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1
Balzer, M., N. Witt, H. C. Flemming, and J. Wingender. "Faecal indicator bacteria in river biofilms." Water Science and Technology 61, no. 5 (March 1, 2010): 1105–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.022.
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Biofilms in surface waters primarily consist of allochthonous microorganisms. Under conditions of pollution faecally derived bacteria may interact with these biofilms. Total coliform bacteria, Escherichia coli and intestinal enterococci are used to monitor source water quality, indicating faecal pollution and the possible presence of enteric pathogens. In the present study the occurrence of faecal indicators was investigated in biofilms (epilithic biofilms, sediments) of German rivers. All of the biofilms contained significant concentrations of these bacteria, which were several orders of magnitude lower compared with the total cell number and the number of culturable heterotrophic plate count bacteria indicating that faecal indicator bacteria represented a minor fraction of the whole biofilm communities. The biofilms displayed approximately two orders of magnitude higher concentrations of total coliforms, E. coli and enterococci compared with the overlying water. Identification of coliform and enterococcal isolates from the biofilms revealed the presence of species which are known to be opportunistic pathogens. Overall, the results of the present study show that faecal indicator bacteria can survive in the presence of high cell densities of the authochthonous microflora in epilithic biofilms and sediments, suggesting that these biofilms may act as a reservoir for bacterial pathogens in polluted rivers.
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Mushi, Douglas, Denis Byamukama, Amelia K. Kivaisi, Robert L. Mach, and Andreas H. Farnleitner. "Sorbitol-fermenting Bifidobacteria are indicators of very recent human faecal pollution in streams and groundwater habitats in urban tropical lowlands." Journal of Water and Health 8, no. 3 (February 3, 2010): 466–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2010.116.
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Sorbitol-fermenting Bifidobacteria (SFB) proved to be an excellent indicator of very recent human faecal pollution (hours to days) in the investigated tropical stream and groundwater habitats. SFB were recovered from human faeces and sources potentially contaminated with human excreta. SFB were undetectable in animal faeces and environmental samples not contaminated with human faeces. Microcosm studies demonstrated a rapid die-off rate in groundwater (T90 value 0.6 days) and stream water (T90 value 0.9–1.7 days). Discrimination sensitivity analysis, including E. coli, faecal coliforms, total coliforms and Clostridium perfringens spores, revealed high ability of SFB to distinguish differing levels of faecal pollution especially for streams although high background levels of interfering bacteria can complicate its recovery on the used medium. Due to its faster die-off, as compared to many waterborne pathogens, SFB cannot replace microbiological standard parameters for routine water quality monitoring but it is highly recommendable as a specific and complementary tool when human faecal pollution has to be localized or verified. Because of its exclusive faecal origin and human specificity it seems also worthwhile to include SFB in future risk evaluation studies at tropical water resources in order to evaluate under which situations risks of infection may be indicated.
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Baudišová, D. "Evaluation of escherichia coli as the main indicator of faecal pollution." Water Science and Technology 35, no. 11-12 (June 1, 1997): 333–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1997.0755.
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The paper presented supports E. coli assessment as a major indicator of faecal pollution. Its assessment brings advantages when compared with assessment of total coliforms and faecal coliforms because (a) E. coli survives in river water for shorter period than other coliforms and faecal coliforms and (b) its occurrence in a stream (in an area without any significant point sources of pollution), in particular when compared with total coliforms, is more stable. Significant differences appear especially in the summer period when the elevated temperature allows development of non-faecal bacteria.
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Fujioka, R. S. "Monitoring coastal marine waters for spore-forming bacteria of faecal and soil origin to determine point from non-point source pollution." Water Science and Technology 44, no. 7 (October 1, 2001): 181. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2001.0419.
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The US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and the World Health Organization (WHO) have established recreational water quality standards limiting the concentrations of faecal indicator bacteria (faecal coliform, E. coli, enterococci) to ensure that these waters are safe for swimming. In the application of these hygienic water quality standards, it is assumed that there are no significant environmental sources of these faecal indicator bacteria which are unrelated to direct faecal contamination. However, we previously reported that these faecal indicator bacteria are able to grow in the soil environment of humid tropical island environments such as Hawaii and Guam and are transported at high concentrations into streams and storm drains by rain. Thus, streams and storm drains in Hawaii contain consistently high concentrations of faecal indicator bacteria which routinely exceed the EPA and WHO recreational water quality standards. Since, streams and storm drains eventually flow out to coastal marine waters, we hypothesize that all the coastal beaches which receive run-off from streams and storm drains will contain elevated concentrations of faecal indicator bacteria. To test this hypothesis, we monitored the coastal waters at four beaches known to receive water from stream or storm drains for salinity, turbidity, and used the two faecal indicator bacteria (E. coli, enterococci) to establish recreational water quality standards. To determine if these coastal waters are contaminated with non-point source pollution (streams) or with point source pollution (sewage effluent), these same water samples were also assayed for spore-forming bacteria of faecal origin (Cl. perfringens) and of soil origin (Bacillus species). Using this monitoring strategy it was possible to determine when coastal marine waters were contaminated with non-point source pollution and when coastal waters were contaminated with point source pollution. The results of this study are most likely applicable to all countries in the warm and humid region of the world.
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Didier, Bah Ntutuwouo Gael, Betare Nam-Yona-Gunte, Chop Leonard Nkimih, Kengne Tanguebou Josiane, Eselacha Brice, Odi Nke Régine Sylvie, and Abena Ndongo Hervé. "Assessment of Ground Water Vulnerability to Pollution in the City of Bafoussam, Western Region-Cameroon." Environmental and Earth Sciences Research Journal 9, no. 4 (December 31, 2022): 139–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.18280/eesrj.090402.
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This work consisted in evaluating the vulnerability of groundwater to pollutants coming from the surface. This evaluation is done using the parametric method of SINTACS based on seven physiographic and hydrogeological parameters obtained from remote sensing data (DTM) and exogenous data (lithological, soil, rainfall, hydrogeological). The results obtained reflect the risk of pollution of water resources by various sources (urban, industrial and agricultural). Particularly in agricultural areas responsible for water pollution by nitrates and in urban centers where water pollution by faecal contamination is felt. A mapping of intrinsic vulnerability and specific vulnerability reveals with regard to specific vulnerability to faecal pollution with E-coli as a bio-indicator, that 51.78% of the area has an average specific vulnerability to faecal pollution, 30.24% a low vulnerability and 17.99% has a very low character to faecal pollution. Regarding agricultural pollution, the chemical indicator used is nitrate. The analyzes show that 8.37% of the area has a high specific vulnerability to agricultural pollution, 12.37% an average vulnerability and the rest a low or very low vulnerability.
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Marsalek, J., B. J. Dutka, and I. K. Tsanis. "URBAN IMPACTS ON MICROBIOLOGICAL POLLUTION OF THE ST. CLAIR RIVER IN SARNIA, ONTARIO." Water Science and Technology 30, no. 1 (July 1, 1994): 177–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1994.0019.
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Urban impacts on faecal bacterial pollution of the near-shore zone of the St. Clair River in Sarnia were studied by means of field observations and computer modelling. Towards this end, water samples were collected at various sources of faecal pollution and at nine sampling stations in the river, and analysed for faecal coliform, faecal streptococci, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and coliphage. Probabilistic distributions of the observed microorganism densities were used to assess the levels of faecal bacteria pollution, describe the impacts of urban sources on faecal bacteria concentrations in the river, and make inferences about compliance with the recreational water quality guidelines. Relatively high probabilities of guideline violations (p > 30%, at most sites, in dry weather) indicated the need for remedial measures. The screening of such measures was accomplished by preliminary modelling of indicator bacteria in the receiving waters, using a bacteria loading model interfaced with a receiving water model.
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Park, J. E., T. S. Ahn, H. J. Lee, and Y. O. Lee. "Comparison of total and faecal coliforms as faecal indicator in eutrophicated surface water." Water Science and Technology 54, no. 3 (August 1, 2006): 185–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2006.467.
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The aim of this study was to evaluate the use of total coliforms (TC) and faecal coliforms (FC) using a membrane filtration method for precise monitoring of faecal pollution in Korean surface water. The samples were collected in Korea from both main rivers and their tributaries. Presumptive TC · FC were enumerated. The ratios of presumptive FC to TC were not constant, but varied widely, and TC were difficult to enumerate because of overgrowth by background colonies. For FC this was not the case. Seven hundred and three purified strains of presumptive TC · FC and their background colonies were biotyped using API 20E. Among 272 presumptive TC, non-faecal related species, Aeromonas hydrophila dominated (34.6%) and E. coli accounted for only 5.1%. In contrast, E. coli made up 89% of the 209 presumptive FC. Furthermore, of 164 background colonies on Endo Agar LES, 54.9% was A. hydrophila, while background colonies on m-FC Agar were few (58 strains), and despite their atypical colony appearance, most of them were biotyped as enteric bacteria. These results reveal that the detection of FC rather than TC using m-FC Agar is more appropriate for faecal pollution monitoring in eutrophicated surface water located in a temperate region.
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Afolabi, Emmanuel O., Richard S. Quilliam, and David M. Oliver. "Time since faecal deposition influences mobilisation of culturable E. coli and intestinal enterococci from deer, goose and dairy cow faeces." PLOS ONE 17, no. 9 (September 2, 2022): e0274138. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0274138.
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Mobilisation is a term used to describe the supply of a pollutant from its environmental source, e.g., soil or faeces, into a hydrological transfer pathway. The overarching aim of this study was to determine, using a laboratory-based approach, whether faecal indicator bacteria (FIB) are hydrologically mobilised in different quantities from a typical agricultural, wildlife and wildfowl source, namely dairy cattle, red deer and greylag goose faeces. The mobilisation of FIB from fresh and ageing faeces under two contrasting temperatures was determined, with significant differences in the concentrations of both E. coli and intestinal enterococci lost from all faecal sources. FIB mobilisation from these faecal matrices followed the order of dairy cow > goose > deer (greatest to least, expressed as a proportion of the total FIB present). Significant changes in mobilisation rates from faecal sources over time were also recorded and this was influenced by the temperature at which the faecal material had aged over the course of the 12-day study. Characterising how indicators of waterborne pathogens are mobilised in the environment is of fundamental importance to inform models and risk assessments and develop effective strategies for reducing microbial pollution in catchment drainage waters and associated downstream impacts. Our findings add quantitative evidence to support the understanding of FIB mobilisation potential from three important faecal sources in the environment.
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Ellis, J. Bryan, and Yu Wang. "Bacteriology of urban runoff: the combined sewer as a bacterial reactor and generator." Water Science and Technology 31, no. 7 (April 1, 1995): 303–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1995.0246.
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Combined Sewer Overflows (CSOs) are widely recognised as being a primary source of faecal pollution indicator bacteria and pathogens to urban receiving waters. The discharge and in-stream accumulation of sediments from CSOs have also been considered to constitute a bacterial reservoir yielding a continuous inoculation to the receiving water. This paper reports the findings of a microbiological study of CSO discharges and sediments within a N London urban catchments focusing on bacterial indicators (Total and Faecal Coliforms, Faecal Streptococci and pathogens) and the role of somatic coliphages in typing sewage pollution. Evidence is provided for both extended in-stream bacterial survival and bacterial generation in the presence of nutrified organic sediment.
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Moriñigo, M. A., M. A. Muñoz, R. Cornax, E. Martinez-Manzanares, and J. J. Borrego. "Presence of Indicators and Salmonella in Natural Waters Affected by Outfall Wastewater Discharges." Water Science and Technology 25, no. 9 (May 1, 1992): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1992.0200.
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The presence of the pathogenic microorganism Salmonella as well as indicator microorganisms (total and faecal coliforms, faecal streptococci, Clostridium perfringens, and coliphages) was investigated in three different aquatic environments affected by sewage discharges. The relationships between indicators and Salmonella depended mainly on the source of faecal discharges and on the survival capability of the microorganisms in aquatic environments. The microorganisms most closely related to Salmonella spp were faecal coliforms and C. perfringens, the latter yielding also the highest linear regression slope value. Detection percentages of Salmonella spp were high even at a low level of pollution, which allowed detection of the pathogens in the absence of classical indicator microorganisms in the sample. The results obtained in the present study showed that there were no differences in survival rates between the serotypes of Salmonella tested. Moreover, Salmonella spp exhibited a similar persistence to E. coli in aquatic ecosystems, particularly in marine environment.
11
Sattar, Anas A., Simon K. Jackson, and Graham Bradley. "The potential of lipopolysaccharide as a real-time biomarker of bacterial contamination in marine bathing water." Journal of Water and Health 12, no. 1 (October 26, 2013): 105–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2013.142.
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The use of total lipopolysaccharide (LPS) as a rapid biomarker for bacterial pollution was investigated at a bathing and surfing beach during the UK bathing season. The levels of faecal indicator bacteria Escherichia coli (E. coli), the Gram-positive enterococci, and organisms commonly associated with faecal material, such as total coliforms and Bacteroides, were culturally monitored over four months to include a period of heavy rainfall and concomitant pollution. Endotoxin measurement was performed using a kinetic Limulus Amebocyte Lysate (LAL) assay and found to correlate well with all indicators. Levels of LPS in excess of 50 Endotoxin Units (EU) mL−1 were found to correlate with water that was unsuitable for bathing under the current European regulations. Increases in total LPS, mainly from Gram-negative indicator bacteria, are thus a potential real-time, qualitative method for testing bacterial quality of bathing waters.
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Mushi, Douglas, Geda Kebede, Rita B. Linke, Aschalew Lakew, Daniel S. Hayes, Wolfram Graf, and Andreas H. Farnleitner. "Microbial faecal pollution of river water in a watershed of tropical Ethiopian highlands is driven by diffuse pollution sources." Journal of Water and Health 19, no. 4 (May 26, 2021): 575–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2021.269.
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Abstract Tropical communities in the developing world depend heavily on riverine systems for their socioeconomic development. However, these resources are poorly protected from diffuse pollution, and there is a lack of quantitative information regarding the microbial pollution characteristics of riverine water, despite frequently reported gastrointestinal diseases. The aim of our study was to apply faecal taxation (i.e., faecal pellet counting in representative test areas to estimate the potential availability of diffuse pollution sources) in combination with a detailed microbiological faecal pollution analysis in a riverine environment to elucidate the importance of diffuse pollution. To realize this approach, ambient faecal pellets, a multiparametric data set for standard faecal indicator bacteria (SFIB), including Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens spores and enterococci from catchment soil and river water, and a number of riverine water physicochemical variables were analysed during a one-year cycle. We demonstrated that the abundance of ambient faecal pellets, which were consistently counted at reference sites in the catchment, was associated with faecal pollution in the river water. Water SFIB, dissolved oxygen, nutrients, conductivity and total suspended solids were strongly linked with the abundance of ambient faecal pellets in the river catchment, as demonstrated by principal component analysis (PCA). Elevated concentrations of SFIB in the riverine water in the absence of rainfall also suggested the direct input of faecal bacteria into the riverine water by livestock (e.g., during watering) and humans (e.g., during bathing). Statistical analyses further revealed that the microbiological water quality of the investigated riverine water was not influenced by SFIB potentially occurring in the soil. This study demonstrates the importance of diffuse faecal pollution sources as major drivers of the microbiological quality of riverine water in the Ethiopian highlands. In addition, the new successfully applied integrated approach could be very useful for developing predictive models, which would aid in forecasting riverine microbiological quality in tropical developing countries.
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Baker-Austin, Craig, Rachel Rangdale, James Lowther, and David N. Lees. "Application of mitochondrial DNA analysis for microbial source tracking purposes in shellfish harvesting waters." Water Science and Technology 61, no. 1 (January 1, 2010): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.767.
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We present a method for the reliable detection and source characterisation of faecal pollution in water and shellfish matrices, utilising real-time PCR analysis of mitochondrial DNA targets. In this study we designed real-time PCR (TaqMan) probes to target human, bovine, ovine and swine mtDNA. PCR amplification using species-specific TaqMan probes on faecal matter and mixed effluent slurries revealed no cross-reactions between species of interest and other vertebrate faecal matter. Performed as a single blind experiment we were able to correctly identify faecal material in 17/20 effluents (85% correct). mtDNA degrades relatively quickly in faecally-spiked water samples (∼2 weeks), a similar timeframe of environmental persistence to several bacterial faecal indictors, highlighting its applicability. The procedure described here is specific, rapid (<5 hours) and sensitive. These results confirm the suitability of using species-specific mtDNA as an indicator in source tracking studies in surface waters, shellfish harvesting areas and shellfish matrices.
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Nnane, Daniel Ekane, James Ebdon, and Huw Taylor. "The dynamics of faecal indicator organisms in a temperate river during storm conditions." Journal of Water and Climate Change 3, no. 2 (June 1, 2012): 139–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2012.145.
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Greater incidence of storm events, which can lead to greater contamination of surface waters by human and animal faeces, are a predicted feature of climate change in parts of Europe and elsewhere. The aim of this study was to combine the use of a novel quantitative microbial source tracking (QMST) method with established water quality monitoring procedures during an intense summer storm event in a rural UK river catchment, to establish dominant sources of faecal pollution. One-litre grab samples of river water were collected every 12 h for a period of seven days from three sampling sites on the Bevern Stream (a tributary of the Sussex Ouse). All samples were tested for a range of chemophysical and bacteriological parameters, and also for phage-lysis of a human specific strain of Bacteroides spp. GB-124. Presumptive levels of Escherichia coli and intestinal enterococci were statistically significantly (p-value < 0.05) higher during the storm event, compared with dry weather conditions. Low recorded levels of phages of Bacteroides GB-124 during the storm event, compared with dry weather conditions, support the hypothesis that the predominant sources of faecal material in the river during the storm event were non-human. Using traditional faecal indicator bacteria and a QMST marker during storm events may improve human health protection protocols.
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El-Zanfaly, H. T., and A. M. Shabaan. "Applying Bacteriological Parameters for Evaluating Underground Water Quality." Water Science and Technology 20, no. 11-12 (November 1, 1988): 425–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1988.0316.
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A total of 111 water samples were drawn from 15 wells. These samples were subjected to bacteriological examinations to determine the suitability of the monitored wells as source for drinking water. Significant levels of bacterial pollution indicators were detected in the underground water samples during the period of study. Total bacterial counts ranged between 10-104CFU/ml. Faecal streptococci was the most common and detected in 9 6% of water samples. Lower percentages of samples (92, 55 and 45%) were contaminated with total coliforms, faecal coliforms and total clostridia, respectively. Faecal coliforms: faecal streptococci was less than 0.7 in 86% of the examined samples. Anaerobic bacteria were detected in the examined well water samples. Only 101 water samples were tested for anaerobic spore-formers and all showed positive results. Most examined wells do not meet the water quality standards for drinking water. Accordingly, the necessity of controllin bacterial pollution in ground-water through disinfection was clearly confirmed. Testing the underground water for more than one indicator represents an important approach for water quality assurance.
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Edge, T. A., S. Hill, G. Stinson, P. Seto, and J. Marsalek. "Experience with the antibiotic resistance analysis and DNA fingerprinting in tracking faecal pollution at two lake beaches." Water Science and Technology 56, no. 11 (December 1, 2007): 51–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2007.757.
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Posting or closing of swimming beaches because of faecal contamination is a widespread problem reported in many locations. In a risk-based approach to this problem, the risk to swimmers' health is assessed by field monitoring of indicator bacteria and the associated risks are managed by source controls and other remedial measures. In risk assessment, great advances have been made in recent years with the introduction of microbial source tracking (MST) techniques. Two such techniques, antibiotic resistance analysis and DNA fingerprinting, were applied in a study of causes of faecal contamination at two lake beaches in Toronto, Ontario. Both methods identified bird faeces as the dominant sources of E. coli. Coping with this type of pollution presents a major environmental challenge.
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Hadi, Nabaa Shakir. "Evaluation of Water and Sediment Quality by Bacteriological Diversity Studies on Certain Locations of the Diyala River, Baghdad." Environment and Natural Resources Journal 21, no. 6 (October 5, 2023): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.32526/ennrj/21/20230136.
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With a focus on the impact of the Rustumiya sewage treatment facility, the physio-chemical and indicator bacterial contamination pollution of the Diyala River (Iraq) was examined. The Diyala River in Baghdad was sampled on a monthly basis from March 2022 to February 2023 for surface water and sediment. The findings demonstrated seasonal and geographical variation in physio-chemical parameters (pH, EC, salinity, and TDS) and bacteriological markers (TC, FC, E. coli, and FS). The research procedures and methods showed that some physicochemical parameters (pH, EC, TDS) in sediment exceeded their standard limits concerning aquatic life protection in spring and summer. The level of bacteriological pollution in the water and sediments, evaluated by tracking of faecal indicator bacteria (E. coli and Enterococci), during the autumn and winter seasons had the largest concentration of bacterial contaminants. In this study, the main finding was the majority of the studied stations had water classified as not recommended or unacceptable and sediment classified as acceptable or conservatively accepted. The source of contamination, determined by the ratio value of faecal coliform bacteria to faecal Streptococcus, was from human origin in the majority of studied stations, and from mixed origin during the spring and summer. Bacterial indicators in this research exhibited both quantitative and qualitative fluctuation, suggesting their potential utility as a bio-indicator for contamination of water and sediment in the Diyala River.
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Wyer, Mark D., David Kay, Helen M. Dawson, Gerry F. Jackson, Frank Jones, Janette Yeo, and John Whittle. "Delivery of microbial indicator organisms to coastal waters from catchment sources." Water Science and Technology 33, no. 2 (January 1, 1996): 37–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1996.0036.
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The introduction of ultraviolet disinfection of sewage effluent in Jersey has served to focus attention on other sources of faecal pollution responsible for subsequent compliance failures in coastal water quality in St Aubin's Bay. Studies of microbial concentrations (total coliforms, faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci) in streams draining to the bay showed concentrations to be elevated by an order of magnitude or more following rainfall. Detailed monitoring of indicator organisms during hydrograph events showed rapid increases in concentration with flow associated with the rising limb of the hydrograph and transport of suspended solids. Microbial budget estimates suggested that between 42 and 97% of microbial delivery was associated with high flows, which account for just 20% of the total discharge. Budgets also revealed the relative importance of different catchment inputs, revealing the low bacterial input associated with UV treated effluent which provided 48% of the total volume discharged to the bay. Implications for water quality standards are discussed with reference to catchment management planning.
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Borrego, Juan J., Miguel A. Moriñigo, Antonio de Vicente, Roberto Córnax, and Pedro Romero. "Coliphages as an indicator of faecal pollution in water. Its relationship with indicator and pathogenic microorganisms." Water Research 21, no. 12 (December 1987): 1473–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(87)90130-8.
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Afolabi, Emmanuel O., Richard S. Quilliam, and David M. Oliver. "Impact of Freeze–Thaw Cycles on Die-Off of E. coli and Intestinal Enterococci in Deer and Dairy Faeces: Implications for Landscape Contamination of Watercourses." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 19 (September 24, 2020): 6999. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17196999.
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Characterising faecal indicator organism (FIO) survival in the environment is important for informing land management and minimising public health risk to downstream water users. However, key gaps in knowledge include understanding how wildlife contribute to catchment-wide FIO sources and how FIO survival is affected by low environmental temperatures. The aim of this study was to quantify E. coli and intestinal enterococci die-off in dairy cow versus red deer faecal sources exposed to repeated freeze–thaw cycles under controlled laboratory conditions. Survival of FIOs in water exposed to freeze–thaw was also investigated to help interpret survival responses. Both E. coli and intestinal enterococci were capable of surviving sub-freezing conditions with the faeces from both animals able to sustain relatively high FIO concentrations, as indicated by modelling, and observations revealing persistence in excess of 11 days and in some cases confirmed beyond 22 days. Die-off responses of deer-derived FIOs in both faeces and water exposed to low temperatures provide much needed information to enable better accounting of the varied catchment sources of faecal pollution and results from this study help constrain the parameterisation of die-off coefficients to better inform more integrated modelling and decision-making for microbial water quality management.
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Dibra, Hajrije, and Nevila Bushati. "Microbial indicators of coastal water in Velipoja beach, Albania." Academic Journal of Business, Administration, Law and Social Sciences 9, no. 3 (November 1, 2023): 48–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/ajbals-2023-0009.
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Abstract The Albanian coastline is about 450 km long, with wide access to the Adriatic and Ionian seas. It has become popular in recent years for its many unexplored rocky and sandy beaches, crystal waters, curative sand rich in iodine, which has given a great impact in tourism and economy. Velipoja beach is located on the northwest of Adriatic Sea. Coastal waters of Velipoja are used for bathing, fishing and tourism, but in recent years these waters are exposed to various sources of pollution, which are related to restaurants and agricultural activities, wastewater discharge, etc. The quality of coastal water in Albania is particularly analysed by the Public Health Institution. It was considered reasonable to monitor the microbiological quality of coastal waters on Velipoja beach through microbiological parameters during summer season. Evaluations of the results were done based on Directive 2006/7/EC for inland waters, coastal and transitional waters. Seawater samples were tested mainly for E. coli, E. faecalis, S. faecalis, heterotrophs in accordance with European Standards using the membrane filtration method. Water samples were taken monthly from May-September 2023. Based on the data received, during the monitoring period the bacterial concentration for E. faecalis varied from 0 CFU /100 ml to 228 CFU/100 ml. The concentration for S. faecalis varied from 0 CFU /100 ml to 128 CFU/100 ml. The concentration for E. coli varied from 0 CFU /100 ml to 134 CFU/100ml. Velipoja Center has the highest concentration of E. coli, E. faecalis. The concentration of bacteria increases during the months of July and August, probably due to the large number of tourists visiting Velipoja beach during this period. According to Directive 2006/7/EC of the European Parliament, the quality of coastal waters of Velipoja during the period of investigation for E. coli is in the category “Excellent quality”. Monitoring for the presence of pathogen bacteria are essential water quality assessment, which directly or indirectly leads to serious problems to human health. Enterococcus faecalis is an indicator of an old faecal pollution (EN ISO 7899-2, 2000). The European Community (2006) recommended the following parameters: Escherichia coli/100 ml (500/1.000), and Intestinal enterococci/100 ml (200/400) categorized in the class A and B. Urban wastewaters are major sources for surface and groundwater pollution in the Shkodra lake basin. Monitoring for the presence of pathogen bacteria are essential water quality assessment, which directly or indirectly leads to serious problems to human health. Enterococcus faecalis is an indicator of an old faecal pollution (EN ISO 7899-2, 2000). The European Community (2006) recommended the following parameters: Escherichia coli/100 ml (500/1.000), and Intestinal enterococci/100 ml (200/400) categorized in the class A and B. Urban wastewaters are major sources for surface and groundwater pollution in the Shkodra lake basin.
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Roser, D., N. Ashbolt, M. Storey, R. Leeming, P. Scott, R. Bennetts, D. Ryken-Rapp, and S. Toze. "Application of physico-chemical parameters and particle-bound biomarkers to indicate microbial contamination of aquifers." Water Supply 2, no. 5-6 (December 1, 2002): 419–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2002.0199.
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Reliance on coliform monitoring of ground waters is slowly changing as is reflected in the proposed US EPA Ground Water Rule. In line with this we have investigated the use of an expanded range of faecal indicators and potential surrogate analytes within the Gwelup and Jandakot borefields in Perth, Western Australia. The aims of the study included comparing contamination in bores and surface waters in vulnerable locations, quantifying aquifer removal of microorganisms, trialing novel biochemical pollution indicators such as faecal sterols, assessing Escherichia coli as a measure of groundwater contamination and generating data for risk assessments. Sampling was undertaken of nine production bores, nine monitoring bores and four surface waters for 32 parameters comprising seven microbial indicators, 12 physico-chemical parameters and 13 biomarkers (including 8 faecal sterols and caffeine) at sampling stations potentially impacted by urban development. Concentrations of microbial indicators and biomarkers followed the pattern: basins >> monitoring bores >> production bores. Only one production bore sample contained bacterial indicators (0.1 enterococci.100 mL-1 on 1 occasion). Of the faecal biomarkers, coprostanol was generally at background levels. Cholesterol appeared to be a more sensitive measure of infiltration, but was also effectively removed. E. coli appeared to be a less sensitive indicator than enterococci. None of the physico-chemical parameters were useful surrogates. Overall apparent faecal microbial removal by aquifer filtration averaged >4-5 logs (not accounting for viruses). To maximise warning time and assay sensitivity it is suggested that enterococci be considered as the key bacterial indicator rather than E. coli and that different combinations of indicators and biomarkers be used to identify aquifer locations at risk, the presence of significant faecal material, and the likely presence of pathogens.
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Cheung, W. H. S., K. C. K. Chang, and R. P. S. Hung. "Variations in microbial indicator densities in beach waters and health-related assessment of bathing water quality." Epidemiology and Infection 106, no. 2 (April 1991): 329–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0950268800048482.
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SUMMARYDaily and hourly variations in microbial indicators densities in the beach-waters of Hong Kong have been described. The levels of Escherichia coli at a number of beaches was observed to be influenced by tide, and for staphylococci, by bather numbers. The tidal influence was most obvious during spring tides; and for the effect of bathers, during neap tides. Both organisms are present in high densities in external sources of faecal pollution of bathing beaches, with the average staphylococci to E. coli ratios being 0·04–3. Staphylococci may serve as an indicator of bather density and the risk of cross-infection amongst bathers (rather than as another indicator of faecal contamination) when the average staphylococci to E. coli ratio for a bathing beach is considerably higher than 3. The variability of microbial indicator densities means the routine sampling of bathing beaches should be carried out on weekend days with maximum numbers of swimmers exposed to the water, and spread throughout the bathing season.
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Kfir, R., J. S. Burger, and G. K. Idema. "Detection of Salmonella in Shellfish Grown in Polluted Seawater." Water Science and Technology 27, no. 3-4 (February 1, 1993): 41–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1993.0318.
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Three bays along the South African coast were studied for the presence of Salmonella spp in seawater, effluent and stormwater discharges into the bays and in shellfish harvested at the same sites. The microbial quality of water and shellfish samples was studied using faecal coliforms and enterococci as indicators of pollution. A combination of Rappaport-Vassiliadis enrichment broth and bismuth sulphite agar was found to provide the best enumeration method for Salmonella spp in samples from a wide range of origins. A poor relationship between levels of indicator organisms and the presence of Salmonella spp was observed at both low and high densities of indicators. A correlation between the presence of Salmonella spp in shellfish and surrounding seawater was frequently found and in most instances Salmonella contamination could be traced to discharges in the vicinity. The findings of this study question the suitability of faecal coliform limits as guidelines for microbial quality of shellfish and shellfish harvesting grounds. Most seawater sites did not comply with the recommended indicator limits. Salmonella spp were detected in seawater and shellfish samples which were free of faecal coliforms.
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Alonso, M. C., L. P. C. Dionisio, A. Bosch, B. S. Pereira de Moura, E. Garcia-Rosado, and J. J. Borrego. "Microbiological quality of reclaimed water used for golf courses' irrigation." Water Science and Technology 54, no. 3 (August 1, 2006): 109–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2006.456.
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Microbial quality of reclaimed water used for irrigation in two golf courses located in the southern Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) was evaluated. Bacterial indicators for faecal pollution (total and faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli and enterococci) were tested by membrane filtration using appropriate selective media. In addition, somatic E. coli bacteriophages, enteric viruses (entero-, hepatitis A and rota-) and Legionella pneumophila were also analysed. The results obtained showed that all wastewater treatment processes reduced adequately the number of indicator microorganisms although a significant correlation between pathogenic and indicator microorganisms tested was not found. L. pneumophila was detected by PCR but not confirmed by culture. Survival experiments of pathogenic microorganisms in aerosols and irrigated turf are conducted to determine the health hazards for the golf practice and to propose a microbial standard for wastewater used for irrigation of golf courses.
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Steinbacher, Sophia D., Domenico Savio, Katalin Demeter, Martin Karl, Wolfgang Kandler, Alexander K. T. Kirschner, Georg H. Reischer, et al. "Genetic microbial faecal source tracking: rising technology to support future water quality testing and safety management." Österreichische Wasser- und Abfallwirtschaft 73, no. 11-12 (October 7, 2021): 468–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00506-021-00811-y.
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AbstractRecent developments in water resource monitoring have increased the demand for the reliable identification of faecal pollution sources, also defined as microbial (faecal) source tracking (MST). Standardized faecal indicator bacteria (SFIB) enumeration does not directly support MST, as SFIB occur in animal and human sources. The aim of this study was to rigorously evaluate the applicability of host-associated faecal genetic MST markers detected by quantitative PCR (qPCR) at representative Austrian water resources (ground-, surface-, raw and treated wastewater, n = 196 samples) with high importance for the water management sector. Groundwater covered a gradient of non- (i.e., deep wells) to surface influenced resources (i.e., karst and shallow wells). In addition, single faecal excreta from humans as well as representative livestock and wildlife species were collected to evaluate the faecal source-specificity and -sensitivity of the MST assays. Genetic MST marker resistance against UV irradiation was evaluated in on-site ground and wastewater treatment installations. Bacteroides-based human- (HF183II, BacHum), ruminant- (BacR), and pig-associated (Pig2Bac) MST marker qPCR quantification was performed in concert with cultivation of E. coli, intestinal enterococci, and Clostridium perfringens (SFIB diagnostics). The selected MST makers revealed high faecal source identification capacity for the Austrian water compartments and quantitatively reflected the selected faecal pollution gradient. The study also demonstrated that SFIB data can efficiently be combined with MST data to solve previously unanswered questions in water safety monitoring and management (e.g., support pollution source-targeted catchment protection, hazard assessment, and health risk management). Further research and development needs are discussed to exploit the full power of MST technology. In conclusion, this study illustrates the capacity of molecular faecal pollution diagnostics to revolutionize water quality testing in the decades to come.
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Wither, A., J. Greaves, I. Dunhill, M. Wyer, C. Stapleton, D. Kay, N. Humphrey, et al. "Estimation of diffuse and point source microbial pollution in the Ribble catchment discharging to bathing waters in the north west of England." Water Science and Technology 51, no. 3-4 (February 1, 2005): 191–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2005.0591.
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Achieving compliance with the mandatory standards of the 1976 Bathing Water Directive (76/160/EEC) is required at all UK identified bathing waters. In recent years, the Fylde coast has been an area of significant investments in ‘point source’ control, which have not proven, in isolation, to satisfactorily achieve compliance with the mandatory, let alone the guide, levels of water quality in the Directive. The potential impact of riverine sources of pollution was first confirmed after a study in 1997. The completion of sewerage system enhancements offered the potential for the study of faecal indicator delivery from upstream sources comprising both point sources and diffuse agricultural sources. A research project to define these elements commenced in 2001. Initially, a desk study reported here, estimated the principal infrastructure contributions within the Ribble catchment. A second phase of this investigation has involved acquisition of empirical water quality and hydrological data from the catchment during the 2002 bathing season. These data have been used further to calibrate the ‘budgets’ and ‘delivery’ modelling and these data are still being analysed. This paper reports the initial desk study approach to faecal indicator budget estimation using available data from the sewerage infrastructure and catchment sources of faecal indicators.
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Sabae, Shawky. "INDICATOR BACTERIA FOR FAECAL POLLUTION IN THE RIVER NILE AT GREATER CAIRO REGION." Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Biology and Fisheries 3, no. 1 (January 1, 1999): 85–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.21608/ejabf.1999.3405.
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Vantarakis, A., D. Venieri, G. Komninou, and M. Papapetropoulou. "Hybridisation of F+ RNA coliphages detected in shellfish samples with oligonucleotide probes to assess the origin of microbiological pollution of shellfish." Water Science and Technology 54, no. 3 (August 1, 2006): 219–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2006.472.
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Current measures for controlling the public health risks associated with bivalve molluscan shellfish consumption rely on the use of Escherichia coli to indicate the sanitary quality of shellfish harvesting areas. However, it has been demonstrated that E. coli is an inadequate indicator of the viral risk associated with shellfish. An alternative indicator, male-specific B+ coliphages, have been investigated as viral indicators of faecal contamination that may provide source-specific information for impacted environmental waters. This study compared the distribution of E. coli and F+ RNA bacteriophages in shellfish grown in harvesting areas of Greece and also examined the presence and proportions of the different subgroups of F+ RNA coliphages in shellfish. F+ RNA bacteriophages were present in shellfish at higher concentrations than E. coli. Elevated numbers of F+ RNA bacteriophages observed in the winter concur with the known increased viral risk associated with shellfish harvested at that time of year in Greece. The majority of F+ RNA coliphages detected in shellfish samples belonged to group IV which indicated the possible presence of animal faecal material in sample harvesting areas. Phages of groups II and III (human waste and human faecal material, respectively) were present at low levels. Finally, 8% of the phages hybridised were found to belong to group I. The presence of group IV showed seasonal distribution (more in winter, less in summer) whereas the other groups did not show any difference. Monitoring of F+ coliphage subgroups may indicate the presence and major sources of microbial inputs to surface waters; however, environmental effects on the relative occurrence of different groups need to be considered.
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Tree, J. A., M. R. Adams, and D. N. Lees. "virus inactivation during disinfection of wastewater by chlorination and UV irradiation and the efficacy of F+ bacteriophage as a ‘viral indicator’." Water Science and Technology 35, no. 11-12 (June 1, 1997): 227–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1997.0738.
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Wastewater disinfection has grown in popularity in recent years in the UK particularly for reducing faecal coliform levels in effluents impacting on bathing waters not compliant with EC Directive standards. Although disinfectants appear effective against bacterial indicators of faecal pollution, their efficiency against human viruses is still unclear. This has significance both for attainment of compliance with viral standards in the EC Bathing Waters Directive and, potentially, for protection against viruses likely to cause gastroenteritis. This study reports on bench scale disinfection of primary effluent treated with chlorination and secondary effluent treated with UV. Disinfection experiments comprised of wastewater, sterilised by gamma irradiation, seeded with monodispersed laboratory grown bacterial indicators (Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecalis), human enterovirus (poliovirus) and F+ bacteriophage (MS2) – a potential ‘viral indicator’. Under the experimental conditions used, the inactivation of bacterial indicators was rapid in comparison to the inactivation of F+ bacteriophage which was very poor. Seeded poliovirus was significantly more susceptible to inactivation by chlorine and UV irradiation than F+ bacteriophage but was more resistant than bacterial indicators in both cases. These results indicate that the use of bacterial indicators alone to determine the effect of wastewater disinfection when using chlorination or UV irradiation underestimates human enteric virus inactivation, whereas the use of F+ bacteriophage is likely to give a conservative estimate of virus inactivation.
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Berthe, Thierry, Aurélie Touron, Julie Leloup, Julien Deloffre, and Fabienne Petit. "Faecal-indicator bacteria and sedimentary processes in estuarine mudflats (Seine, France)." Marine Pollution Bulletin 57, no. 1-5 (January 2008): 59–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.10.013.
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Najiah, Musa, Ahmed Jalal Khan Chowdhury, Musa Nadirah, Kok Leong Lee, Nur Azna Saari, Alia Syafiqah Aznan, Wan Nurhafizah Wan Ibrahim, Mohammad Abdul Manaf Tajuddin, Rumeaida Mat Piah, and Emienour Muzalina Mustafa. "Escherichia coli POLLUTION IN COASTAL LAGOON AND DAM RESERVOIR: REPERCUSSIONS ON PUBLIC HEALTH AND AQUACULTURE." Water Conservation & Management 7, no. 1 (January 2, 2023): 55–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.26480/wcm.01.2023.55.59.
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Escherichia coli are rod-shaped gram-negative bacteria naturally present in the lower intestinal tracts of warm-blooded organisms including humans and are often released into the environment through faecal material and wastewater effluent. The presence of E. coli in waters has long been regarded as an indicator for recent faecal contamination, and possible presence of other more harmful enteropathogens. This study examined the total coliform load and occurrence of E. coli to determine the microbial water quality of Merchang Lagoon on Terengganu coast facing the South China Sea, and Raban Lake, part of the Chenderoh Hydroelectric Dam reservoir in the Lenggong Valley, Perak. Water samples were collected from three sites in the lagoon, and two sites in the lake. Total coliform load in water was enumerated by most probable number (MPN) method, and E. coli isolation was carried out using eosin methylene blue (EMB) agar. The results showed greatly varied total coliform counts from site to site in both the lagoon (site 1: 7; site 2: 220; site 3: 920 CFU/100 mL) and lake (site 1: 220; site 2: 1600 CFU/100 mL). All sites showed presence of E. coli. The results suggest faecal pollution, and the impact of water stagnation and human activities on the coliform load. The impacts of faecal pollution on public health and aquaculture in the investigated areas are discussed. Long-term monitoring of faecal pollution constitutes the essential part of environmental conservation and preservation against the risk of waterborne faecal pathogens in recreational and commercial activities.
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Grabow, W. O. K., G. K. Idema, P. Coubrough, and B. W. Bateman. "Selection of Indicator Systems for Human Viruses in Polluted Seawater and Shellfish." Water Science and Technology 21, no. 3 (March 1, 1989): 111–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1989.0087.
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A total of 610 samples of marine sewage discharges, polluted seawater and shellfish have been analysed for human enteric viruses and indicators of faecal/sewage pollution. Viruses were recovered by ultrafiltration from water samples of up to 10 litres, and by extraction from 50 g samples of shellfish meat. Detection of viruses was by cytopathogenic effect in primary vervet kidney cells. Some samples were tested for rota- and hepatitis A virus antigens using immunosorbent assays. Of the 202 samples from which viruses were cultured, 45% yielded enteroviruses and 87% reoviruses. The ratio of counts of viruses and indicators varied extensively in samples of both seawater and shellfish. Viruses or their antigens were detected in a number of samples which yielded negative results in conventional tests for at least one indicator. The results show that currently used quality criteria based on coliform indicators have shortcomings with regard to viruses. These findings, as well as experience and policies in other parts of the world, were applied in formulating revised quality criteria for seawater used for recreational purposes, and shellfish meat intended for human comsumption. The recommended criteria include limits for human viruses, faecal coliform bacteria, faecal streptococci and coliphages. The test methods used in conjunction with these criteria are considered important, and methods for viruses should be able to detect reoviruses.
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Kay, D., J. Crowther, C. M. Stapleton, M. D. Wyer, L. Fewtrell, A. Edwards, C. A. Francis, A. T. McDonald, J. Watkins, and J. Wilkinson. "Faecal indicator organism concentrations in sewage and treated effluents." Water Research 42, no. 1-2 (January 2008): 442–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2007.07.036.
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Quilliam, Richard S., Katie Clements, Caroline Duce, Simon B. Cottrill, Shelagh K. Malham, and Davey L. Jones. "Spatial variation of waterborne Escherichia coli – implications for routine water quality monitoring." Journal of Water and Health 9, no. 4 (August 12, 2011): 734–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2011.057.
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Escherichia coli are often used as faecal indicator bacteria (FIB) to provide a measure of microbial pollution in recreational and shellfish harvesting waters. However, although model forecasts for predicting the concentrations of FIB in surface waters are becoming more robust, they suffer from an inconsistency in quantification methods and an understanding of the spatial variation of FIB within a water course. The aim of this study was to investigate the transverse spatial variation in E. coli numbers (as an indicator of faecal pollution) across the estuary of the River Conwy, UK. Water samples were collected from four transverse transects across the estuary. Spatial variation of E. coli was significantly different from one side of the river to the other, although was not correlated with depth or the physiochemical properties of the water. Subsequently, microbial water quality classifications on the two opposite banks suggested very different levels of pollution coming down the river. This work has shown that the side of the river that routine water monitoring samples are taken from can make a significant difference to the classification of microbial water quality. This has important implications for sampling strategies and the use of microbial source tracking (MST) techniques.
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Journal, Baghdad Science. "Use of Coliphages as an indicators of enteroviruses and faecal pollution in Water." Baghdad Science Journal 8, no. 1 (March 13, 2011): 425–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.21123/bsj.8.1.425-432.
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In spite of increasing clinical cases which caused by enteroviruses transferred by water and no documents about entericviruses in the Iraqi water standards. The use of coliphages as an indicator of enteroviruses and fecal pollution were suggested two procedures were applied . The first is Two-Step Enrichment Method and the second is Single Agar Layer Method. Both methods gives good results in Identification of coliphages through testing fifty different water samples (Tap water, Surface water and Bottled water) the study shows the presence of coliphages in fourteen samples.
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do Nascimento, M. Jenny. "Microorganism Removal in Waste Stabilization Ponds in Portugal." Water Science and Technology 19, no. 12 (December 1, 1987): 141–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1987.0138.
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This study has evaluated the removal of traditional biological indicators of faecal pollution and two new indicators: Pseudomonasaeruginosa and Clostridiumperfringens in waste stabilization ponds which were installed at the waste treatment plant of Loures, at Frielas, near Lisbon. The removal efficiency for indicator organisms was 10/100 ml in the anaerobic pond A1, except for one of them, and less in A2. In facultative ponds the removal was 10/100 ml while in maturation pond M2 the removal efficiency was higher for traditional indicators than for the new indicators; in pond Ml the removal was less than in M2.
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Medema, G. J., I. A. van Asperen, and A. H. Havelaar. "Assessment of the exposure of swimmers to microbiological contaminants in fresh waters." Water Science and Technology 35, no. 11-12 (June 1, 1997): 157–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1997.0727.
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As part of a prospective cohort study among triathletes to determine a relationship between the microbiological quality of fresh bathing water and the risk of acquiring an intestinal infection, the exposure of the triathletes to microbiological contaminants was assessed. Waters were collected at seven triathlons (swimming course 1–1.5km) held in the summer of 1993 and 1994 to have a range of water qualities. All were influenced by sewage effluents, most also by agricultural run-off. Samples were collected several weeks before the event to establish a sampling programme (1993) and during the actual exposure of the triathletes (1993 and 1994) and examined for thermotolerant coliforms alone (samples preceding the event) and for E. coli, faecal enterococci, Staphylococcus aureus, F-specific RNAphages, enteroviruses (1993 and 1994) and for thermophilic Campylobacter, Salmonella, Aeromonas, Plesiomonas shigelloides and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (1993). The samples taken in the weeks before the exposure showed significant differences in thermotolerant coliform concentration between locations, depths and times. Also during swimmer exposure, significant differences occurred in microorganism levels at the different sampling points over the swimming course. As the triathletes swam as a group, they were exposed to approximately the same water at the same time. The geometric mean concentration was used to characterise each site. In the epidemiological study, the risk of an intestinal infection correlated with the concentration of thermotolerant coliforms and E. coli but not with the other parameters. The geometric mean concentration of thermotolerant coliforms at the triathlons ranged from 11–330/100mL and 54–1,200/100mL E. coli. Ranking of the seven sites by faecal pollution level, based on the geometric mean concentration of a faecal indicator, resulted in a different ranking for each indicator. At the fresh water sites studied, only the ratio between the geometric mean density of E. coli and thermotolerant coliforms was constant. The ratio between the other parameters related to faecal pollution (faecal enterococci, F-specific RNA phages, enteroviruses) varied considerably. Water quality standards relating to faecal pollution can only be based on parameters that show a significant correlation with risk of intestinal illness.
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Grabow, W. O. K., T. E. Neubrech, C. S. Holtzhausen, and J. Jofre. "Bacteroides fragilis and Escherichia coli bacteriophages: excretion by humans and animals." Water Science and Technology 31, no. 5-6 (March 1, 1995): 223–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1995.0609.
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The faecal excretion of somatic and male-specific coliphages, and phages of Bacteroides fragilis strain HSP40, by humans and a variety of animals has been investigated as part of research on indicator features of phages. Ninety human stool specimens were obtained from black and white male and female individuals varying in age from 6 months to 85 years. Sixty-five faecal samples from domestic animals including cattle, sheep, pigs, horses, dogs, cats, geese and rabbits, were obtained from various agricultural and domestic sources. The National Zoological Gardens in Pretoria kindly supplied 38 stool specimens from higher primates (gorilla, orangoutang and chimpanzee). Thirty-seven stool specimens from chacma baboons and vervet monkeys were obtained from the Zoological Gardens and our animal research centre. Five specimens of seabird droppings were obtained from the west coast of South Africa. The qualitative presence of phages was determined by an enrichment procedure followed by a plaque spot test. Double agar layer plaque assays were used to titrate phages. Bacteroides fragilis phages were detected in 13% of human stool samples, but not in any animal faeces. Somatic coliphages were detected in 54% of human, 56% of domestic animal, 57% of monkey and baboon, 53% of higher primate, and 60% of seabird specimens. Male-specific coliphages were detected in 26% of human, 90% of domestic animal, 76% of monkey and baboon, 63% of higher primate, and 20% of seagull faecal samples. Titres of phages in selected samples varied from undetectable by direct plaque assay to 4.5 × 106 somatic and 3.2 × 104 male-specific coliphages per gram of seabird droppings. Faecally polluted environments may, therefore, contain substantial numbers of somatic and male-specific coliphages of human and animal origin. The results confirm earlier observations that B fragilis phages can be used to distinguish between faecal pollution of human and animal origin.
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Martinez-Manzanares, E., M. A. Moriñigo, D. Castro, M. C. Balebona, and J. J. Borrego. "Comparison and Evaluation of Different Microbiological Quality Criteria for Shellfish and Shellfish-Growing Waters." Water Science and Technology 27, no. 3-4 (February 1, 1993): 31–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1993.0316.
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The objective of this study is to compare different microbiological criteria based on the control of shellfish-growing waters and shellfish flesh, to assess the microbiological quality of the shellfish harvested in a marine zone affected by discharges of a moderately polluted river. Two species of shellfish grown in Mediterranean countries, cockles (Cardium edule) and striped venus (Chamelea gallina) were chosen to carry out this study. A total of 55 samples of diellfish and sea water were collected over the four seasons of the year. According to the results obtained, the US, EEC and Spanish criteria, based on the level of faecal coliforms in shellfish flesh, guaranteed appropriately their safety for human consumption, but among the criteria based on the level of Escherichia coli, only the Australian criterion has been shown to be totally safe, this microorganism being the best indicator of the presence of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Salmonella. For the criteria based on the analysis of indicators in seawater, the indicators which relate to the age of faecal pollution, such as spores of clostridium sulfite reducer and faecal streptococci are the best indexes of the presence of pathogens in shellfish. Furthermore, criteria that establish the percentage of water samples that fulfill the microbiological level specified, or log-normal distributions of indicators such as total coliforms, faecal coliforms and E. coli, are better than mean counts.
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Bahirathan, Mahesan, Lawrence Puente, and Patricia Seyfried. "Use of yellow-pigmented enterococci as a specific indicator of human and nonhuman sources of faecal pollution." Canadian Journal of Microbiology 44, no. 11 (November 1, 1998): 1066–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/w98-107.
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Antibiotic susceptibility tests and restriction enzyme analysis (REA) of genomic DNA were performed to characterize the relationship between sources of isolates of yellow-pigmented enterococci. Antibiotic susceptibility tests were conducted with 10 therapeutic antibiotics and 54 isolates grouped by source (wild and other) depending on their origin. In three antibiotics, cephalothin, erythromycin, and vancomycin, there was a significant (p =< 0.05) association between susceptibility and source. Vancomycin resistance was significantly (p =< 0.001) higher in isolates from wild sources compared with that in isolates from other sources. The REA technique was performed on genomic DNA obtained from 17 Enterococcus mundtii isolates from: human (3), dog (4), horse (4), Canada goose (4), domestic goose (1), and Enterococcus mundtii ATCC 43186. A total of 12 different DNA types (A-L) were identified. Except for type D, 11 DNA types were unique and were distributed among dog (A, B, and C), human (E), horse (F, G, and H), Canada goose (I, J, and K), and domestic goose (L). Results suggested that vancomycin-susceptibility testing of yellow-pigmented enterococci may have potential value in the identification of sources of faecal pollution, especially when combined with traditional quantitative methods.Key words: yellow-pigmented enterococci, faecal pollution, antibiotic susceptibility, DNA typing.
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Goshu, Goraw, A. A. Koelmans, and J. J. M. de Klein. "Performance of faecal indicator bacteria, microbial source tracking, and pollution risk mapping in tropical water." Environmental Pollution 276 (May 2021): 116693. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116693.
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Lynch, P. A., B. J. Gilpin, L. W. Sinton, and M. G. Savill. "The detection of Bifidobacterium adolescentis by colony hybridization as an indicator of human faecal pollution." Journal of Applied Microbiology 92, no. 3 (March 2002): 526–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2672.2002.01557.x.
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Sorensen, James P. R., Jacintha Nayebare, Andrew F. Carr, Robert Lyness, Luiza C. Campos, Lena Ciric, Timothy Goodall, et al. "In-situ fluorescence spectroscopy is a more rapid and resilient indicator of faecal contamination risk in drinking water than faecal indicator organisms." Water Research 206 (November 2021): 117734. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.117734.
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Jagals, P. "Stormwater runoff from typical developed and developing South African urban developments: definitely not for swimming." Water Science and Technology 35, no. 11-12 (June 1, 1997): 133–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1997.0723.
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Public water in South Africa is protected from pollution from urban areas and industries through various forms of wastewater treatment and enforced by legislation and standards. However, hardly any standard or guideline exists for an acceptable quality for urban run-off such as stormwater. The microbiological quality of urban run-off from various large urban developments in the Free State Province, South Africa, has been investigated to establish the extent of faecal pollution. Sanitation of a low socio-economic urban residential development was generally limited, comprising mainly pit and bucket latrines. Sanitation of the other developments was typical of the larger more developed South African urban situation. It comprised well developed residential structures with full water-borne sewerage, fully serviced central business districts, developing residential areas with both waterborne sewerage and additional areas of informal settlement with limited facilities. Faecal coliforms (FC) and enterococci (FE) were used as generalised indicator organisms of faecal pollution together with sorbitol-fermenting bifidobacteria (SFB) and Streptococcus bovis (SB). Somatic (SC) and male specific coliphages (MSC) were used as indicators of organic and sewage pollution of the receiving water in the target areas. Samples were collected from perennial flow during the dry season and from stormwater run-off after thundershowers. Stormwater run-off from the large settlement with limited facilities as well as from the residential development with additional informal settlement reached FC counts of <6 logs/100mL, equivalent to many sewage effluents. Stormwater run-off from well developed urban structures reached FC of <4 logs/100mL, which exceeded safety margins in guidelines for recreational water quality. The results show that run-off from developing urban settlements, as well as developed urban structures, constitute a major source of pollution for a river catchment which is downstream used as a source of water for human consumption and recreation. The level of pollution dictates that stabilisation of urban surface run-off should be regarded as an equal priority to the enforced stabilisation of other wastewaters generated by human activities.
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Wyer, M. D., D. Kay, J. Crowther, J. Whittle, A. Spence, V. Huen, C. Wilson, P. Carbo, and J. Newsome. "Faecal-Indicator Budgets for Recreational Coastal Waters: A Catchment Approach." Water and Environment Journal 12, no. 6 (December 1998): 414–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1998.tb00210.x.
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Papastergiou, Panagiotis, Varvara Mouchtouri, Maria Karanika, Elina Kostara, Foteini Kolokythopoulou, Nikos Mpitsolas, Angelos Papaioannou, and Christos Hadjichristodoulou. "Analysis of seawater microbiological quality data in Greece from 1997 to 2006: association of risk factors with bacterial indicators." Journal of Water and Health 7, no. 3 (May 1, 2009): 514–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2009.135.
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This study deals with the examination of quality of seawater bathing areas in Greece over a 10-year period and identifies risk factors for high bacteria indicator organism concentrations. Qualitative descriptive analysis was applied and the microbiological test results of 231,205 water samples were associated with pollution markers and other parameters. Measurements of Escherichia coli (99.6%) and enterococci (100%) were found to be in accordance with the mandatory value guidelines set by the new European Directive. An increasing trend for the yearly mean value of faecal streptococci was noted. Using logistic regression analysis, phenolic smell (OR = 2.10, CI = 2.04–2.16), rainfall the day before sampling (OR = 1.67, CI = 1.64–1.74), high seas (OR = 1.42, CI = 1.39–1.46) and rainfall on the day of sampling (OR = 1.27, CI = 1.20–1.33) were positively independently associated with high levels of bacterial indicators (total coliforms, faecal coliforms, faecal streptococci and E. coli). The highest risk, absolute risk value 42.8% (RR = 3.17, CI = 2.97–3.38), was measured when previous day rainfall, phenolic smell and high seas were simultaneously recorded. Such parameters should be further investigated as predetermining factors for the assessment of beach bathing water quality, providing a timely indication of water risk assessment.
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Tripathi, Kshama, and A. K. Sharma. "Seasonal variation in bacterial contamination of water sources with antibiotic resistant faecal coliforms in relation to pollution." Journal of Applied and Natural Science 3, no. 2 (December 1, 2011): 298–302. http://dx.doi.org/10.31018/jans.v3i2.202.
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Water sample were collected from piped supplies, surface water and ground water sources in different locations of Lucknow city during summer, monsoon and winter season. Bacteriological quality of samples was determined by enumerating coliform isolated were subject to antibiotic susceptibility test with disc diffusion method. Maximum coliform and faecal coliform contamination were recorded during summer (67% and 75%) and monsoon (67% and 58.3%) while minimum during winter (50% and 50%). All the test isolates exhibited resistance (for nine antibiotics) was shown by river isolates. Antibiotic resistance index (ARI) ranged from 0.050 to 0.150 exhibiting the broad spectrum resistance for 3 to 9 out of 10 antibiotics tested. Occurrence of faecal pollution indicator organisms and multiple antibiotics resistance bacterial population in drinking water is alarming and a sign of potential health with therapeutic problems.
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Brand, Amanda S., and Jo M. Barnes. "Evaluation of Colilert-18® as an alternative method for monitoring total coliforms and Escherichia coli in some faecally polluted river waters." Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 4, no. 4 (July 8, 2014): 604–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2014.040.
Full textAbstract:
The increase in numbers and contamination levels of faecally polluted water has resulted in shifts worldwide towards methods which enumerate faecal indicator bacteria faster. Rapid methods enable more timely remedial and preventative actions which protect the health of water users. However, especially in the developing world, straightforward methods are also preferred as they reduce the requirement for highly qualified analysts. This study investigates the feasibility of using the rapid, semi-automated enzyme substrate test Colilert-18® instead of multiple-tube fermentation (MTF) in total coliform and Escherichia coli enumeration for South African river water, as one example of a surface water source carrying considerable faecal pollution, which needs monitoring. Spearman rank correlation coefficients (ρ) of 0.83 and 0.86 were obtained for total coliforms and E. coli respectively, indicating Colilert-18® performed acceptably in the pollution ranges encountered. A Bland–Altman plot further revealed that Colilert-18® showed no significant difference (p > 0.05) from MTF values below 100,000 E. coli most probable number/100 mL (estimated true value). Above this level Colilert-18® was found to progressively underestimate E. coli. This inadequacy of Colilert-18® was considered acceptable from a health risk assessment viewpoint as such high counts should have sounded the alarm for preventative and corrective action irrespective of method inaccuracy.
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Wither, A., M. Rehfisch, and G. Austin. "The impact of bird populations on the microbiological quality of bathing waters." Water Science and Technology 51, no. 3-4 (February 1, 2005): 199–207. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2005.0592.
Full textAbstract:
To ensure optimum quality at Bathing Waters, the control of diffuse sources of bacterial contamination is receiving increasing attention. As part of an initiative to improve the quality of the EU designated bathing waters on the Fylde Coast (North West England), a project was undertaken to quantify the faecal indicator load from birds and assess the significance on water quality. High bird counts are encountered on the Fylde Coast with gulls, feral pigeons and starlings being prominent. The piers at Blackpool make an attractive roost for starlings with numbers peaking at over 30,000 in late summer. Systematic recording of bird numbers and locations was undertaken during 2001/2. Estimates were also made of the daily faecal organism production by the different species. The spatial distribution of faecal organisms from the bird population was statistically linked to synoptic water quality data. This allowed estimates to be made of the contribution from birds to the faecal pollution load at the bathing waters. The work confirmed a statistically significant link between bird populations and water quality with a marked seasonal bias.