, and the repression of the Nazi past were central social and sociological issues. At the same time, fascist tendencies were still virulent during the 1950s and 1960s. After 1945, sociology had to be rebuilt. Journals were refounded or newly founded, the German Sociological Association was restored and sociology was re-established as a teaching subject. Different “schools” and regional centers of sociology emerged. The so-called Cologne School centered around René König, the Frankfurt School around Adorno and Horkheimer, and the circle around Helmut Schelsky should be mentioned in particular; but also, Wolfgang Abendroth, Werner Hofmann, and Heinz Maus (Marburg School), Otto Stammer (Berlin), Arnold Bergstraesser (Freiburg i.Br.), and Helmuth Plessner (Göttingen). Despite their theoretical and political differences, up until the 1950s, they all had in common the decisive will for political and social enlightenment regarding the post-war situation. Furthermore, the particular importance that empirical social research and non-university research institutions had for the further development of sociology after 1945 is worth mentioning.At the end of the 1950s, field-specific dynamics gained momentum. The different “schools” and groups tried to secure and expand their position in the sociological field and their divergent research profiles became increasingly visible. The so-called civil war in sociology drove the actors further apart. Additionally, disciplinary struggles and camp-building processes during the first 20 years of West German sociology revolved around the debate on role theory and the dispute over positivism. By the end of the 1950s, an institutional and generational change can be observed. The so-called post-war generation, which included Ralf Dahrendorf, Jürgen Habermas, Niklas Luhmann, Erwin K. Scheuch, Heinrich Popitz, Hans Paul Bahrdt, M. Rainer Lepsius, and Renate Mayntz, assumed central positions in organizations, editorial boards of journals, and universities. While the early “schools” and circles (König, Schelsky, Adorno, and Horkheimer) initially focused on the sociology of the family and empirical research, the following generation concentrated foremost on industrial sociology, but also on topics of social structure and social stratification as well as on social mobility.

‘Origins’ traces the concentration camp’s origins in 19th- and early 20th-century colonial settings in Australia, the United States, Cuba, South Africa, and German South-West Africa (today Namibia), and in the Armenian genocide at the end of the Ottoman Empire. By studying the early concentration camps, we can understand how and why the camps emerged when they did, and clarify the links and differences between them and the fascist and communist concentration camps of the mid-20th century. European racism, military culture, more rapid forms of communication, and increasingly available print media all contributed to the global diffusion of concentration camp concept, which by the end of World War I became accepted as a technique of rule.

This chapter moves back in time to examine three types of critical responses to the emergence of fascism in interwar Europe. One was the response from Italian antifascists and from German and Austrian Marxists. According to the criticism that arose on the Marxist Left, fascism embraced the concepts of a corporate state and organic nationalism as a counterrevolutionary strategy. Fascists allegedly worked at the behest of anxious capitalists to defuse a growing economic crisis by diverting attention from real social ills with their bogus cures and calls for national solidarity. Another noteworthy response to the creation of a fascist state in Italy came from the classical liberal economist Ludwig von Mises, who stressed the almost natural transition from an elaborate administrative state to a fascist regime. According to Mises, the unchecked growth of the modern state paved the way for the authoritarian nationalism that gave birth to fascism.

At Ford’s Rouge plant, the welfare activities that would earn Ford its reputation around the world were replaced by brutality, surveillance, and arbitrariness in the control of workers. The Rouge plant came fully on line as the new home of Model T production as European immigration to the United States was being curtailed by war and then nearly stopped through the immigration restrictions of 1924. The chapter situates managerial changes in this new reality. It also considers the built environment and management of the Rouge plant in relationship to Ford managers’ political interests in fascism and fascist political interest in Ford. Indeed, the Rouge plant functioned transnationally not as a model of racial integration but as an inspiration of Nazi factory management, a fascist-like factory state run by managers who, at times, professed strong affinities for fascism.

Abstract: This paper is an attempt to analyse and decode Le Corbusier’s application of his exceptionally singular and complex understanding of the order of the natural world in his urban masterpiece- Chandigarh City. It was Le Corbusier’s strong belief that architecture was a personal search for truth, a truth that was contained in the organic harmony of nature. He was convinced that with the advent of the machine in the 19th century, ties between man and nature had been severed. For the sake of the citizen’s physiological and psychological health, he felt it was essential that future cities focus on reconnecting man to nature through large green parks open to the sky, unpolluted by the machine. His own formative years in the lush forests of the Swiss countryside, sketching and abstracting natural forms helped him observe and internalise the inherent logic in their geometry. Over the years, a deeper study of mathematical proportions of the human body led Le Corbusier to propose the Modulor as a standard for the human scale in architecture. This only further cemented his belief that there was no separate natural order and man-made order; man was a part of nature and therefore a part of the natural order as well. However, it was the spiritual aspect of city planning that fascinated Le Corbusier the most. After a life long study of natural forms, he was fully convinced that this Spirit was hidden in the geometries of nature. To him, it was essential that the twentieth century city employ this spiritual order as a means restore harmony between man, nature and the cosmos. Resumen: Este trabajo conforma un intento para analizar y decodificar la aplicación de Le Corbusier en su comprensión excepcionalmente singular y compleja del orden del mundo natural en su obra maestra urbana - La Ciudad de Chandigarh. La firme creencia de Le Corbusier era que la arquitectura constituía una búsqueda personal de la verdad, una verdad establecida en la armonía orgánica de la naturaleza. Estaba convencido de que con el surgimiento de las máquinas en el siglo XIX, los lazos entre el hombre y la naturaleza se habían roto. Por el bien de la salud fisiológica y sicológica de los ciudadanos, sentía que era fundamental que las ciudades futuras se enfocaran en reconectar al hombre con la naturaleza a través de grandes parques verdes abiertos al cielo, sin ser contaminados por máquinas. Sus propios años de formación en los frondosos bosques del campo Suizo, esbozando y captando formas naturales lo ayudaron a observar e internalizar la lógica inherente en su geometría. Con el transcurso de los años, un estudio más profundo de proporciones matemáticas del cuerpo humano, llevaron a que Le Corbusier propusiera el Modulor como un estándar para la escala humana en arquitectura. Esto sólo consiguió consolidar aun más su creencia de que no había una separación entre el orden natural y el hecho por el hombre; el hombre era parte de la naturaleza y por lo tanto parte del orden natural también. Sin embargo, fue el aspecto espiritual de la planificación de la ciudad lo que más fascinó a Le Corbusier. Luego de un estudio de formas naturales a lo largo de la vida, se convenció por completo acerca de que este Espíritu estaba escondido en las geometrías de la naturaleza. Para él era primordial que la ciudad del siglo veinte empleara este orden espiritual como un medio para restaurar la armonía entre el hombre, la naturaleza y el cosmos. Keywords: Chandigarh; City Planning; Capitol Complex; Modulor Man; Open Hand; Natural Order. Palabras clave: Chandigarh; Planificación de la ciudad ; Capitol Complex; Modulor Man; Open Hand; Orden del Mundo Natural. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/LC2015.2015.784