Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Far North Queensland (FNQ)'

This thesis is an ethnography of how people live with recurring disaster threats in Far North Queensland, a region in the north east of Australia where cyclones are part of the annual cycle of weather. For the people who inhabit this region, cyclones occur amidst a landscape of natural beauty and thus living with cyclones is described as “living in paradise” where hell happens intermittently. In the past two decades, the interest in understanding how people live with hazards and disasters has grown significantly and a large volume of literature now exists addressing the social dimensions of hazards and disasters from a wide variety of disciplines. However, the majority of this literature focuses on single catastrophic events. This thesis seeks to provide new insights into the study of hazards and disasters by focusing on a region that experiences disaster threats as regular, annual occurrences that are anticipated. Based on long-term ethnographic fieldwork with coastal dwelling communities in Far North Queensland this thesis argues that living with cyclones is a process that involves a variety of different activities, decisions and strategies, many of which are so intertwined and manifested in the mundane practices of everyday life that they cease to be acknowledged. Developing this argument involves a reflection on how the weather and climate are perceived, the way that uncertainty and risk is dealt with and negotiated, and ultimately how such negotiations lead to the choice to stay in a cyclone-prone place. By tracing how people live with cyclones in Far North Queensland, this thesis suggests that cyclones are known in multiple ways and their meanings are subject to change with time. Thus, cyclones are both catastrophic disasters and events that become a normal part of life.

Management of invasive species is notoriously difficult and often expensive. The aim of this study was to inform feral pig management practises in far-north Queensland by utilising molecular markers and geographic information systems to evaluate the affect of landscape features on feral pig population structure. This thesis evaluated landscape features at multiple spatial scales to identify landscape features that are a barrier or facilitator of feral pig movement and makes recommendations for future management strategies.

The feral pig, Sus scrofa, is a widespread and abundant invasive species in Australia. Feral pigs pose a significant threat to the environment, agricultural industry, and human health, and in far north Queensland they endanger World Heritage values of the Wet Tropics. Historical records document the first introduction of domestic pigs into Australia via European settlers in 1788 and subsequent introductions from Asia from 1827 onwards. Since this time, domestic pigs have been accidentally and deliberately released into the wild and significant feral pig populations have become established, resulting in the declaration of this species as a class 2 pest in Queensland. The overall objective of this study was to assess the population genetic structure of feral pigs in far north Queensland, in particular to enable delineation of demographically independent management units. The identification of ecologically meaningful management units using molecular techniques can assist in targeting feral pig control to bring about effective long-term management. Molecular genetic analysis was undertaken on 434 feral pigs from 35 localities between Tully and Innisfail. Seven polymorphic and unlinked microsatellite loci were screened and fixation indices (FST and analogues) and Bayesian clustering methods were used to identify population structure and management units in the study area. Sequencing of the hyper-variable mitochondrial control region (D-loop) of 35 feral pigs was also examined to identify pig ancestry. Three management units were identified in the study at a scale of 25 to 35 km. Even with the strong pattern of genetic structure identified in the study area, some evidence of long distance dispersal and/or translocation was found as a small number of individuals exhibited ancestry from a management unit outside of which they were sampled. Overall, gene flow in the study area was found to be influenced by environmental features such as topography and land use, but no distinct or obvious natural or anthropogenic geographic barriers were identified. Furthermore, strong evidence was found for non-random mating between pigs of European and Asian breeds indicating that feral pig ancestry influences their population genetic structure. Phylogenetic analysis revealed two distinct mitochondrial DNA clades, representing Asian domestic pig breeds and European breeds. A significant finding was that pigs of Asian origin living in Innisfail and south Tully were not mating randomly with European breed pigs populating the nearby Mission Beach area. Feral pig control should be implemented in each of the management units identified in this study. The control should be coordinated across properties within each management unit to prevent re-colonisation from adjacent localities. The adjacent rainforest and National Park Estates, as well as the rainforest-crop boundary should be included in a simultaneous control operation for greater success.

Melomys burtoni and M. cervinipes naturally occur in habitats adjacent to sugarcane crops in north Queensland, have been trapped within sugarcane crops, and are potentially damaging to sugarcane crops. However, little is known about their biology and pest status in sugarcane crops and this information is needed by the industry for the development of a sustainable pest management programme for these rodents. Field studies were undertaken between Tully and Innisfail in far north Queensland, to determine the extent to which either or both Melomys species inhabit sugarcane crops and to examine the biology of Melomys within the crop. Field diagnostic approaches were developed which, when blind tested using molecular techniques, proved 100% accurate in-field discrimination of the two Melomys species. Based on field trapping, M. cervinipes proved to be rare in sugarcane and should not be regarded as a pest by the industry. In contrast, M. burtoni were recorded in significant numbers within cane, were found to feed on cane and, in crop stage 5 (canopy closure to harvest) were responsible for damage to ~5% of stalks. Melomys burtoni were found to colonise sugarcane at the later stages of crop development than the other major sugarcane rodent, Rattus sordidus. The highest proportion of M. burtoni reproduction and juvenile recruitment also occurs in the later stages of crop development. The late colonisation of the crop by M. burtoni means that the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategy already in place for R. sordidus is not directly transferable to M. burtoni. If an effective IPM strategy is to be developed, further research is required to examine the population dynamics and dispersal of M. burtoni populations between the crop and the adjacent habitats within the sugarcane production system of far north Queensland.

Melomys burtoni and M. cervinipes naturally occur in habitats adjacent to sugarcane crops in north Queensland, have been trapped within sugarcane crops, and are potentially damaging to sugarcane crops. However, little is known about their biology and pest status in sugarcane crops and this information is needed by the industry for the development of a sustainable pest management programme for these rodents. Field studies were undertaken between Tully and Innisfail in far north Queensland, to determine the extent to which either or both Melomys species inhabit sugarcane crops and to examine the biology of Melomys within the crop. Field diagnostic approaches were developed which, when blind tested using molecular techniques, proved 100% accurate in-field discrimination of the two Melomys species. Based on field trapping, M. cervinipes proved to be rare in sugarcane and should not be regarded as a pest by the industry. In contrast, M. burtoni were recorded in significant numbers within cane, were found to feed on cane and, in crop stage 5 (canopy closure to harvest) were responsible for damage to ~5% of stalks. Melomys burtoni were found to colonise sugarcane at the later stages of crop development than the other major sugarcane rodent, Rattus sordidus. The highest proportion of M. burtoni reproduction and juvenile recruitment also occurs in the later stages of crop development. The late colonisation of the crop by M. burtoni means that the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategy already in place for R. sordidus is not directly transferable to M. burtoni. If an effective IPM strategy is to be developed, further research is required to examine the population dynamics and dispersal of M. burtoni populations between the crop and the adjacent habitats within the sugarcane production system of far north Queensland.

Lumholtz’s tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus Iumholtzi), one of Australia’s largest folivores and one of only two tree-kangaroo species endemic to Australia and far north Queensland’s Wet Tropics. D. Iumholtzi are most commonly found in the fragmented rainforests that remain within an agricultural matrix in a relatively small area on the Atherton Tablelands. Unfortunately the majority of these fragments are on privately owned land and are not totally protected from clearing, therefore their long-term persistence is threatened by land clearing, further habitat fragmentation and mortality from dogs and cars. Although there have been a few studies on the ecology and habitat use of D. Iumholtzi, our current knowledge is limited. A more comprehensive understanding of spatial and floristic habitat use is essential for the conservation and management of D. Iumholtzi. This study examined the spatial organisation and habitat utilisation of Lumholtz’s tree-kangaroos in a Type lb rainforest fragment on the Atherton Tablelands and compared this to earlier studies (Procter-Gray 1985, Newell 1999). The two previous studies were both undertaken on the same spatially restricted rainforest type (Type Sb) only a couple of hundred metres apart, so this study has provided an important expansion of our understanding of D. Iumholtzi ecology across space and rainforest types. There were no significant effects of rainforest type on the home range sizes of D. Iumholtzi (Procter-Gray 1985, Newell 1999, This study). Male D. Iumholtziin this study held home ranges of 2.1 ± 0.7 ha (90% HM) overlapping that of several females but not other males, and females had exclusive home ranges of 2.1 ± 0.8 ha (90% HM) of a similar size to males. However, there was a large amount of variation in female home range sizes (0.1 —4.9 ha). Body weight did not explain this variation in home range sizes. This study also examined structural and floristic characteristics of the habitat and investigated if these could be used to model D. Iumholtzi habitat usage. The structural and floristic characters measured in this study could not be used to determine the focus of habitat usage. This study has shown that there is a more complex association between D. Iumholtzi and its use of habitat other than the structural characters of the habitat. D. Iumholtzi do select specific tree species, but there are strongly expressed individual preferences, similar to other arboreal folivores. The reasons for these specific choices are currently unclear but D. Iumholtzi are likely to choose trees for foliage characters, such as the levels of nutrients or plant defences, rather than for the species at a taxonomic level. This is also consistent with other arboreal folivores such as koalas and leaf-eating monkeys. The determination of which foliar characters are driving tree species or individual tree choice will require further research. This study tested and rejected a number of previous hypotheses regarding the characteristics determining D. Iumholtzi habitat use. They are not edge specialists, do not prefer regrowth or areas with a large variation in canopy height, or areas with high species diversity or density. The gastrointestinal morphology of D. Iumholtzi shares a number of features with other foregut fermenting folivores. Compared to other macropodids, D. Iumholtzi has a large sacciform forestomach and a large overall stomach capacity, and more similar in size and morphology to that of other arboreal foregut fermenting folivores, such as colobine monkeys. It is likely that these characteristics are adaptive for its diet of rainforest leaves. Lumholtz’s tree-kangaroos can be simply aged using a tooth wear index developed during this study. Aging is essential for establishing demographics, such as age specific mortality and fecundity of populations, currently unknown in D. Iumholtzi. Without the ability to age populations we cannot reliably undertake valuable estimations such as population viability analysis, which require these parameters. Additionally, this study has highlighted that not only one rainforest type is important to D. Iumholtzi and that more emphasis should be made on the preservation and restoration of all rainforest types. Furthermore, it is vital that all rainforest fragments including riparian zones, regrowth and corridors and stepping stones, should be conserved, rehabilitated and areas replanted as D. Iumholtzi habitat, as they are crucial to the species long term survival.

Lumholtz’s tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus Iumholtzi), one of Australia’s largest folivores and one of only two tree-kangaroo species endemic to Australia and far north Queensland’s Wet Tropics. D. Iumholtzi are most commonly found in the fragmented rainforests that remain within an agricultural matrix in a relatively small area on the Atherton Tablelands. Unfortunately the majority of these fragments are on privately owned land and are not totally protected from clearing, therefore their long-term persistence is threatened by land clearing, further habitat fragmentation and mortality from dogs and cars. Although there have been a few studies on the ecology and habitat use of D. Iumholtzi, our current knowledge is limited. A more comprehensive understanding of spatial and floristic habitat use is essential for the conservation and management of D. Iumholtzi. This study examined the spatial organisation and habitat utilisation of Lumholtz’s tree-kangaroos in a Type lb rainforest fragment on the Atherton Tablelands and compared this to earlier studies (Procter-Gray 1985, Newell 1999). The two previous studies were both undertaken on the same spatially restricted rainforest type (Type Sb) only a couple of hundred metres apart, so this study has provided an important expansion of our understanding of D. Iumholtzi ecology across space and rainforest types. There were no significant effects of rainforest type on the home range sizes of D. Iumholtzi (Procter-Gray 1985, Newell 1999, This study). Male D. Iumholtziin this study held home ranges of 2.1 ± 0.7 ha (90% HM) overlapping that of several females but not other males, and females had exclusive home ranges of 2.1 ± 0.8 ha (90% HM) of a similar size to males. However, there was a large amount of variation in female home range sizes (0.1 —4.9 ha). Body weight did not explain this variation in home range sizes. This study also examined structural and floristic characteristics of the habitat and investigated if these could be used to model D. Iumholtzi habitat usage. The structural and floristic characters measured in this study could not be used to determine the focus of habitat usage. This study has shown that there is a more complex association between D. Iumholtzi and its use of habitat other than the structural characters of the habitat. D. Iumholtzi do select specific tree species, but there are strongly expressed individual preferences, similar to other arboreal folivores. The reasons for these specific choices are currently unclear but D. Iumholtzi are likely to choose trees for foliage characters, such as the levels of nutrients or plant defences, rather than for the species at a taxonomic level. This is also consistent with other arboreal folivores such as koalas and leaf-eating monkeys. The determination of which foliar characters are driving tree species or individual tree choice will require further research. This study tested and rejected a number of previous hypotheses regarding the characteristics determining D. Iumholtzi habitat use. They are not edge specialists, do not prefer regrowth or areas with a large variation in canopy height, or areas with high species diversity or density. The gastrointestinal morphology of D. Iumholtzi shares a number of features with other foregut fermenting folivores. Compared to other macropodids, D. Iumholtzi has a large sacciform forestomach and a large overall stomach capacity, and more similar in size and morphology to that of other arboreal foregut fermenting folivores, such as colobine monkeys. It is likely that these characteristics are adaptive for its diet of rainforest leaves. Lumholtz’s tree-kangaroos can be simply aged using a tooth wear index developed during this study. Aging is essential for establishing demographics, such as age specific mortality and fecundity of populations, currently unknown in D. Iumholtzi. Without the ability to age populations we cannot reliably undertake valuable estimations such as population viability analysis, which require these parameters. Additionally, this study has highlighted that not only one rainforest type is important to D. Iumholtzi and that more emphasis should be made on the preservation and restoration of all rainforest types. Furthermore, it is vital that all rainforest fragments including riparian zones, regrowth and corridors and stepping stones, should be conserved, rehabilitated and areas replanted as D. Iumholtzi habitat, as they are crucial to the species long term survival.

The major aim of this research was to resolve the following question: What are the key processes affecting the concentrations, mobility and bioavailability of traffic-derived metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni, Zn, Pd and Pt) in roadside environments in a section of the wet-dry tropics in northern Australia? Specific areas investigated included the Kuranda Range Road, northwest of the city of Cairns; the Captain Cook Highway at the base of the Kuranda Range Road; and adjoining streams and grassed fields. The Kuranda Range Road traverses World Heritage-listed rainforest and the Queensland Department of Main Roads plans to upgrade the road from two lanes to four. Materials analysed in the study comprised bedrock, road sediments, road runoff waters, stream sediments, roadside topsoils, and grasses. Additionally, background stream sediment, stream water, topsoil and grass samples were collected away from roads. Geochemical analyses of the road sediments from the Kuranda Range Road revealed variable total metal concentrations (median values: 0.19 mg/kg Cd, 41.7 mg/kg Cu, 53.3 mg/kg Pb, 38.8 mg/kg Ni, 852 mg/kg Zn, 0.035 mg/kg Pd, 0.086 mg/kg Pt). Moreover, the studied road sediments exhibited metal enrichment (Ni excepted) relative to background stream sediments (maximum enrichment factors: Cd 1.8x, Cu 1.5x, Pb 6.8x, Zn 17.3x, Pd 49.5x, Pt 82x). Partial (citrate dithionite) and sequential (as per the method of Tessier et al. 1979) extractions were performed on the road sediments to examine their metal host sites. The results demonstrated that approximately 35 % to 95 % of the sediments’ metal content was accommodated by acid (HF-HNO3-HClO4)-insoluble fractions, likely residual silicates. However, significant (p<0.01) positive correlations between the Corg and Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn concentrations in the road sediments pointed to metal hosting by an organic source, most likely tyre rubber shreds. The extraction techniques revealed that metals associated with tyre rubber are not readily removed by extraction reagents. Hence, other methods, including correlation analyses between metal concentrations and Al, Mn, Fe and Corg values, are necessary to accurately interpret metal hosting within road sediments. Chemical analyses were performed to evaluate the mobility of Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni and Zn within road runoff waters on the Kuranda Range Road. Maximum Cu, Pb and Zn levels in filtered (<0.45 μm) road runoff waters taken in November 2004 (after a prolonged absence of rainfall) were 8x, 6x and 12x greater than their respective highest values in samples acquired in February 2003 and January 2004 (following heavy rainfall). Such temporal metal distribution data for road runoff waters suggest that large volumes of rainfall in wet-dry tropical regions are capable of mobilising high levels of metals from road surfaces during the initial flushing event (i.e. the ‘first flush’). Furthermore, laboratory leaching and ponding experiments conducted on road sediments indicated that a small proportion of the total heavy metal content (<10 %) of road sediments is readily dissolved in distilled water. In the leach tests, aqueous Cd, Cu, Ni and Zn concentrations showed a pronounced ‘first flush’ effect (i.e. metal values were much higher in the first few samples than in the remaining leachates). To explore the dispersion of metals from road surfaces, stream sediments from Avondale Creek (intersecting the Kuranda Range Road) were analysed for their total metal contents and Pb isotopic ratios (208Pb/206Pb, 207Pb/206Pb, 208Pb/204Pb and 206Pb/204Pb). The results revealed: a) elevated total Pb (29.6 mg/kg) and Pt (0.025 mg/kg) concentrations in the sediments collected downstream of the road compared to sediments upstream of the road (Pb = 7.3 mg/kg, Pt = 0.006 mg/kg); and b) non-radiogenic Pb isotopic signatures (characteristic of Broken Hill Pb used in petrol) in sediment samples downstream of roads relative to background stream sediments. The results likely reflect contamination of the catchment by road sources. The verification of metal contamination within Avondale Creek triggered an investigation into the bioavailability of traffic-derived metals. This involved an assessment of the uptake of soil-hosted metals by a grass species (Melinis repens), growing adjacent to the Kuranda Range Road. Median total metal concentrations in topsoils collected adjacent to the road were much higher than median total metal values in topsoils taken 5 metres from the road edge. In the M. repens grass specimens, Cu, Pb, Ni and especially Zn concentrations were elevated in roots acquired from immediately adjacent to the Kuranda Range Road. M. repens clearly has the ability to incorporate high concentrations of trace elements when growing on contaminated roadside soils, particularly Zn and to a lesser degree Cu, Pb and Ni. Additionally, extractions using a DTPA-CaCl2-TEA-HCl (DTPA) solution revealed a significant positive correlation (p<0.01) between soil-DTPA and root Zn levels in the roadside M. repens samples. This indicates that the DTPA reagent is a rudimentary indicator of Zn to the roots of this grass species. Metal concentrations in M. repens samples grown in road sediments as part of a greenhouse experiment, were similar to the values exhibited by the field specimens. Moreover, the metal levels extracted from the road sediments by an EDTA-NH4HCO3 solution were commensurate with DTPA-extractable values, indicating that both of these solutions target similar metal fractions in road sediments. The final research phase examined remediation measures for road runoff waters on the planned Kuranda Range Road Upgrade. A treatment selection process identified dissolved metals as the most significant category of pollutants because of their high lability and potential toxicity. Site constraints, including the close proximity of the road to sensitive water catchments, indicated that at-source pollutant attenuation will be the most effective remediation option for the road upgrade. Thus, existing at-source primary treatment measures (e.g. trash racks); secondary technologies (including sand filters); and tertiary structures (such as biofilters) were identified as the most suitable treatment options for the Kuranda Range Road Upgrade. Few tertiary treatment devices exist for road runoff waters (the StormFilter is an exception). Hence, this research explored the capacity of commonly-available materials, including mushroom compost and bentonite, to remove dissolved metals from road sediment leachates. In laboratory experiments conducted in this project, mushroom compost and bentonite displayed strong capacities to reduce dissolved heavy metal concentrations in road sediment leachates (Pb and Zn removal over 80 %). Both materials were very fast-acting (<5 minutes) in achieving metal attenuation. It is envisaged that these adsorptive materials have the potential to be included into structures (such as sand filter beds) that can achieve tertiary treatment of road runoff waters on the upgraded Kuranda Range Road. Overall, this research demonstrated that annual wet-dry climate cycles control the concentrations, mobility and bioavailability of traffic-derived metals in roadside corridors in the tropics. Metals accumulate in roadside sediments and soils during the prolonged ‘dry season’ from April to October, and are mobilised by road runoff waters over the ‘wet season’ (November to March). Mobile metals are bioavailable to organisms living adjacent to roads. Consequently, remediation strategies that can reduce the dispersal of these contaminants into natural environments are important in road design and maintenance in the tropics. The use of adsorptive materials such as bentonite in sand filter beds is presented as one such remediation option.

The major aim of this research was to resolve the following question: What are the key processes affecting the concentrations, mobility and bioavailability of traffic-derived metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni, Zn, Pd and Pt) in roadside environments in a section of the wet-dry tropics in northern Australia? Specific areas investigated included the Kuranda Range Road, northwest of the city of Cairns; the Captain Cook Highway at the base of the Kuranda Range Road; and adjoining streams and grassed fields. The Kuranda Range Road traverses World Heritage-listed rainforest and the Queensland Department of Main Roads plans to upgrade the road from two lanes to four. Materials analysed in the study comprised bedrock, road sediments, road runoff waters, stream sediments, roadside topsoils, and grasses. Additionally, background stream sediment, stream water, topsoil and grass samples were collected away from roads. Geochemical analyses of the road sediments from the Kuranda Range Road revealed variable total metal concentrations (median values: 0.19 mg/kg Cd, 41.7 mg/kg Cu, 53.3 mg/kg Pb, 38.8 mg/kg Ni, 852 mg/kg Zn, 0.035 mg/kg Pd, 0.086 mg/kg Pt). Moreover, the studied road sediments exhibited metal enrichment (Ni excepted) relative to background stream sediments (maximum enrichment factors: Cd 1.8x, Cu 1.5x, Pb 6.8x, Zn 17.3x, Pd 49.5x, Pt 82x). Partial (citrate dithionite) and sequential (as per the method of Tessier et al. 1979) extractions were performed on the road sediments to examine their metal host sites. The results demonstrated that approximately 35 % to 95 % of the sediments’ metal content was accommodated by acid (HF-HNO3-HClO4)-insoluble fractions, likely residual silicates. However, significant (p<0.01) positive correlations between the Corg and Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn concentrations in the road sediments pointed to metal hosting by an organic source, most likely tyre rubber shreds. The extraction techniques revealed that metals associated with tyre rubber are not readily removed by extraction reagents. Hence, other methods, including correlation analyses between metal concentrations and Al, Mn, Fe and Corg values, are necessary to accurately interpret metal hosting within road sediments. Chemical analyses were performed to evaluate the mobility of Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni and Zn within road runoff waters on the Kuranda Range Road. Maximum Cu, Pb and Zn levels in filtered (<0.45 μm) road runoff waters taken in November 2004 (after a prolonged absence of rainfall) were 8x, 6x and 12x greater than their respective highest values in samples acquired in February 2003 and January 2004 (following heavy rainfall). Such temporal metal distribution data for road runoff waters suggest that large volumes of rainfall in wet-dry tropical regions are capable of mobilising high levels of metals from road surfaces during the initial flushing event (i.e. the ‘first flush’). Furthermore, laboratory leaching and ponding experiments conducted on road sediments indicated that a small proportion of the total heavy metal content (<10 %) of road sediments is readily dissolved in distilled water. In the leach tests, aqueous Cd, Cu, Ni and Zn concentrations showed a pronounced ‘first flush’ effect (i.e. metal values were much higher in the first few samples than in the remaining leachates). To explore the dispersion of metals from road surfaces, stream sediments from Avondale Creek (intersecting the Kuranda Range Road) were analysed for their total metal contents and Pb isotopic ratios (208Pb/206Pb, 207Pb/206Pb, 208Pb/204Pb and 206Pb/204Pb). The results revealed: a) elevated total Pb (29.6 mg/kg) and Pt (0.025 mg/kg) concentrations in the sediments collected downstream of the road compared to sediments upstream of the road (Pb = 7.3 mg/kg, Pt = 0.006 mg/kg); and b) non-radiogenic Pb isotopic signatures (characteristic of Broken Hill Pb used in petrol) in sediment samples downstream of roads relative to background stream sediments. The results likely reflect contamination of the catchment by road sources. The verification of metal contamination within Avondale Creek triggered an investigation into the bioavailability of traffic-derived metals. This involved an assessment of the uptake of soil-hosted metals by a grass species (Melinis repens), growing adjacent to the Kuranda Range Road. Median total metal concentrations in topsoils collected adjacent to the road were much higher than median total metal values in topsoils taken 5 metres from the road edge. In the M. repens grass specimens, Cu, Pb, Ni and especially Zn concentrations were elevated in roots acquired from immediately adjacent to the Kuranda Range Road. M. repens clearly has the ability to incorporate high concentrations of trace elements when growing on contaminated roadside soils, particularly Zn and to a lesser degree Cu, Pb and Ni. Additionally, extractions using a DTPA-CaCl2-TEA-HCl (DTPA) solution revealed a significant positive correlation (p<0.01) between soil-DTPA and root Zn levels in the roadside M. repens samples. This indicates that the DTPA reagent is a rudimentary indicator of Zn to the roots of this grass species. Metal concentrations in M. repens samples grown in road sediments as part of a greenhouse experiment, were similar to the values exhibited by the field specimens. Moreover, the metal levels extracted from the road sediments by an EDTA-NH4HCO3 solution were commensurate with DTPA-extractable values, indicating that both of these solutions target similar metal fractions in road sediments. The final research phase examined remediation measures for road runoff waters on the planned Kuranda Range Road Upgrade. A treatment selection process identified dissolved metals as the most significant category of pollutants because of their high lability and potential toxicity. Site constraints, including the close proximity of the road to sensitive water catchments, indicated that at-source pollutant attenuation will be the most effective remediation option for the road upgrade. Thus, existing at-source primary treatment measures (e.g. trash racks); secondary technologies (including sand filters); and tertiary structures (such as biofilters) were identified as the most suitable treatment options for the Kuranda Range Road Upgrade. Few tertiary treatment devices exist for road runoff waters (the StormFilter is an exception). Hence, this research explored the capacity of commonly-available materials, including mushroom compost and bentonite, to remove dissolved metals from road sediment leachates. In laboratory experiments conducted in this project, mushroom compost and bentonite displayed strong capacities to reduce dissolved heavy metal concentrations in road sediment leachates (Pb and Zn removal over 80 %). Both materials were very fast-acting (<5 minutes) in achieving metal attenuation. It is envisaged that these adsorptive materials have the potential to be included into structures (such as sand filter beds) that can achieve tertiary treatment of road runoff waters on the upgraded Kuranda Range Road. Overall, this research demonstrated that annual wet-dry climate cycles control the concentrations, mobility and bioavailability of traffic-derived metals in roadside corridors in the tropics. Metals accumulate in roadside sediments and soils during the prolonged ‘dry season’ from April to October, and are mobilised by road runoff waters over the ‘wet season’ (November to March). Mobile metals are bioavailable to organisms living adjacent to roads. Consequently, remediation strategies that can reduce the dispersal of these contaminants into natural environments are important in road design and maintenance in the tropics. The use of adsorptive materials such as bentonite in sand filter beds is presented as one such remediation option.

Far North Queensland covers an area in the tropics that extends roughly from Cardwell on Australia's east coast to the tip of Cape York Peninsula. The city of Cairns is its administrative centre. Europeans first began moving into the inland parts of this reeion in the 1860s but the mountains and tablelands along the eastern hinterland were clothed in thick, tropical rainforest that defied efforts to develop transport routes between inland settlements and potential ports along the east coast. Colonisation could not have occurred without the provision of roads, and colonial and state governments played a leading role in this, driven by the demands of settlers who were both road builders and users.

This thesis demonstrates the significance of roads in the development of Far North Queensland from the 1860s to the 1960s. Within the context of the overall pioneer project of which road construction was a key part, it examines the leading role played by government, the technological advances that influenced the development of a road network, the contribution of people who worked on road construction, and the demands of road users that influenced their location and the rate of construction. It posits that the process of developing a road network contributed to the formation of a 'pioneer legend' in Far North Queensland, which had its origins in geographical remoteness and a challenging physical environment.

North Queensland has been the site of widespread and voluminous recurrent felsic magmatism, with granite emplacement occurring in the Middle Proterozoic, in the Silurian and Devonian, and in the Carboniferous and Permian. In the Georgetown and Dargalong lnliers, the Proterozoic S-type Forsayth and Esmeralda Supersuites (FSS and ESS, respectively) outcrop over 1300 km2 and comprise potassic, Lll...E-, Th- and U-enriched granites. The geochemical variation in the FSS appears to have been produced dominantly via restite-unmixing. Fractional crystallisation was the most operative mechanism in the ESS and in the felsic members of the FSS. Geochemical and Nd-Sr isotopic data suggest that the FSS granites were most probably derived from gneissic metasediments similar to those presently outcropping in the Georgetown Inlier. The ESS granites, which are more felsic than the FSS and very Pe-rich, also appear to have been largely derived from a protolith similar to that of the FSS, but their compositions invoke the input of an Pe-rich component; the latter was most probably similar to Pe-rich pelitic sequences in the Georgetown Inlier. The pre-Carboniferous 1-type granites outcrop over 4000 km2 and consist of the Middle Proterozoic Forest Home and Blackman Gap Supersuites and the Siluro-Devonian White Springs and Dido Supersuites. All these granites have similar overall geochemistry, characterised by high Ah03, CaO, Na20, Ba, Sr, and Eu, and low to moderate K20, Rb, Th, U andY. The relative abundances of Sr andY imply generation of these magmas in thickened crust near or below the gabbro-eclogite transition. Nd and Sr isotope signatures vary from primitive (chondritic) to evolved (tNd of 0.0 to -8.0) requiring the participation of at least two end members. Source rocks for the Forest Home Supersuite were most probably Middle Proterozoic basaltic rocks while those for the Blackman Gap and White Springs Supersuites, which have more potassic end­ members, were most likely mixtures of this basaltic precursor and older (Lower Proterozoic?) basaltic to andesitic rocks. The Dido Supersuite granites were derived from a significantly younger basaltic protolith,that was possibly underplated at 1550 Ma, i.e. at the time of generation of the Middle Proterozoic granites. There is little data to support the direct involvement of contemporaneous mantle-derived material in the pre­ Carboniferous granites. The range in calculated Nd depleted mantle model ages for the pre-Carboniferous I- and S-type granites (1800-2500 Ma.) is consistent with estimates for the age of the Georgetown Inlier (Black & McCulloch, 1984, 1990).The extensive Carboniferous felsic 1-type granites (CIG) outcrop over 8000 km2 in far north Queensland, of which over 80% have Si02 greater than 70%. The granites are post-t ctonic and were emplaced in a tensional environment, either a back-arc or post­ subduction setting, with an overall decrease in age of 330 Ma to 280 Ma from west to east.The CIG have been subdivided into four supersuites: the Almaden, Ootann, Claret Creek and O'Briens Creek Supersuites (ASS, OSS, CCSS, and OBSS, respectively). The OSS and OBSS granites all contain greater than 70% SiD2 and comprise over 90% of the CIG. Dating and field relations suggest that the highly fractionated OBSS are older than or are similar in age to the OSS and ASS granites. The OSS and OBSS are undoubtedly crustal melts with low Sr, Sr/Y, and large negative Eu/Eu* and evolved initial87Srf86Sr and tNd• With increasing differentiation, the OSS and OBSS granites have become strongly depleted in TiD2, Ai203, FeO*, MnO, MgO, CaO, Ba, Sr, Sc, V, Cr, Ni, Eu, (Ce/Y)N, and K/Rb, and enriched in Rb, Pb, Th, U, and Rb/Sr. Although containing petrographic evidence that implies subsolidus re­ equilibration, element migration was largely localised and, consequently, geochemical trends preserve their magmatic signature. Geochemical variation was predominantly controlled by large amounts of crystal fractionation of primarily plagioclase along with, in the most felsic rocks, quartz and alkali feldspar. The OBSS differ from the OSS in having significantly higher HFSE, HREE and F (0.2 to 0.5+ wt%). The ASS granites outcrop over 500 km2. The granites are intermediate to felsic (56% to 72% Si02) and are characterised by high K20, K/(K+Na), Rb, Rb/Sr, Th, U, moderate La/Nb, and relatively low Ba and Sr. Major element contents are similar to some high-K orogenic rocks although the ASS granites lack the high Ba and Sr found in the latter rocks. K20, Na20, Rb, Pb, Th, U, Nb andY behave incompatibly, increasing with increasing Si02. The geochemical and isotopic evidence indicate that the ASS granites are also crustal melts. The CCSS granites form a minor component of the CIG, outcropping over 150 km2. They are geochemically distinct from all other granites of the CIG, being characterised by high Na20 and Sr, and low K20, Rb, U andY. The CCSS granites were derived at greater depths than the other CIG, from a LILE-poor source. The depleted LILE nature of the source may have been due to high grade metamorphism which is known to have have taken place in the lower crust (Rudnick & Taylor, 1987). The granites of the ASS, OSS, CCSS and OBSS have very similar initial 87Srf86Sr and ENd of 0.710 and -7.0 to -8.0, respectively, except those granites west of the Palmerville Fault which outcrop within Proterozoic country rocks; these latter granites have more evolved ENd (-8.0 to -11.0). The differences in ENd across the Palmerville Fault can be explained by minor amounts of assimilation. Depleted-mantle model ages for the CIG cluster around 1.5 Ga, similar to reported ages for the Middle Proterozoic deformation and metamorphic event (Black et al., 1979) and to the Proterozoic granites (Black & McCulloch, 1990). The isotope systematics of the granites are generally less evolved than the Proterozoic and Early Palaeozoic country rocks, and more evolved than contemporaneous, unrelated, mafic (mantle-derived) rocks in the region. Models for the petrogenesis of the CIG all appear to require the involvement of a long-lived, isotopically-homogeneous crustal protolith that was underplated in the Proterozoic. Granites of the OSS and OBSS were either derived by varying degrees of partial melting of this protolith of andesitic to dacitic composition and/or were produced by a two stage process by remelting of intermediate rocks similar in composition to members of the ASS. Regardless of the model invoked, it appears most likely that the very felsic OSS and OBSS granites were derived from a protolith geochemically similar to the mafic end members of the ASS. In the eastern Hodgkinson Province 3000 km2 of Permian felsic 1- and S-type granites outcrop, of which the former comprise over 80%. The S-type granites comprise two major supersuites, the Cooktown and Whypalla Supersuites, and five minor supersuites. The older Whypalla Supersuite (280 Ma) differs from the Cooktown Supersuite (260 Ma) in having higher CaO and Sr, and lower Ti02, Rb, V and Ni. These differences are best explained by invoking a greater pelite involvement in the source rocks for the Cooktown Supersuite granites. Geochemical variation in the S-type granites is largely controlled by crystal fractionation. The exposed sediments of the Hodgkinson Province could not have been the source rocks for the S-type granites, the former have a more evolved Nd isotope signature and are too poor in CaO, P205, and Sr. The source rocks for the S-type granites appear to have been less isotopically evolved and less mature volcaniclastic sediments that were most probably deposited in a Lower to Middle Palaeozoic arc environment. The Permian 1-type granites outcrop over 500 km2 intermingled with the S-type granites. The granites belong to two supersuites, namely the Yates and Cape Melville Supersuites; in many aspects they are geochemically similar to the Carboniferous Almaden and Ootann Supersuites, respectively, with moderate to high levels of K20, Rb, Th and U. The I-type granites are crustal in origin, most probably derived from andesitic to dacitic source rocks. The 1-type granites have similar ENd values to the Permian S­ type granites and similar to less evolved initial 87SrJ86Sr. ENd values for the Carboniferous and Permian granites exhibit a progressive increase from west to east roughly corresponding to the decreases in ages of the granites (330 Ma to 260 Ma). Crustal models based on the granite petrogenesis suggest that this decrease in ENd is due to a corresponding decrease in crustal ages from west to east which reflects both vertical and lateral accretion onto pre-existing Proterozoic basement.

Pancreatitis is a common cause for unscheduled admissions in General or Gastrointestinal Surgery units throughout the world. This is particularly perceived to be the case in northern Australia, where alcohol and certain socio-demographic factors may be prominent in influencing the incidence and course of the disease. Over the years, much has been written about various aspects of pathogenesis, prognostication and management. However in the average clinical setting, many useful questions go unasked and unanswered. Because patients rarely require formal surgical intervention or even high-dependency management, there is rarely any active enquiry into the issues surrounding acute pancreatitis admissions. The chronic aspects of what is superficially considered to be an isolated acute process are also often overlooked. This body of work evolved out of the desire to foster a better standard of care for such patients and ultimately to reduce the frequency of acute hospital admissions, particularly recurrent admissions for the same patient. In order to effect any improvement in the management of a disease, it is first necessary to quantify and characterize it in relation to the target population. To this end, a retrospective audit was undertaken of acute pancreatitis admissions to the three major referral hospitals of Northern Queensland over the calendar year of 1997. Any inferences from this study were limited by the quality of the data recorded by a variety of clinicians. However, from what was available, it was evident that many patients admitted to hospital with a diagnosis of acute pancreatitis appeared to exhibit the characteristics of a chronic disease process. Indeed almost half of those who fulfilled the diagnostic criteria for acute pancreatitis appeared to be harbouring underlying chronic pancreatitis, based on clinical specifications. To better characterize the clinicopathological features of hospitalizations for pancreatitis in Northern Queensland, it was therefore necessary to acquire case data in a robust and prospective manner. A purposive and iterative literature review was undertaken to identify gaps in existing knowledge and areas that would merit further enquiry. This also assisted in informing the explanatory variables that would constitute the prospective data collection. Thus conceived was the accrual of a cohort of patients presenting acutely to Cairns Base Hospital in Far North Queensland. Regarding outcome measures, a more objective means of diagnosing chronic pancreatitis was deemed to be desirable. The newly available faecal elastase-1 assay ([FE-1]) was proposed as a means of augmenting diagnostic certainty for chronic pancreatitis, as defined by exocrine insufficiency. The accuracy of [FE-1] in the study population was validated by a pilot study of acute hospitalizations. At the inception of the study, this assay was not available within the public health sector and was therefore performed for all cases by the researcher. The pilot study found [FE-1] to have highly acceptable positive predictive value for diagnosing underlying chronic pancreatitis in acute admissions that exhibited no evidence of developing severe acute pancreatitis. For the eventual cohort study, the feasibility of obtaining stool specimens for all acute hopsitalizations, many of whom were admitted to hospital for less than three days, meant that [FE-1] could not be relied upon to diagnose all cases of chronic pancreatitis, if maximal patient recruitment were desired. A composite case definition that incorporated [FE-1] and a number of validated clinical parameters were therefore utilized to define this sub-group within the study population. For hospitalizations fulfilling diagnostic criteria for acute pancreatitis, a variety of other explanatory and outcome variables were collected. From March 2004 to July 2007, 153 cases were recruited for prospective data collection. The mean age of those admitted was 44.7 years. Males accounted for 61.4% of the cohort (n=94) and 41.2% (n=63) identified as Indigenous. In 56.9% (n=83), aetiology was deemed to be alcohol-related and in 24.7% (n=36) it was biliary or gallstone-related. Eight-three cases (54.3%) fulfilled the composite diagnostic criteria for chronic pancreatitis, and 11.2% (n=17) in the course of their admission developed severe acute pancreatitis according to the Atlanta definition. The prospectively acquired data of the patient cohort recruited between March 2004 and July 2007 were further analysed to a number of ends: Firstly, the incidence or admission rate of acute pancreatitis in the Far North Queensland population was estimated using a capture-recapture method, in order to account for cases missed by study recruitment or hospital separation records. This revealed that the likely admission rate for acute pancreatitis was in the order of 16.1 admissions per month, which would approximate a crude annual incidence (including recurrent admissions) of 84 per 100 000. It was therefore evident that the true incidence of the disease may be considerably underestimated by the traditional means of enumeration. Secondly, cross-sectional associations with chronic pancreatitis were sought using a variety of available explanatory variables. Nutrient intakes were of particular interest, but none of the decomposed micro- or macronutrients showed a significant association. When these were recast as patterns of exogenous intakes using Principal Components Analysis, it emerged that patients with underlying chronic pancreatitis, in the 24 hours prior to the onset of an acute exacerbation, were characterized by an avoidance of foodbased nutrients in favour of non-nutritive substances, such as coffee and tobacco. This appeared to be independent of alcohol intake. Thirdly, novel clinical determinants of severe acute pancreatitis were explored, exploiting the forward directionality of explanatory and outcome variables. This analysis confirmed the causal association with central adiposity inferred by a number of other studies. It also suggested an unprecedented negative association with smoking. This would merit corroboration by other observational studies, as well basic scientific research to elucidate possible mechanisms such as activation of a nicotinic anti-inflammatory pathway. Moreover, the identification of modifiable determinants of severe acute pancreatitis may contribute to future preventive and therapeutic strategies. In conclusion, the picture that has emerged from the Far North Queensland cohort is that hospitalizations for pancreatitis, while by definition classified as acute, may in a broader sense exhibit the characteristics of a chronic disease process. Such a reconceptualization of the disease process may serve to inform more effective models of care that are tailored to both the clinicopathological characteristics of the disease and the specific population that it affects.

The thesis arises from ethnographic research with artists and arts coordinators from various Indigenous communities and urban centres in Far North Queensland. Over an extended period, I gained access to some of their views and perspectives on the relationships that exist between artists, arts coordinators, gallerists and buyers of Indigenous fine art in Far North Queensland, and in metropolitan galleries in Melbourne, Victoria, and on the role of the Cairns Indigenous Art Fair (CIAF) in the art network. While there is a large and growing body of knowledge and research on Australian Indigenous art there has been limited attention to the region of Far North Queensland. The approach to the research is based on the notion of art as a social mediator that brings people together for exchange and collaboration across lines of difference. I present an account of an emergent art and business practice that is conducted around the sites of remote Indigenous communities and in urban centres where Indigenous artists perform the labour of art production. The analysis is therefore not of an aesthetic discourse of artwork, but of the dialogue, spaces and means by which the participants in the arts practices interact, and whereby a cultural product – the Indigenous art of Far North Queensland – is produced and exchanged. Art cannot be produced, distributed and consumed without dialogue, collaboration and interdependency which, I argue, constitutes and effects intercultural exchange, and occurs at each stage in the trajectory of an art work from maker to market. I argue that the character and dynamics of intercultural exchange are dependent on the context or conditions of 'contact zones' and subject to the dynamics of friction (Tsing, 2005). The contact zones are the abstract spaces of intercultural negotiations, comprising; dialogue between people, which may occur anywhere; literal spaces of cultural coexistence such as galleries, museums and art fairs that are sites of production and consumption as well as conduits of cultural convergence; and the hybridized arts practices that emerge in community art centres in the processes of production and distribution of art. Within these contact zones I bring the gaze directly to the spatial and interpersonal dimensions of intercultural exchange, and through ethnographic description of the spaces, reflect on the dynamics of friction and trust, and the implications for the habitus of those involved in art production, distribution and consumption. The notion of habitus, an actor-centred concept devised by Pierre Bourdieu (1992) assists in understanding communication as relative to the field where it is enacted and embedded in specific social power and dominance relations, dynamics that are at the heart of my inquiry into the Indigenous art of Far North Queensland.

Tropical savannas represent a diverse range of heterogenous ecosystems that play an important role in the global carbon cycle as they occupy approximately one fifth of the land surface. Despite their significance, there remains a paucity of studies that quantify the carbon stocks and uxes of these dynamic ecosystems, particularly within Australia (Chapter 1). This study contributes to the field of tropical savanna carbon cycle dynamics by quantifying the carbon stocks and fluxes at three study sites in northern Queensland and placing them in the context of climate change and the global carbon cycle. Chapter 2 presents a review of the ecology and carbon dynamics of tropical savannas. The chapter addresses uncertainty regarding the definition and extent of tropical savannas, and the state of knowledge surrounding the drivers behind the extent of tropical savannas. In particular, stochastic disturbances such as fire play a crucial role in these ecosystems. Tropical savannas are also unique in that they consist of a mix of distinct and competing vegetation in the form of trees and grasses, that generally utilise contrasting photosynthetic strategies. As these photosynthetic pathways respond differently to atmospheric CO₂ and temperature, how these ecosystems will respond to climate change is also a matter of some uncertainty. Chapter 3 presents a detailed description of the three sites used in this study; two of the sites (Davies Creek and Koombooloomba) are located near the rainforest-savanna boundary in a high rainfall zone (mean annual precipitation (MAP) ~1500mm) while the third site (Brooklyn Station) is both more arid (MAP ~900mm) and more seasonal. In Chapter 4, aboveground biomass (AGB) and aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP) is quantified using an inventory-based assessment. These sites are some of the more densely wooded tropical savannas in Australia and basal area remained unchanged at all sites over the sample interval. While the carbon stocks in the AGB (40, 75, and 87 t C ha⁻¹ for Brooklyn Station, Davies Creek, and Koombooloomba, respectively) were dominated by the tree component, the grassy understorey was a significant contributor to ANPP (4.1, 5.1, and 9.2 t C ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ for Brooklyn Station, Davies Creek, and Koombooloomba, respectively) at all sites, consisting of almost three quarters of the total. The woody carbon stock was sensitive to disturbance with high mortality at two sites attributed to damage caused by fire and Tropical Cyclone (TC) Yasi. These results highlight the sensitivity of the carbon storage potential of tropical savannas to stochastic disturbance and their vulnerability to substantial shifts in both structure and composition as a result of climate change. Chapter 5 presents data on soil carbon and nitrogen, as well as their stable isotopes. Soil carbon stocks (0-30cm) were 114 ± 25, 41 ± 14, and 38 ± 19 t C ha⁻¹ at Koombooloomba, Davies Creek, and Brooklyn Station, respectively. The carbon isotopes were used to partition the soil carbon into C3 and C4 sources; the grassy understorey contributed approximately half of the soil carbon at two of the sites (Brooklyn Station and Koombooloomba), but contributed only 27% at the third site. Soil carbon displayed a high level of spatial arrangement at the two wettest sites with higher soil carbon in areas adjacent to trees, but not at the driest site and redistribution of carbon inputs by termites may be responsible. Although considerable quantities of soil carbon are stored at these sites for now, climate change may result in vegetation shifts, changes to _re regimes, and exacerbated erosion that could result in the loss of soil carbon from these sites. Chapter 6 provides the most comprehensive dataset of soil respiration in tropical savannas in Australia. Soil respiration was measured monthly for two years at the three sites. Soil respiration was temporally controlled by temperature and moisture availability, with high respiration rates (~4-8 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) during the wet season (November - April) when plant growth is high, and low respiration rates (~1-4 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) during the dry season (May - October) when plant growth slows. Soil respiration was spatially variable and controlled by proximity to woody vegetation with high soil respiration rates near trees and low soil respiration rates in open areas dominated by grasses. Soil respiration in these tropical savanna environments is thus both temporally and spatially heterogeneous suggesting that more complex models may be required to accurately estimate the soil respiration in such systems. In Chapter 7, an experimental drought was created at Davies Creek over two years in order to examine the effects of drought on soil respiration and soil chemistry. The drought successfully reduced soil moisture without impacting significantly on other environmental variables. The drought delayed the growing season of the grasses in the first year and killed them in the second year. Soil respiration was correspondingly reduced in the first wet season and then increased in the second wet season, likely as a result of these changes to plant biomass availability. Higher soil carbon in the drought experiment suggests that there were additional carbon inputs, presumably due to the death of the grass and subsequent recolonisation of the soil by neighbouring grasses. Extended droughts could see shifts in species and ecosystems potentially accompanied by an increase in soil respiration before ecosystem stability is reached. This study presents the first comprehensive assessment of carbon cycle dynamics in tropical savannas in Queensland. Furthermore, this is the first study in Australia to examine transition zone savannas that occur at the rainforest-savanna boundary and the first study in Australia to attempt to simulate drought in tropical savannas.

Preschool education in Queensland is undergoing a series of redevelopments. The process of redefining preschool education is a long and involved one. In the final publication stage, these developments have been given a curriculum focus, with a framework proposed to link all aspects of preschool curriculum. As the vehicle through which the preschool curriculum is delivered, the Guidelines highlight and promote developmentally, socially and culturally appropriate learning opportunities and outcomes for children in a preschool program. Determining whether such outcomes are appropriate has in the past, been a task relegated to the professional judgment and decision making of the teacher. The focus of the renewed Preschool Curriculum Guidelines explores a new perspective, by highlighting the need to develop worthwhile and 'workable' partnerships with parents, children, professional colleagues and community members to influence the quality of the learning outcomes for children. Resolving whether such outcomes meet quality measures introduces a focus on the value of preschool education, and particularly, its contribution to establishing foundations for lifelong learning. At the same time as introducing a focus on what is appropriate, understanding 'quality' involves the interpretation and understanding of 'quality' asa more inclusive term, incorporating all elements of practice.

It has been argued that the Queensland Preschool Curriculum Guidelines are reaffirming the like-minded and that, since it is the responsibility of principals and school administrators to disseminate the Guidelines, the focus should be narrowed to identifying and exploring their views regarding the Preschool Guidelines and understanding of quality preschool practice. This research represents a new and innovative approach to the study of professional knowledge and the way it is used to make judgments about the provision of a quality curriculum in the preschool context.

The overriding aim of this investigation was to develop implications for providing a number of personal support services to people living in small remote service towns on the basis of a descriptive analysis of their anticipated support sources for a variety of needs. 186 children and childrearers living in 45 non-Aboriginal and partly Aboriginal families in three similar small service towns in remote Far North and North-west Queensland, Australia, were interviewed about their anticipated supports for 26 different needs. Respondents were also asked about the anticipated contribution of these supports to resolving their problems and their reasons for choosing them. A cross-sectional census design was used, with most data being collected through partly structured individual interviews. Needs investigated concerned: representation for five shared community concerns (deficiencies in health, education, child care and essential services, and the local unemployment problem); personal unemployment; legal, health and education problems: child development emotional, psychological, social integration and childrearer relationship problems; temporary and prolonged, occasional and constant child care assistance; and temporary and prolonged assistance with household chores, destitution, accommodation, and in the event of the incapacity of one's partner. Results were similar for the three towns, for different kinds of residents and for both the Dry and Wet seasons. Respondents chose formal service organisations for needs requiring political representation, needs which are generally regarded in Australian society as requiring expert professional intervention, and those for which widely recognised and accepted formal services exist. Among natural supports, respondents strongly preferred to seek help from intimate associates, usually close relatives or friends, especially for needs which were personally embarrassing, socially stigmatised, highly demanding of supports, and/or highly dependency creating. Respondents chose both local and non-local supports, whether these were formal organisations or natural sources. Distance from supports neither left respondents without assistance nor reduced its effectiveness. They used locally available formal services. Distance did not affect support-seeking from natural supports for highly embarrassing, stigmatised, demanding and/or dependency creating needs. However, local natural sources were preferred for other needs where local availability was an important consideration. There were no local key helpers for these sub-populations. Twelve principles for resourcing the provision of personal support to residents of these towns are presented and implications for a number of human services are developed. It is suggested that for Australian remote areas the concept of 'linking' formal services with natural and informal supports should be replaced with a more detailed, complex and extensive 'interweaving' model; and that a 'community oriented' model of service provision should not be entirely locality-based but should include relationships between residents and non-local people and organisations.

The threat to north Queensland's waterways from terrestrial runoff pollutants has been recognised for some time (Brodie, 2002; Brodie, Lewis, Mitchell, Bainbridge, & Waterhouse, 2009; Russell & Hales, 1994; Russell, Hales, & Helmke, 1996; Webb & Erskine, 2003; Werren & Arthington, 2002). It poses a special danger to the survival of the Great Barrier Reef (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, 2001a). Increased nutrient and chemical loads are directly related to clearing of riparian vegetation in the adjacent catchment regions (Brodie et al., 2012; Fabricius, 2005). The present study is a social psychological exploration of the factors that influence landowners’ management of these riparian forests. The theory of planned behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991) provided the theoretical, conceptual and analytical framework to investigate the impact of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived impediments, and underlying beliefs on the landowners' intentions and actual practices to manage their riparian areas. The investigation was conducted in three parts. The first was an open-ended interview study with 11 retired farmers (Study 1) which supplied salient ideas and themes for the formulation of the TPB questionnaire and contained an intervention leaflet to test for a possible priming effect. Most interviewees had positive attitudes toward riparian forests, strong feelings of stewardship, believed the water in their creeks to be pristine, and that help from government agencies should be in the form of financial and technical support. Surprisingly, the majority did not believe that agricultural practices ever threatened the health of the Great Barrier Reef. A brochure with scientific facts about riparian forests presented during the interview as an intervention did not influence most interviewees' beliefs about riparian forest management practices and they felt no need for this kind information. The results were published (Flick, Caltabiano, & Bentrupperbäumer, 2010). The second part, postal Survey 1 consisted of an extensive questionnaire sent to 540 addresses of landowners with riparian forests (123 returns, 22.7% return rate). The respondents were sugarcane growers (55.3%), tropical fruit growers and cattle graziers (24.4%), and non-farmers (20.3%). Standard and hierarchical regression analyses were used in the investigation of interval data and logistic regression analyses for dichotomous data. The TPB was shown to be an effective model that predicted 52% of variance in intentions to engage in riparian forest management. While direct attitudes were the strongest variable with 28% unique contribution (Beta = .61), direct subjective norms were only significant for younger landowners and those that considered traditional knowledge most relevant. Direct perceived behaviour controls showed a small but significant contribution. The data are comparable to other TPB studies and meta-analyses (Ajzen, 1991; Armitage & Conner, 2001; Beedell & Rehman, 1999, 2000; Fielding, Terry, Masser, Bordia, & Hogg, 2005; Sutton, 1998). Furthermore, the intention construct predicted one behaviour indicator within the TPB model, namely, having newly planted trees on the streamside (24%). The amount explained increased when some external factors were included: the source of knowledge from own experience through trial and error (28.7 to 42.6%), workshop attendance (19.8 to 29.4%), and having learned from workshops (20.5 to 30.3%). The perceived behaviour control variable of needing technical help to bring riparian forest up to scratch was found to be the major factor in explaining the behaviour indicator of reporting a loss of trees on the streamsides, bypassing intentions. It represented an insurmountable impediment to some landowners. Belief-based attitudes explained 40.4% of the variance in intentions based on beliefs pertaining to the evaluation of riparian benefits and of understanding the environmental importance of riparian forests. Subjective norming beliefs explained 21.4% of variance in intentions based on normative beliefs in the approval by people whose opinion one respects. Perceived control beliefs explained 38.5% of variance based on being able to pay the financial costs and to afford to lose a 10m strip of cropland to a riparian forest. Survey 1 also found that younger landowners were significantly more likely to have stronger intentions while being motivated by expectations and approval. However, landowners who managed land according to traditional practices handed down had weaker intentions (β = -.16, p = .02) and showed significant norming behaviour. Whatever they and respected others practiced was adequate for them implying that other more reliable sources of knowledge were not considered (Flick et al., 2010; Kraack, 2000). Another finding supports this: almost twice as many attendees of riparian workshops reported to have learned nothing or very little compared to land management workshop attendees. This failure may reflect entrenched beliefs and resistance to new and possibly contradictory information and was also found by Curtis, Byron, and MacKay (2005), Dutcher, Finley, Luloff, and Johnson (2004) and others. The third part of the research study was the postal Survey 2 sent to 465 addresses. It yielded 75 returns (16.1% return rate). The matched cases of this survey with Survey 1 were too few to find a priming effect. However, qualitative data from the open-ended questionnaire revealed that the majority of respondents agreed with the scientific facts and the aesthetic and ecological values of the riparian forests and perceived considerably fewer impediments to their riparian management. The research study identified variables that significantly impact landowners' intentions and practices of riparian management. Changes to these variables especially to the beliefs of attitudes, subjective norming and behaviour controls should flow on to generate changes in intention and behaviours. Having knowledge of these beliefs represents a tool for managers and educators when formulating new educational information to engage landowners' cooperation in establishing and managing riparian forests.

The Wet Tropics bioregion of Far North Queensland, Australia, is a highly contested landscape between developers and natural resource managers (NRM) because it is wedged between two World Heritage Areas, the Wet Tropics World Heritage Area (WTWHA) and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP). The tropical bioregion is a mosaic of different classes of vegetation and land-use patterns. Cairns city is the social and economic hub, reliant on the water of the Barron River that originates on the Atherton Tablelands and culminates in a sudden descent from the Barron Gorge (of an altitude of about 400 m) into a relatively small (about 50 square kilometres) but dynamic delta region. Sea- and tree-changers (STCs), a popular metaphor for people who move from cities to attractive coastal, hinterland or riverine areas are migrating in greater numbers to live in these beautiful regions. This migration pressures local governments to provide for housing and infrastructure that ironically depletes the aesthetic landscapes that STCs have come to enjoy. In the search for new places, developers and governments are encouraged to invest in unsuitable hillslopes, rainforest and flood-prone real estate. Sea- and tree-changers also modify their surroundings to suit their specific purpose for being there. In doing so they deforest the terrain, introduce exotic vegetation and animals, and deplete precious and scarce agricultural land. This leads to a deterioration of biodiversity and ecosystem services, resources that are conceptually undervalued by this relatively affluent Western population who mainly live in urbanised environments. Until this study, research concentrated on ecological systems of the Wet Tropics and so the knowledge gap that my research addresses is the paucity of social science investigations. Thus, I set out to explore how STCs might affect future tropical landscapes by conducting qualitative interviews with consenting participants within the parameters of two locations transacted by the Barron River. The first was on the Barron Delta floodplains and coastal hamlets, and the other Myola and environs, about 12 – 14 km northwest on the Northern Tablelands. I aimed to investigate who the people are, why they come, and specifically, why they might leave the Wet Tropics. I also wished to determine the social, cultural or environmental 'thresholds' of these landscape environments and if they retained the aesthetic features that attracted people there in the first place. Ethnographic fieldwork was conducted using the Grounded Theory methods of qualitative interview techniques and inductive narrative analysis to provide a perspective of the type of people that live in the Wet Tropics. The database of narratives contains their worldly individual and unique views, values and concerns on various issues that were important to them at the times of their interviews. These narratives can be compared with the present plans of governments and natural resource managers to determine what people are likely to do or want for their future in these tropical landscapes. The research on STCs also revealed rich data on peoples' perceptions of Ecosystem Services (ESs), the conceptual framework that was developed by the Millennium Ecosystems Assessment (MA), the team of global scientists formed to address biodiversity loss on the Earth. The flexible research methods were juxtaposed with the rigid ESs MA framework to find three categories of ESs within the narratives. They were provisioning, regulating and cultural services. Through the inductive analysis of their narratives, participants' perceptions of landscape values, conditions, threats, pressures or thresholds that might affect ESs functionality was identified. The transcripts revealed that the aesthetic landscape amenity and their contributors, trees, forests and water, were the most highly valued. The ESs offsets, i.e. climate impacts and biodiversity naturally followed in relative importance. If these highly valued assets were destroyed or changed to a great extent as to also change the ecology at a level that did not support these assets, then a threshold of wellbeing for all concerned would be reached. Until this research, there has been little understanding of socio-cultural thresholds relating to ecosystem service dynamics, and tools to reveal these. Contrary to the sea- and tree-change metaphor, the results also showed that people move to the Wet Tropics not just for a lifestyle change, but for a variety of reasons including to get away from difficult personal situations, for employment, adventure or to return to live permanently after a holiday in the Wet Tropics. Some STCs are concerned however that moving away from family and friends depletes a needed support base. Besides, if they lose their economic base, they are likely to leave with additional worries that both young and old have for the lack of infrastructure such as transport and medical facilities. Personal matters were cited as the overriding reason for most participants to leave the Wet Tropics, although it was often both personal and environmental reasons that first attracted them. It is noted that environmental and social thresholds are cultural perceptions constructed by individuals through their emotional, societal and environmental interactions. The decision to migrate indicates various degrees of ambivalence and discontentment to place due to the Australian and international 'migrant culture' that causes this uprootedness. This thesis argues that the policies devised by natural resource managers, industries and governments to manage and preserve these tropical landscapes in a sustainable way are not administered strongly enough. I also argue that theories and praxis of NRM at all levels of government plans and the social, institutional and industrial praxis do not combine effectively for sustainable NRM. The need is urgent to develop policies more suitably directed to environmental conservation so that biodiversity stays intact and ESs appropriately supports future generations.

Dympna Leonard studied anaemia among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children and mothers in Far North Queensland. She identified high rates of anaemia in the first thousand days of life - in pregnancy and early childhood - associated with developmental disadvantage at school-age. Health services are now considering options for anaemia prevention.

Background: Skin cancers, including both melanoma and keratinocyte carcinomas, are the most common cancers diagnosed in Australia. Solar ultraviolet radiation, sunlight, is a skin carcinogen. Geographical regions of north Queensland (Australia) are exposed to high levels of solar ultraviolet radiation year-round. For Caucasian populations, excessive exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation, especially during the childhood years, can result in sunburn and increase melanocytic naevi development. Naevi are a risk factor for melanoma and have been identified as precursor lesions in up to 60% of melanoma cases. Therefore excessive sun-exposure during the childhood years can increase naevi development and lifetime melanoma risk. The risk of developing melanoma may be especially high for individuals with numerous naevi, a history of painful blistering sunburns during childhood, fair skin (Fitzpatrick skin type I or II), fair hair colour and light eye colour. The risk of developing keratinocyte carcinoma, for example basal cell carcinoma, is linked with both intermittent and excessive sun-exposure, particularly excessive exposure that resulted in sunburn during childhood. School children should be encouraged to use multiple methods of sun-protection, including hats and shade, when outdoors at school to reduce excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation. The sun-protection policies of north Queensland primary schools and the sun-protective practices used by children and their adult role-models (including parents and school staff) at these schools are not regularly monitored and reported. Also, these school communities are not required to measure and report the amount of shade available at their school for children to use when they are outdoors. At the commencement of this thesis the comprehensiveness of north Queensland primary school sun-protection policies and how well these school communities followed through with sun-safety guidelines had not been documented. A remote (off-site) method to accurately measure shade at schools was also unavailable. The aims of this thesis were to address the following research questions. 1) How comprehensive are the sun-protection policies at north Queensland primary schools in the geographical regions of Townsville (latitude 19.3˚S, longitude 146.8˚E), Cairns (latitude 16.87˚S, longitude 145.75˚E) and the Atherton Tablelands (Atherton: latitude 17.26˚S, longitude 145.48˚E) (study 1)? 2) What body surface area is covered by regulation school uniforms at primary schools in Townsville, Cairns and the Atherton Tablelands (study 2)? 3) Can a method to remotely measure shade availability at schools be developed (study 3)? 4) What proportions of Townsville primary school students and their adult-role models wear a hat to school before, during and after school hours (study 4)? 5) What proportions of Townsville primary school student spectators wear a hat and wear a shirt at inter-school swimming carnivals (study 5)? Methodology: Participants: All north Queensland schools catering for primary school aged students (generally 5-12 year olds) from Townsville, Cairns and the Atherton Tablelands were included in studies 1 and 2 while a sample of these schools were included in studies 3 to 5. For studies 4 and 5, schools were included if they were located within a 15 km radius of Townsville's Central Business District, had at least 60 students enrolled in 2008, and predominantly educated 'day' students (not exclusively boarding schools). Education Queensland school directory lists were used to identify eligible schools in Townsville, Cairns and the Atherton Tablelands. The SunSmart status of each school was verified through email contact with the Cancer Council Queensland since the SunSmart school program is a sun-protection campaign of the Australian Cancer Council. School characteristics (for example, school ownership, school location and student enrolment figures) were obtained from the Education Queensland website. The Australian 'My School' website was used to retrieve the 'Index of community socio-educational advantage' values and student enrolment figures for schools not listed on the Education Queensland website (non-government owned schools). Study designs: Studies 1 and 2 were cross-sectional studies. The comprehensiveness of north Queensland primary school sun-protection policies and the body surface area covered by regulation school uniforms of these schools were assessed using publicly available school sun-protection policies and uniform documents respectively. Sunprotection policies were independently reviewed using the minimum inclusion criteria outlined in the Cancer Council's 'guide to being SunSmart' resource (study 1). A maximum score of 12 was possible and the total score determined policy comprehensiveness. Pre-determined body region percentages were used to calculate the body surface area covered by regulation uniforms (study 2). The maximum possible body surface area was 93.4% since the head region was excluded from calculations. Study 3 was a method comparison study of two shade measurement methods. WebShade®, a shade-planning computer software, was used to measure shade at a sample of north Queensland primary schools using the on-site shade-audit method provided by the WebShade® developers. The shade-audit method required data collection at schools including building dimensions and tree heights to measure shade. WebShade® was then used to estimate shade availability at schools using a remote shade-estimation method which we had developed in conjunction with WebShade®. The remote method used a series of pre-defined height values in place of on-site data collection to measure shade. Statistics of concordance were used to assess the agreement between values calculated for 11am and 1:30pm on the 1st of December, March, June and September, respectively, using the on-site shade-audit and remote shade-estimation methods. Studies 4 and 5 were observational studies. The proportions of students and adult rolemodels wearing hats were observed at Townsville primary schools (study 4). Hat use was observed before, during and after school hours. The type of hat worn by students was classified as 'gold standard hat' (broad-brimmed, legionnaire or bucket style hats) or 'other hat' (for example, cap or visor style). The proportions of student spectators wearing hats (any hat type) and wearing shirts (swim-shirts/t-shirts) were observed at inter-primary-school swimming carnivals held in Townsville (study 5). Results: Study 1: Sun-protection policies for 112 of 116 schools (96.6% participation rate) were evaluated. Although policies of Cancer Council accredited SunSmart schools addressed more environmental, curriculum and review-related criteria than those of non-SunSmart schools, the overall median score for both groups was low at 2 from a possible 12 (SunSmart schools: [Inter-quartile range (IQR): 2.0, 9.0], and non-SunSmart schools: [IQR:2.0, 3.0], p=0.008). Most policies included a 'no hat, no play' rule (that is, a rule that students are not permitted to play outdoors without a hat on). Criteria related to shade provision at outdoor events, regular policy review and using the policy to plan outdoor events were poorly addressed by most schools. No relationships were found between sun-protection policy scores and socio-economic status, school size, school locality or region. Study 2: Uniform policies for 114 of 116 schools (98.3% participation rate) were evaluated. The average total body surface area covered by uniforms (overall 62.4% (standard deviation (SD): 1.8%) was found to be influenced by school grouping variables, such as school ownership and socio-educational status, however the differences in terms of skin coverage were small. For example, the uniforms of non-government schools covered more skin than those of government schools (63.2% (SD: 2.7%) and 62.0% (SD: 1.0%), respectively, p<0.001) and the uniforms of socio-educationally advantaged schools covered more skin than those of socio-educationally disadvantaged schools (62.8% (SD: 2.7%) and 62.3% (SD: 1.4%), respectively, p<0.001). SunSmart and non-SunSmart school uniforms covered identical total body surface proportions (62.4% (SD: 1.6%) and 62.4% (SD: 2.2%), respectively, p=0.084). Study 3: Shade-related data were compared for 22 of 27 schools (81.5% participation rate). Shade-related values calculated using the remote shade-estimation method (offsite) were usually lower than the values calculated using the shade-audit method (onsite). The average differences between shade-audit values and remote shade-estimation values were 1.3% (SD: 7.6%) for natural shade, 3.7% (SD: 4.7%) for built shade and 5.1% (SD: 6.6%) for combined shade (that is, natural shade plus built shade) for 11am 1st December values. Agreement between natural, built and combined shade-related data were poor (Lin's concordance correlation coefficient (CCC) values all below 0.90). Agreement between the remote shade-estimation and shade-audit methods was poorest for built shade. For example, built shade CCC values for 11am 1st December ranged from -0.35 (95% CI: -0.70 to 0.14) to 0.01 (95% confidence interval (CI): -0.25 to 0.26). Study 4: Observations were based on 36 of 46 schools (78.3% participation rate). Overall, a median of 52.2% (IQR: 45.4%, 59.8%) of 28,775 students and 47.9% (IQR: 38.1%, 58.2%) of 2,954 adults were observed wearing any type of hat. A median of 22.5% (IQR: 16.8%, 33.4%), 23.4% (IQR: 15.0%, 34.6%) and 92.9% (IQR: 84.9%, 95.6%) students were observed wearing hats (any styles) before, after and during school hours, respectively. Proportions of students observed to wear hats (any style and goldstandard hat styles) at school before, after and during school hours were similar at SunSmart and non-SunSmart schools. More students from non-government owned schools than government owned schools were usually observed wearing hats, including gold-standard hats, however the differences were not consistently significant. Most adults at SunSmart and non-SunSmart schools wore hats (any styles) during school hours (88.8% (IQR: 62.5%, 100.0%) and 80.6% (IQR: 41.7%, 94.4%), respectively, p=0.169). However fewer adults at SunSmart schools wore hats before school than adults at non-SunSmart schools (3.7% (IQR: 0.5%, 7.7%) Vs 10.2% (IQR: 5.3%, 17.1%), respectively, p=0.035). The proportions of adults who wore hats before, during and after school hours were not found to be significantly influenced by other school characteristics, including school ownership and total sun-protection policy score, considered. Study 5: Observations were based on students from 41 of 46 schools (89.1% participation rate). Overall, a median of 30.7% (IQR: 13.2%, 46.7%) student spectators were observed wearing a hat and 77.3% (IQR: 70.0%, 85.9%) were observed wearing a shirt. Students from non-government schools were twice as likely as students from government schools to wear a hat (41% (IQR: 30.3%, 57.9%) and 18.2% (IQR: 9.8%, 37.9%), respectively, p=0.003). More students from SunSmart than non-SunSmart schools wore hats (36.3% (IQR: 13.0%, 48.8%) and 23.6% (IQR: 12.3%, 37.1%), respectively) however this difference was not significant (p=0.422). Neither the hat nor the shirt-wearing behaviours of student spectators were significantly influenced by their school's size (number of students), socio-educational advantage or the total sunprotection policy score. Implications: The results of study 1 revealed that most primary schools in north Queensland have written sun-protection policies, however the comprehensiveness of these policies could be improved. These school communities may require support and advice to develop and implement sun-protection policies. The results of study 2 showed that most school uniforms assessed could be modified to include longer shirt, sleeve, and pant hem lengths so that more of the body is covered by clothing. Protecting children's skin from over-exposure to ultraviolet radiation might reduce naevi development during childhood therefore sun-protective school uniforms should be worn by primary school students when outdoors. The results of study 3 revealed that measuring shade at schools can be laborious. Future studies are needed to develop an improved remote shade-estimation method which might include contacting school communities to determine the dimensions of school buildings and trees as well as the locations of school boundaries. An improved remote shade-estimation method should be evaluated against the shade-audit method, or a goldstandard method for measuring shade when it becomes available. The results of study 4 showed that hats are under-utilised by students and their adult role-models (including school staff and parents) when they are outdoors at school, especially before and after school hours. Children and adults, particularly parents accompanying their child to and from school, might require regular reminders to wear their hats. SunSmart status was not found to be a consistent predictor of higher student or adult hat-wearing proportions despite the 'no hat, no play' rule being a key element of the SunSmart school program. The results of study 5 revealed that hats are under-utilised by student spectators at swimming carnivals. More student spectators could be encouraged to wear both hats and shirts since a single form of sun-protection will not protect an individual from both direct and indirect ultraviolet radiation at swimming events. For example, a hat alone will not protect students from both overhead sun-exposure (direct) and ultraviolet radiation which has been reflected off water surfaces and into seating areas (indirect). Recommendations: • Investigate the SunSmart school application and renewal process since SunSmart status was not a consistent predictor of improved sun-protection policies and sun-protective behaviours. • Use qualitative research methods, for example focus groups, to investigate why sun-protection policies at schools were under-developed. • Work with school communities to develop their sun-protection policies, possibly by ensuring they have access to suitable sun-safety resources and incentives (for example, a reward scheme) to develop and implement thorough policies. • Encourage school communities to use their updated (comprehensive) sunprotection policies when planning outdoor activities at school (for example, outdoor physical activity classes) and at school related events (for example, swimming carnivals). • Investigate the practicalities of introducing a sun-protective school uniform at north Queensland primary schools. This might involve using qualitative research methods, such as focus group discussions, to investigate if school communities would be willing to introduce a sun-safe uniform and if parents would be willing to purchase a sun-safe uniform. • Design a sun-protective school uniform (for example, garments constructed with very high ultraviolet protection factor rated materials which include longer sleeve and pant hem lengths). • Continue to observe and report the sun-protective behaviours of north Queensland primary school students and their adult role-models at schools and at school sport events. • Introduce and evaluate a school-based sun-protection program that includes regular unannounced observations of sun-protective behaviours and rewards school communities that demonstrate a commitment to sun-safety. • Design an improved remote method for measuring shade at schools based on the data and knowledge accumulated during this thesis. • Evaluate the agreement of the improved remote shade-estimation method against established methods of measuring shade.

Every year in tropical areas of Australia, in addition to the people who live there, many others visit to experience nature at its best. In tropical Far North Queensland, tourists often come to holiday during the summer period when their own region of residence is cold and uninviting. As a consequence, they are keen to swim in the ocean and partake of other water activities. In these warm tropical waters, however, lurk a number of creatures which can cause unpleasant physical effects. One of these marine animals is a very small creature, the Irukandji jellyfish, which is usually invisible to the swimmer but causes a very painful systemic reaction in those who are stung. The body's response to the sting is called 'Irukandji syndrome'. However, in spite of the pervasiveness of the Irukandji and other similar animals in tropical waters during the summer months, very little is written about the nursing management of patients with Irukandji syndrome although there is some literature on the medical management. This study aimed to redress this gap in the nursing evidence-base and provide a framework for expert emergency nurses to better manage the patient with Irukandji syndrome. Objectives: The objectives of this study were to: 1. Document and analyse information gathered about the condition of patients with Irukandji syndrome; 2. Assess the nursing management of patients with Irukandji syndrome; and 3. Develop clinical practice guidelines to support the clinical management of patients with IS by advanced practice nurses working in ED settings. Framework: The overarching theoretical frameworks for the study were Pragmatism and Reflective Practice. The research design, a concurrent mixed methods approach embedded within a Case Study, was selected as the most appropriate way to conduct the study and generate relevant qualitative and quantitative data. In this study, the use of a concurrent nested design meant that I was able to use the seasonal aspects of a jellyfish 'season' to collect both quantitative and qualitative data during observational episodes or chart audit processes. This design was chosen to allow description and exploration of aspects of a quantitative study, with added depth and richness provided by the qualitative component of the study which included reflection by both participants and researcher. This study was undertaken between 2005 and 2007 over two summer seasons, in a regional hospital Emergency Department (ED) in Far North Queensland. Seventeen (17) advanced practice registered nurses were recruited into the study and agreed to participate in one or more of the twenty three (23) observational episodes within the ED. Quantitative data were analysed using SPSS version 16.0, generating both descriptive and inferential statistics. Qualitative data was managed using an Excel spreadsheet to undertake content analysis and the Delphi technique was employed to generate clinical guidelines. Findings: The participants were advanced practice ED nurses who regularly use their knowledge, skills and abilities to manage the variety of patients who transit through the ED. The participants were clinically able to manage the patients with Irukandji syndrome, but were limited in their capacity to respond quickly to the patient's needs, especially their need for pain relief, because of policy frameworks requiring the initiation of appropriate pain relief by medical officers only. Using the Delphi technique, clinical guidelines were developed and it is envisaged these will support a change in the existing policy so as to allow appropriately qualified ED nurses to initiate pain management for these patients in the future. Secondary and unexpected findings suggested that expert nurses in ED appear to provide clinical care based on decisions which are not overtly evident; that is, little documentation existed in patients' charts to show the intellectual nursing assessment processes used to arrive at a clinical decision. Conclusions: Expert ED nurses may have the capacity to use advanced clinical knowledge and skills when managing patients who had been diagnosed with Irukandji syndrome, however they have been hindered by policy frameworks which need to be addressed and amended. In this study, the nurses understood their scope of practice but did not always document all components of their clinical care in a transparent way although the care they delivered to the patients was of a very high standard.

Aedes aegypti is the vector of dengue fever in far north Queensland where dengue outbreaks occur each year. The most recent outbreak in 2008/2009 saw all four serotypes of the virus circulating in the region with 1025 reported cases. Surveillance of the vector population is an important component of vector control and therefore dengue management. There are several tools that are currently used to measure the Ae. aegypti population, and like any sampling method, these tools need to be better understood and refined in order to achieve measurable outcomes in the field. The value of these tools lies in their sampling efficacy, and ultimately in how well we use them and understand the data that they produce—our ability to accurately interpret data from a very limited subsample of the field population. Each sampling tool presents certain biases. Once these biases are defined, methods used to estimate population size and structure can be calibrated accordingly, resulting in more accurate and complex estimates of the vector population. Currently there are control strategies being developed that involve manipulation of Ae. aegypti in the adult stage (e.g. the use of the bacterial endosymbiont Wolbachia to shorten the lifespan of the vector population). These novel strategies demand adult sampling tools to measure changes in population size, structure (age, sex ratio) and ultimately the success of the program. The BG-Sentinel™ trap (BGS) is a proven tool that successfully samples the Ae. aegypti adult population. A series of mark-release-recapture experiments with adult Ae. aegypti were conducted in a large outdoor flight cage and an indoor setting in far north Queensland, to investigate the sampling biases of this particular trap. Biases were investigated across several categories, including: i) mosquito age ii) sex iii) physiological status and iv) body size. Biases were not detected across age groups or body sizes. A significant bias was detected across physiological groups: nulliparous females were recaptured at a significantly lower rate than all other groups except blood-fed parous females which were also recaptured at a low rate by the BGS. Males were recaptured at a higher rate than all groups, but only a significant difference in recapture rates was observed between males and nulliparous females. The sampling bias of the BGS is measurable and can be used to generate more accurate estimates of the adult population and its attributes when sampling the field population. Once the sampling biases of the BGS were defined, the efficacy of the trap within a competitive visual environment was investigated. The impact of the visual environment on trapping efficacy was of particular interest due to the visual cues used by the BGS to attract Ae. aegypti. Four to five day old males and nulliparous females were released into a semi-controlled room to evaluate the effect of the presence, reflectance, and distribution of surrounding harbourage sites on BGS trapping efficacy. Low-reflective (dark) harbourage sites near the BGS had a negative effect on both male and nulliparous female recapture rates. However, a more pronounced effect was observed in males. The distribution (clustered vs. scattered) of dark harbourage sites did not significantly affect recapture rates in either sex. In a subsequent experiment, the impact of oviposition sites on the recapture rate of gravid females was investigated. Although gravid females went to the oviposition sites and deposited eggs, the efficacy of the BGS in recapturing gravid females was not compromised. Aedes aegypti sampling in the field will mostly occur in the urban environment, whereby the BGS will be amongst oviposition sites and dark harbourage areas in the form of household items and outdoor clutter. In addition to understanding sampling biases of the BGS, estimations of the adult population size and structure can be further adjusted based on an understanding of the impact of the visual environment on trap captures. Outcomes from this suite of experiments provide us with important considerations for trap deployment and interpretation of Ae. aegypti samples from the BGS trap. In order to understand what the BGS field samples convey about the field population, BGS field data were correlated with field population estimates generated by a weather-driven container-inhabiting mosquito simulation model (CIMSiM). This model uses container data as well as weather data to create a life table that estimate the daily population size of Ae. aegypti from the number of eggs to the number of adults. This particular model was recently validated and calibrated for this region. A widespread survey of premises over an 11ha area was undertaken in February (wet season) and August (dry season) of 2007. This area was divided into ten ~1ha sections for which individual data were generated both from the model and from the BGS. One hundred and fifty-nine and 152 of 176 premises were inspected for containers during the wet and dry season, respectively. Sixty-seven BGS traps were set out during the wet season and 72 during the dry season over a 24h period. BGS data were correlated with the outputs generated by the CIMSiM model. A positive correlation between the BGS and the model outputs was observed during the wet season, but not during the dry season. Widespread trapping with the BGS over longer periods of time may reveal a stronger or weaker relationship between trap and model. Whatever the relationship between trap and model may be, interpretation of adult sampling data with the BGS needs to be further pursued in order to achieve measurable outcomes that can assist in achieving long term success in dengue control strategies.

The occurrence of Chironex fleckeri medusae in the near shore waters of tropical Australia represents a significant safety, financial and medical concern during the warmer months of the year, particularly along vast stretches of unprotected coastline. Although a number of theories relate to the seasonal occurrence of medusae, quantitative data documenting key aspects of C. fleckeri's ecology are currently lacking. As a result, management protocols tend to be based on anecdotal / opportunistic evidence or generalisations extrapolated between geographic regions. While considerable improvements have been made in reducing the risk of an envenomation occurring along confined stretches of coastline, such as within stinger nets, the capacity to model the occurrence and distribution of medusae, both spatially and temporally, would allow for more effective management of the broader tropical coastline. This study represents the first contribution to the development of such models by quantifying some of the long held theories relating to the ecology of C. fleckeri. The ability to predict when the medusae season will commence would be of considerable benefit to risk management models. Currently, the timing of stinger net installation is largely based on the generalisation that medusae are common inhabitants of the coastline during the warmer months of the year, their arrival being associated with changes in a suite of physical parameters including water temperature, estuary flows and salinity. In contrast, this study has shown that the shift from the polyp to medusa phase was temporally constrained across six seasons in Weipa, with the onset of medusae production varying by only one week in late August / early September. While variables such as water temperature, rainfall and tidal height were not correlated with the onset of medusae production, photoperiod could provide a higher degree of temporal consistency in the onset of the medusae season. Whether photoperiod acts as the cue for metamorphosis in this species is worthy of further investigation. Once within the medusa phase of the lifecycle, juvenile medusae are thought to undertake a downstream migration from the polyp habitat to the coastline where they grow in size rapidly, accumulating as the season progresses. Population structure data collected across seven seasons does not suggest that this is the case for Weipa sites, however. Instead, larger, older and sexually mature medusae were found in abundance within Weipa's estuarine habitats, while a high proportion of juvenile medusae were represented within the coastal habitat. Given that the oldest medusa collected was estimated to be 78 d in age and was from the estuarine habitat, medusae do not appear to accumulate along the coastline as the season progresses either. Not only were medusae growth rates rapid, increasing at up to ~3 mm d⁻¹ IPD (inter pedalia distance), tentacles were added more rapidly (up to a maximum of 13 per pedalium) as size increased. At this growth rate, medusae would undergo an ontogenetic shift in their cnidome and venom complement after ~50 - 60 d, at which time they become potentially lethal to humans. Given that sexual maturity would also be realised after ~45 - 50 d, the potential for several generations to occur within a single season has also been raised. Determining whether ecological patterns observed in Weipa are consistent between geographic locations is an aspect of C. fleckeri ecology into which future research should extend, allowing predictive models of regional rather than local context to be developed. Many references are made to the exceptional swimming abilities of C. fleckeri medusae, who, unlike other species of cnidaria, possess the ability to actively move from one location to another, presumably in response to the development of unfavourable conditions. Recent advances in acoustic telemetry allowed the movement patterns of 12 adult medusae to be documented for between 10 and 38 h, within both the coastal and estuarine habitats using manual telemetry. The rates at which medusae travelled varied from approximately 52 ± 26 SE m h⁻¹ to 828 ± 306 SE m h⁻¹, with both tidal state and time of day found to influence rate of travel. This effect was habitat specific, however, whereby medusae within the coastal habitat travelled at relatively consistent rates both day and night, while estuarine medusae travelled at significantly faster rates at night. At increased current speeds, estuarine medusae also appeared to travel with the current rather than across or against it, as they did at slower current speeds. With acoustic telemetry now demonstrated to be an effective method by which medusae movement data can be collected, future studies can focus on quantifying how medusae movements are influenced by changes in physical parameters such as wind speed and direction (wave action). Manual acoustic telemetry possess a number of logistical constraints that limit the timeframe over which movement data can be collected, however. To this end, this study has also demonstrated the novel application of automated acoustic arrays to C. fleckeri medusae. Combined with a revised method of tag attachment, the timeframe over which medusae were tracked increased from a mean of 16 ± 8 SE h and maximum of 38 h for manual acoustic telemetry to a mean of 37 ± 16 SE h and maximum of 84 h for acoustic arrays. A trade off in the resolution of position estimates derived from acoustic arrays was evident, however, particularly in those cases where position estimates were based on data from a single receiver (839 ± 89 SE m). Error was significantly less where multiple receivers contributed to a position estimate, with a minimum error of 157 ± 10 SE m observed when position estimates were based on four receivers. This was still significantly greater than the 10 m associated with manual telemetry, however. For two medusae tracked using both manual and array techniques, rate of travel estimates from manual telemetry (170 ± 24 SE m h⁻¹) varied significantly from those calculated from array data (487 ± 55 SE m h⁻¹). Similarly, diurnal and tide related movement patterns were inconsistent between manual telemetry and acoustic array analysis. When array data was considered in terms of presence / absence, however, repeated longshore movements of individual medusae became evident, the direction of which corresponded with tidally generated currents. Movements on several occasions that were restricted to relatively narrow stretches of beachfront (~200 m) indicate that medusae are not simply passive drifters, however. As such, automated acoustic telemetry provides a method by which either presence / absence data or low resolution position estimates can be collected over extended periods of time. Collectively then, this study has quantified some fundamental aspects of C. fleckeri's ecology, validating some long held theories, while bringing others into question. A contribution to the broader understanding of jellyfish ecology has also been made, with growth and development rates along with population structure and demographics now quantified. The development of a predictive model remains subject to further quantitative comparisons, particularly across geographic locations, however.

This action research study took place in Far North Queensland, Australia focusing on my teaching journey, which took place in a grade 6/7 classroom with 20 Torres Strait Islander students over one school year in the subject area of literacy. The study documents my efforts to navigate and respond to two prominent teaching models – Explicit Instruction (Archer & Hughes, 2011) and Culturally Responsive Pedagogy (DET, 2011; Perso, 2012), both of which inform policy statements in the area of study. Using a reflective journal, teacher observations, informal student dialogue sessions, yarning circles and student work samples, I endeavoured to adjust my practice to determine how best to meet my learners’ needs. Through on-going critical reflective practice, engaging with two critical friends in conversation (Berry, 2007) and consulting with my cultural mentorship group, my teaching practice underwent transformation as a result of a change in my thinking. My overriding intention throughout this journey was not to simply accept imposed mandates, but rather to question by listening and responding to my students’ voiced opinions about what practices best assisted their learning (Hattie, 2012). The current study revealed that if teachers are to acknowledge both the requirements of teaching explicitly and responsively, the documented model must be reconsidered, repositioned and readjusted. Five key findings were revealed as being important to students’ needs in this study: 1. Students want to learn and the explicit model has to be adjusted for this to occur. 2. Students need to be recognised as English as additional language learners, with a focus on assisting them navigate not just the written, but more importantly the oral demands of the English language. 3. Students require teacher support in all aspects of English assessment. 4. Students want their teachers to reconsider and use reciprocal learning practices such as learning with their peers in English. 5. Finally, students wanted to experience success in English through the embedding of Torres Strait Islander perspectives. From a teacher’s perspective, the most profound discovery on this journey was a personal one, for I discovered a sense of self. That is, my own beliefs were challenged and ultimately repositioned as I learnt to focus upon my students’ success, from their perspective, not mine. Despite the success I experienced in transforming elements of my teaching, I concede that not all aspects of my practice were able to be resolved. I refer to these points of seeking resolution throughout the study as ‘tensions’ (Berry, 2007; Sellars, 2014), which were ultimately the source of my growth and transformation. The results of this study, which essentially documents my development in working agentically and responsively in order to be an effective practitioner, are likely to be of benefit to students and their communities, policy makers, and especially to current and future teachers working in the Torres Strait. This study will be of significant importance to educators working in Indigenous contexts, especially in contexts where students, as representatives of their own communities, are typically expected to submit to nationalistic imperatives. These students seek teaching which fulfills student- and community-based, rather than state imposed, pedagogical requirements.

Pronatalism is a state-level ideology promoting birth increase that governments of developed and some developing nations have adopted in the interests of future economic stability and age balance. In 2004, the former Federal Treasurer of Australia provided a clear and simple pronatalist message for population growth to correct the ageing skew: ‘have one for mum, one for dad, and one for the country’. Social policy matched this message also in a clear and simple way. The creation of a non-discriminatory, generous lump-sum Baby Bonus paid to the birth (or adoptive) mother became a congruent financial endorsement of the tandem message to ‘procreate and cherish’, a coinage that resonated with the older warning, ‘populate or perish’. An increase in birth numbers after 2004 suggests that such messages have spoken to the national psyche, at least in the short term. Sustained population growth, however, is achieved when as many women as possible have the all-important third child. The younger a woman commences childbearing, the more likely it is, by widening her fertility window, that she will go on to have ‘one for the country’. Messages in the public arena have emphasised the age limitation of the female fertility window. Concerns about the ageing population that translated into pronatalist social policy have fused with the medical discourse of the risk of delaying conception. Such messages based on the probabilities of pregnancy being twice as high for women aged 15-26 as for women aged 35-39 convert to a risk narrative that constructs female fertility as a personal resource ebbing with age. This is not a new message, but one newly emphasised in the pronatalist state, exaggerated by the assisted reproduction industry maximising market share. The theoretical proposition calls on an idiosyncratic combination of rational choice and risk aversion theories to complement the conceptual proposition: the rational choice for women whose life script includes having children may be to avert the risk of age-related infertility by attempting to conceive naturally sooner in the life course than has been the 40-year norm. Indications about changing norms surrounding the entry age into motherhood may be discernible in a young female population, a conceptual proposition that formed the basis of the research of the thesis. The Amber Light Project, the identity of the mixed methods research created to complement the thesis, was conducted in the Cairns Local Government Area of Far North Queensland between October 2007 and June 2008. Participants were 13-16 year-old young women (n=230), all Australian residents and 95 per cent non-Indigenous, who completed a questionnaire in a public school setting. Key subjects from the questionnaire formed the basis for 17 semi-structured focus group discussions. The study explored participants’ attitudes toward age for first-time motherhood, fertility and the Baby Bonus. One finding was that participants projected their first births occurring between 25 and 29 or, secondarily, between 20 and 24, but not later than 30 or earlier than 20. In other words, the two extremes of teen and delayed motherhood were mostly rejected by this group of young women. If a single year could be nominated for first-time motherhood aspiration for these young women, it would be the year they turn 25. This is three years younger than the 2006 national mean maternal age at first birth. Twenty per cent of questionnaire respondents expressed fears that they may not be able to become pregnant, and over two-thirds of the discussion group participants contributed views about factors that could compromise a woman’s fertility. The strong, symbolic, procreative message of the lump-sum Baby Bonus may have reached this age group. Over half knew how much the lump-sum Baby Bonus was, and all focus group participants held strong views about this payment. Participants‘ responses add substantial new information about young women forming their fertility futures under the influences of pronatalism and the procreative message of the lump-sum Baby Bonus that no other research has so far explored. Findings are not generalisable to the total population. However, this thesis proposes the possibility that younger motherhood may be evolving in pronatalist Australia away from the delayed motherhood trend of the past 40 years. This study contributes to the literature on motherhood in Australia and international fertility theory, providing a sociological examination of a chapter in Australia’s population history: the life of the lump-sum Baby Bonus and its roles.

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The Mt. Carbine tungsten deposit represents a good example of granite related sheeted vein mineralization recording the late stages of granite cooling volatile differentiation and subsequent expulsion. The presence of 3 distinct mineralizing stages has been recognized through the study of the alteration and mineral paragenesis. These observations coupled with geochemical analysis have culminated in unraveling some of the physiochemical conditions under which the deposit formed and their dynamic evolution through time. Along with gaining important insights into the formation of the deposit analyses were conducted on individual minerals from different parts of the deposit as an investigation into their possible use as geochemical vectors to mineralization through trends in trace and REE chemistry. The findings of the study indicate that the deposit formed as a result of fluid expulsions from a single magmatic event forming a distinctive high to low temperature and reduced to oxidized fluid evolution. The study also found the presence of 2 distinct alteration assemblages which although containing some lithologically induced heterogeneities appear as a alkaline distal and potassic proximal alteration. The use of mineral geochemistry as an exploration tool in many of the tested cases has proven to either be of little potential use whereas others have not been tested adequately. Wolframite Fe/Mn ratios have proven as being potentially useful as a means of delineating vertical displacement from the source of the mineralizing fluids due to the telescoped nature of the vein fill minerals.
Thesis (B.Sc.(Hons)) -- University of Adelaide, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2011