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Author: Grafiati

Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 25 February 2023

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1

Mitchell, Annie, Shira Rub, and Tony Wainwright. "Demanding disruption: Extinction Rebellion and changing psychology." Clinical Psychology Forum 1, no. 319 (July 2019): 28–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.53841/bpscpf.2019.1.319.28.

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This invited article was completed in April, just one week before the planned, high profile, disruptive activities of Extinction Rebellion (www.xrebellion.org), a new social movement committed to driving social and political change in light of the current environmental and climate crisis. We aim to raise awareness of the movement and its implications for us as clinical psychologists.‘It is worse, much worse, than you think.’ (Wallace-Wells, 2019)‘Extinction Rebellion-4’ by Julia Hawkins (www.flickr.com/photos/8716204@N06). Published under creative Commons Licence Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC BY 2.0) (www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0).

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2

Watling, Rosamond, James Danckert, Karina J. Linnell, and Gianna Cocchini. "Extinction and anti-extinction: The “attentional waiting” hypothesis." Neuropsychology 27, no. 2 (2013): 275–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0031866.

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3

Bell, Matthew C., and William M. Baum. "Resistance to extinction versus extinction as discrimination." Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 115, no. 3 (April 15, 2021): 702–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jeab.688.

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4

Rosmawaty. "The Extinction of Local Language: a Literature Psychology Review." LingLit Journal Scientific Journal for Linguistics and Literature 3, no. 1 (April 8, 2022): 13–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.33258/linglit.v3i1.622.

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This paper tries to discuss theoretically about the relationship between language and nationalism towards the extinction of local languages in Indonesia which has become a trend appearing in the movement in critical symptoms of dynomia that involves national culture and local culture with a literature psychology approach. The psychoanalytic review of the extinction of local languages is to view the extinction of language psychologically in the notion of macro functions of language according to Garvin and Mathiot (1956) who say that language as (1) unifying and (2) separator. Some implications in this paper are tried to be drawn: (1) local culture (theoretically) will also become extinct along with the extinction of local languages; (2) the possibility of the provincialism emergence (and the implication of the separatist movements) is reduced: (3) The cost of maintaining the local languages can be eliminated and the cost of learning the national language can be concentrated on planning and learning Indonesian language so that this language reaches the level of a modern and effective language; (5) all efforts can be concentrated against the domination of English over the national language; (6) the sense of nationality of the Indonesian people will become stronger, and (7) cultural diversity will decrease. Without such policies, languages can die or become extinct naturally. In this case, the cause is the existence of language competition and the competition that used to be monolingual.

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Calef, Richard S., Michael C. Choban, Katherine R. Glenney, Ruth A. Calef, Erik Schmitt, Sarah Hinte, Megan Clegg, Joseph E. Kraynok, and Sallie D. Richards. "Perseveration of the Partial Reinforcement Effect in Extinction with Rats over Two Phases of Extinction and Two Stages of Continuous Reinforcement." Psychological Reports 100, no. 1 (February 2007): 101–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.100.1.101-107.

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One group of 10 male albino rats was given partial reinforcement while the other 10 rats received continuous reinforcement in a straight alley. Subjects then experienced five consecutive stages of Extinction 1, Continuous Reinforcement 1, Extinction 2, Continuous Reinforcement 2, and finally, Extinction 3. Analysis showed the partial reinforcement effect in extinction was sustained over two stages of extinction and two stages of continuous reinforcement, since subjects receiving partial reinforcement ran faster than rats given continuous reinforcement throughout all three of the extinction periods. The results seem to support those of Amsel's (1967) and Capaldi's (1967) theoretical formulations of the partial reinforcement effect in extinction.

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6

Cocchini, Gianna, Roberto Cubelli, Sergio Della Sala, and Nicoletta Beschin. "Neglect Without Extinction." Cortex 35, no. 3 (January 1999): 285–313. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0010-9452(08)70802-5.

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7

Nishiyama, Ryoji. "Evaluation during the extinction procedure causes extinction in evaluative conditioning." Learning and Motivation 69 (February 2020): 101600. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2019.101600.

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8

Weinstein, Edwin A. "Hemineglect and extinction." Neuropsychological Rehabilitation 4, no. 2 (June 1994): 221–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09602019408402288.

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9

Bustamante, Javier, Consuelo San Martín, Mario A. Laborda, and Gonzalo Miguez. "An extinction cue does not necessarily prevent response recovery after extinction." Learning and Motivation 67 (August 2019): 101576. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2019.101576.

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10

Kakade, Sham, and Peter Dayan. "Acquisition and extinction in autoshaping." Psychological Review 109, no. 3 (2002): 533–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.109.3.533.

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11

Nitta, Yusuke, Toru Takahashi, Tomosumi Haitani, Eriko Sugimori, and Hiroaki Kumano. "Avoidance Behavior Prevents Modification of Fear Memory During Reconsolidation." Psychological Reports 123, no. 2 (November 15, 2018): 224–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0033294118811116.

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Several studies have revealed that fear recovery is prevented when extinction training is conducted after retrieval of a fear memory. Postretrieval extinction training is related to modification of memory during reconsolidation. Providing new information during reconsolidation can modify the original memory. We propose that avoidance behavior is a relevant factor that prevents subjects from obtaining new safety information during reconsolidation. Postretrieval extinction training without avoidance behavior reduced the fear response to conditioned stimulus and prevented spontaneous recovery in the current study, which corresponded with previous studies. Under the condition of postretrieval extinction training with avoidance behavior, the fear response was not reduced as much as it was in the condition without avoidance. It is possible that avoidance behavior prevents receiving new safety information during postretrieval extinction training.

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12

Graham, Robert B. "A Computer Tutorial for Psychology of Learning Courses." Teaching of Psychology 21, no. 2 (April 1994): 115–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15328023top2102_16.

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A Macintosh computer tutorial that teaches the fundamentals discrimination learning is described. Concepts covered includes stimulus discrimination, extinction, S+, S−, and differential reinforcen Questions are repeated until the correct answer is given, but the repetitions are spaced to maximize retention. Student records are automatically saved. The program-is-free.

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13

Craig, Andrew R., Mary M. Sweeney, and Timothy A. Shahan. "Behavioral momentum and resistance to extinction across repeated extinction tests." Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 112, no. 3 (November 2019): 290–309. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jeab.557.

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14

Taylor, Kathryn M., and Robert A. Boakes. "Extinction of conditioned taste aversions: Effects of concentration and overshadowing." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section B 55, no. 3b (August 2002): 213–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02724990143000270.

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Extinction of conditioned taste aversions was examined as a function of taste concentration and of the presence of an additional taste. The results of Experiment 1 were consistent with previous evidence in that a conditioned aversion to high concentration saline was more persistent in extinction than an aversion to a low concentration. However, when floor effects were avoided the rate of extinction was faster for the higher (1%) concentration than for 0.2% saline (Experiment 2), a result consistent with accounts of extinction in other preparations. Three further experiments examined extinction of a conditioned sucrose aversion. The addition of 1% saline, but not of 0.2% saline, to sucrose during extinction produced overshadowing (“protection from extinction”; Experiment 3). Such overshadowing by saline was detected after two, but not after a single extinction trial (Experiment 4). This last finding suggests that under the conditions of the present experiments sweet and salty tastes function as elemental stimuli competing for loss of associative strength. No overshadowing was found when almond (an aqueous odour) was used in place of saline as the added stimulus, even when high concentrations of almond were used that produced observable neophobia (Experiments 5A and 5B).

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15

Hornstein, Erica A., Kate E. B. Haltom, Kanika Shirole, and Naomi I. Eisenberger. "A Unique Safety Signal: Social-Support Figures Enhance Rather Than Protect From Fear Extinction." Clinical Psychological Science 6, no. 3 (December 1, 2017): 407–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2167702617743002.

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Following treatment of fear-related disorders, return of fear remains a common occurrence. Currently, the presence of safety signals during treatment procedures is considered harmful, yet recent findings have demonstrated that certain safety signals (social-support figures) lead to enhanced fear extinction and thus might reduce return of fear. Here, we tested the effect of social-support-figure (vs. stranger) images on fear extinction outcomes. We found that, for conditional fear stimuli paired with social-support-figure images during extinction, return of fear was inhibited both immediately after extinction and during a fear reinstatement test 24 hr later; however, return of fear occurred for conditional stimuli paired with images of strangers. These findings suggest that social-support stimuli have unique safety-signaling properties that might enhance fear extinction and improve treatment outcomes for individuals with fear-related disorders.

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16

Heyes, C. M., E. Jaldow, and G. R. Dawson. "Observational extinction: Observation of nonreinforced responding reduces resistance to extinction in rats." Animal Learning & Behavior 21, no. 3 (September 1993): 221–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/bf03197985.

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17

Moody, Erik W., Ceyhun Sunsay, and Mark E. Bouton. "Priming and trial spacing in extinction: Effects on extinction performance, spontaneous recovery, and reinstatement in appetitive conditioning." Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 59, no. 5 (May 2006): 809–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470210500299045.

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Previous research in this laboratory suggests that priming of the conditional stimulus (CS) in short-term memory may play a role in the trial-spacing effects in appetitive conditioning. For example, a nonreinforced presentation of a CS 60 s before a reinforced trial with the same CS produced slower acquisition than a CS presentation that occurred 240 s before the reinforced trial. The results were consistent with the self-generated priming mechanism proposed by Wagner (e.g., Wagner 1978, 1981). The present experiments extended the earlier work by examining the effects of trial spacing in extinction rather than acquisition. After conditioning with a mixture of intertrial intervals (ITIs), rats received extinction with ITIs of 60 or 240 s, longer or shorter values, or different ways of “chunking” extinction trials in time. Although trial spacing produced effects on extinction performance that were consistent with our previous research on acquisition, there were few long-term differences in spontaneous recovery or in reinstatement. Short ITIs in extinction appear to affect extinction performance more than they affect extinction learning. Mechanisms of trial spacing in conditioning and extinction are discussed.

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18

Lattal, Kennon A., Toshikazu Kuroda, and Jemma E. Cook. "Early extinction effects following intermittent reinforcement: Little evidence of extinction bursts." Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 114, no. 1 (July 2020): 47–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jeab.616.

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19

Bouton, Mark E., Ana García-Gutiérrez, Jessica Zilski, and Erik W. Moody. "Extinction in multiple contexts does not necessarily make extinction less vulnerable to relapse." Behaviour Research and Therapy 44, no. 7 (July 2006): 983–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2005.07.007.

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20

Sui, Jie, and Glyn W. Humphreys. "The self survives extinction: Self-association biases attention in patients with visual extinction." Cortex 95 (October 2017): 248–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2017.08.006.

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21

Burt, Jonathan L., and Robert C. Pennington. "A Teacher’s Guide to Using Extinction in School Settings." Intervention in School and Clinic 53, no. 2 (February 1, 2017): 107–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1053451217693363.

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The use of extinction procedures or the discontinuation of reinforcement following a behavior targeted for reduction is often used to enhance the efficacy of behavioral interventions. Unfortunately, the application of extinction procedures is associated with several side effects that can produce potentially harmful and counterproductive outcomes. This article defines and describes extinction in practical terms for teachers and outlines recommendations for its use in educational settings.

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22

Smith-Patten, Brenda D., Eli S. Bridge, Priscilla H. C. Crawford, Daniel J. Hough, Jeffrey F. Kelly, and Michael A. Patten. "Is extinction forever?" Public Understanding of Science 24, no. 4 (February 23, 2015): 481–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0963662515571489.

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23

Rescorla, Robert A. "Extinction of facilitation." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 12, no. 1 (1986): 16–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0097-7403.12.1.16.

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24

Mason, Tere A., Rodolfo Bernal-Gamboa, and Javier Nieto. "The reinstatement of operant behavior is reduced by the retrieval-extinction paradigm." Revista Argentina de Ciencias del Comportamiento 13, no. 2 (August 25, 2021): 70–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.32348/1852.4206.v13.n2.28557.

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An experiment with rats was conducted in order to analyze the impact of the retrieval-extinction paradigm on the reinstatement of operant behaviors. In the first phase of the experiment, subjects were trained to press a lever for food. Then, in Phase 2, the Extinction Group received the typical extinction procedure, whereas the Retrieval Group was exposed to the retrieval-extinction paradigm (i.e., a brief extinction session, followed by a retention interval, and then a longer extinction session). Finally, all rats were tested twice. The first test was carried out immediately after the last extinction session, while the second test took place after a single session of re-exposure to the food. We found lower levels of reinstatement in the Retrieval Group.

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25

Reed, Phil, Pany Petrochilos, Natasha Upal, and Martin Baum. "Extinction of enhanced latent inhibition." Animal Learning & Behavior 25, no. 3 (September 1997): 283–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/bf03199086.

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26

Detke, Michael J. "Extinction of sequential conditioned inhibition." Animal Learning & Behavior 19, no. 4 (December 1991): 345–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/bf03197895.

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27

Goddard, Murray J. "Spontaneous Recovery in US Extinction." Learning and Motivation 28, no. 1 (February 1997): 118–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/lmot.1997.0953.

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28

Archbold, G. E., N. Dobbek, and K. Nader. "Temporal dynamics of recovery from extinction shortly after extinction acquisition." Learning & Memory 20, no. 8 (July 15, 2013): 395–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/lm.028225.112.

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29

Mierop, Adrien, Mikael Molet, and Olivier Corneille. "Response production during extinction training is not sufficient for extinction of evaluative conditioning." Cognition and Emotion 33, no. 6 (November 11, 2018): 1181–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2018.1545633.

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30

Tucker, D. M., and E. D. Bigler. "Clinical assessment of tactile extinction: Traditional double simultaneous stimulation versus quality extinction test." Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology 4, no. 3 (January 1, 1989): 283–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/arclin/4.3.283.

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31

Davis, Michael, Karyn M. Myers, Kerry J. Ressler, and Barbara O. Rothbaum. "Facilitation of Extinction of Conditioned Fear by D-Cycloserine." Current Directions in Psychological Science 14, no. 4 (August 2005): 214–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00367.x.

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Excessive fear and anxiety are characteristic of disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and phobias and are believed to reflect abnormalities in neural systems governing the development and reduction of conditioned fear. Conditioned fear can be suppressed through a process known as extinction, in which repeated exposure to a feared stimulus in the absence of an aversive event leads to a gradual reduction in the fear response to that stimulus. Like conditioned fear learning, extinction is dependent on a particular protein (the N-methyl-D-aspartate or NMDA receptor) in a part of the brain called the amygdala. Blockade of this receptor blocks extinction and improving the activity of this receptor with a drug called D-cycloserine speeds up extinction in rats. Because exposure-based psychotherapy for fear disorders in humans resembles extinction in several respects, we investigated whether D-cycloserine might facilitate the loss of fear in human patients. Consistent with findings from the animal laboratory, patients receiving D-cycloserine benefited more from exposure-based psychotherapy than did placebo-treated controls. Although very preliminary, these data provide initial support for the use of cognitive enhancers in psychotherapy and demonstrate that preclinical studies in rodents can have direct benefits to humans.

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32

Spix, Michelle, Miriam J. J. Lommen, and Yannick Boddez. "Deleting “fear” from “fear extinction”: Estimating the individual extinction rate via non-aversive conditioning." Behaviour Research and Therapy 142 (July 2021): 103869. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2021.103869.

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33

Li, Junjiao, Jingwen Caoyang, Wei Chen, Jing Jie, Pei Shi, Yuanyuan Dong, Wenjun Chen, Manling Lin, Nan Sun, and Xifu Zheng. "Effects of the retrieval-extinction paradigm with abstract reminders on fear memory extinction." Biological Psychology 177 (February 2023): 108502. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2023.108502.

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34

Okubo, Lana, Kazuhiko Yokosawa, Masataka Sawayama, and Takahiro Kawabe. "Discounting mechanism underlies extinction illusion." Consciousness and Cognition 90 (April 2021): 103100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2021.103100.

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35

Krypotos, Angelos-Miltiadis, and Iris M. Engelhard. "Targeting avoidance via compound extinction." Cognition and Emotion 33, no. 7 (March 5, 2019): 1523–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1573718.

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36

Larrauri, José A., and Néstor A. Schmajuk. "Attentional, associative, and configural mechanisms in extinction." Psychological Review 115, no. 3 (2008): 640–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.115.3.640.

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37

Urcelay, Gonzalo P., Olga Lipatova, and Ralph R. Miller. "Constraints on enhanced extinction resulting from extinction treatment in the presence of an added excitor." Learning and Motivation 40, no. 4 (November 2009): 343–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2009.04.003.

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38

Kummar, Auretta S. "Mindfulness and Fear Extinction: A Brief Review of Its Current Neuropsychological Literature and Possible Implications for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder." Psychological Reports 121, no. 5 (November 9, 2017): 792–814. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0033294117740137.

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Research in the neuroscience of mindfulness has grown rapidly in recent years. This includes empirical investigations into structural and functional changes in several brain regions—particularly, the hippocampus, the prefrontal cortex, and the amygdala—in association with the practice of mindfulness. Of interest to the current paper is that such brain regions are also implicated in empirical research focusing on fear extinction. While fear extinction has, therefore, been suggested as one of the possible mechanisms to underlie the positive effects of mindfulness, the conceptual links and research implications have lacked specific focus and detailed discussion in the literature. The purpose of this paper is, therefore, two-fold. First, this paper briefly reviews the extant literature on the neuropsychological mechanisms underlying mindfulness—particularly that, which has been found to be similarly implied in fear extinction—and hence, suggests future research directions based on its current state in the literature. Second, this paper explores the implications of this for fear-based psychopathologies, specifically for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Discussion from this paper suggests the idea of fear extinction as an underlying mechanism of mindfulness to be one that is still preliminary, yet promising; in turn, elucidating the need for further methodologically rigorous study to specifically determine fear extinction as a result of mindfulness, as well as to incorporate neuroimaging techniques in supporting the existing literature that have found preliminary support of mindfulness for PTSD.

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39

Bien, Nina, Rainer Goebel, and Alexander T. Sack. "Extinguishing Extinction: Hemispheric Differences in the Modulation of TMS-induced Visual Extinction by Directing Covert Spatial Attention." Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 24, no. 4 (April 2012): 809–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00179.

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The topic of spatial attention is of great relevance for researchers in various fields, including neuropsychology, cognitive neuroscience, and cognitive psychology, as well as for clinical practice. Deficits of spatial attentional arising from parietal brain damage remain largely confined to the left visual field. The mechanisms underlying this hemispheric asymmetry are still elusive. We mimicked the neuropsychological syndrome of contralesional extinction by temporarily inducing a spatial attentional bias in healthy volunteers with TMS. We investigated whether directing covert spatial attention could enhance or, more importantly, counteract the resulting behavioral deficits. Although both the left and right parietal TMS induced contralateral extinction, only left hemifield extinction following right parietal TMS was severely aggravated by a competing stimulus in the ipsilesional (right) hemifield. We put forward the hypothesis that an asymmetry with respect to the ability of detaching attention from a distractor is contributing to the right hemispheric lateralization with regard to extinction. On a broader level, we suggest that “virtual patients” might be used for evaluating neuropsychological treatment in an early stage of development, reducing the burden on actual patients.

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40

Zbozinek, Tomislav D., Alexandra S. Tanner, and Michelle G. Craske. "Starting fear is a stronger predictor of long-term fear than rate of change in fear in human fear conditioning." Journal of Experimental Psychopathology 13, no. 3 (July 2022): 204380872211123. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/20438087221112328.

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In rodent studies, faster extinction rate has been shown to predict less long-term fear. However, this has scarcely been studied in humans. The present report investigated the association between extinction rate and long-term fear in humans. We secondarily evaluated specificity of extinction rate by including other fear conditioning values as predictors, including acquisition intercept, acquisition rate, and extinction intercept. Lastly, we investigated whether trait measures of behavioral approach, behavioral inhibition, anxiety, and depression predicted long-term fear. Results show that slower extinction rate predicted less long-term fear when tested alone in the model. However, when including other fear conditioning variables, extinction rate no longer predicted long-term fear. Instead, greater fear at the beginning of acquisition was the most robust predictor of greater long-term fear (all three measures of fear), followed by greater fear at the beginning of extinction (unconditional stimulus expectancy only). These effects occurred for both the danger signal (i.e., conditional stimulus; CS+) and safety signal (i.e., CS−). The results suggest that fear at the start of acquisition and, secondarily, extinction are predictors of long-term fear. Lastly, there were no effects of trait behavioral approach, behavioral inhibition, anxiety, or depression. This report has relevance for improving our understanding and treatment of anxiety disorders.

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Vasudevan, Krithika, Karthik R. Ramanathan, Valerie Vierkant, and Stephen Maren. "Nucleus reuniens inactivation does not impair consolidation or reconsolidation of fear extinction." Learning & Memory 29, no. 8 (July 28, 2022): 216–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/lm.053611.122.

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Recent data reveal that the thalamic nucleus reuniens (RE) has a critical role in the extinction of conditioned fear. Muscimol (MUS) infusions into the RE impair within-session extinction of conditioned freezing and result in poor long-term extinction memories in rats. Although this suggests that RE inactivation impairs extinction learning, it is also possible that it is involved in the consolidation of extinction memories. To examine this possibility, we examined the effects of RE inactivation on the consolidation and reconsolidation of fear extinction in male and female rats. Twenty-four hours after auditory fear conditioning, rats underwent an extinction procedure (45 CS-alone trials) in a novel context and were infused with saline (SAL) or MUS within minutes of the final extinction trial. Twenty-four hours later, conditioned freezing to the extinguished CS was assessed in the extinction context. Postextinction inactivation of the RE did not affect extinction retrieval. In a second experiment, rats underwent extinction training and, 24 h later, were presented with a single CS to reactivate the extinction memory; rats were infused with SAL or MUS immediately after the reactivation session. Pharmacological inactivation of the RE did not affect conditioned freezing measured in a drug-free retrieval test the following day. Importantly, we found in a subsequent test that MUS infusions immediately before retrieval testing increased conditioned freezing and impaired extinction retrieval, as we have previously reported. These results indicate that although RE inactivation impairs the expression of extinction, it does not impair either the consolidation or reconsolidation of extinction memories. We conclude that the RE may have a critical role in suppressing context-inappropriate fear memories in the extinction context.

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42

Muir, David L., and Fiona J. Hibberd. "Reconceptualising Exposure and Some Implications for Cognitive-Behavioural and Psychodynamic Practice." Behaviour Change 36, no. 02 (March 20, 2019): 84–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/bec.2019.6.

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AbstractThe concept of exposure is ubiquitous in the research and practice of clinical psychology, most notably in cognitive-behavioural models. Yet there remains confusion and ambiguity around how exposure in ‘exposure therapy’ is characterised. Current definitions are found to be inadequate, as each identifies certain features of the exposure process but omits others. As such, an elaborated model of exposure is presented, referred to here as the re-exposure-extinction learning process. This process involves a complex causal situation consisting of clinical features (the cause/causes, C), acting upon a person (the field, F), to bring about re-exposure to anxiety-provoking stimuli and then extinction learning, leading, over time, to therapeutic change (the effect/effects, E). Importantly, re-exposure and extinction learning are two processes distinct from the therapeutic procedures (i.e., techniques and methods) used to bring them about. Furthermore, these processes are not inherently tied to a particular model of therapy or clinical intervention. They are, therefore, logically independent of the procedures used to facilitate them. Considering this reconceptualisation, we propose that working in the transference, a cornerstone of psychodynamic psychotherapy, can be understood as a complementary and effective method of facilitating the re-exposure-extinction learning process. We argue that this is achieved through enabling a person to repeatedly re-evaluate their fearful expectations as they manifest in the unfolding dynamics of the therapeutic relationship. Finally, some clinical implications indicated by this elaborated model are explored.

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43

Harris, Justin A., and Benjamin J. Andrew. "Time, trials, and extinction." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Learning and Cognition 43, no. 1 (January 2017): 15–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/xan0000125.

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44

Prado-Alcalá, Roberto A., Marina Haiek, Selva Rivas, Gabriel Roldan-Roldan, and Gina L. Quirarte. "Reversal of extinction by scopolamine." Physiology & Behavior 56, no. 1 (July 1994): 27–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-9384(94)90257-7.

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45

Barrett, J., and J. L. Armony. "Influence of trait anxiety on brain activity during the acquisition and extinction of aversive conditioning." Psychological Medicine 39, no. 2 (May 9, 2008): 255–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033291708003516.

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BackgroundWe examined how individual differences in trait anxiety (TA) influence the neural responses associated with the acquisition and extinction of anticipatory anxiety elicited through a context conditioning paradigm, with particular focus on the amygdala and the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sgACC).MethodDuring two sessions of echo-planar functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 18 healthy volunteers completed a decision-making task with two randomly alternating 28-s to 32-s background screen colour blocks. One of the colours was associated with the presentation of an aversive noise (CTX+) and the other colour was ‘safe’ (CTX−). In the first session (Acquisition), 33% of CTX+ colour blocks were paired with noise and in the second session (Extinction) no noise was presented.ResultsThe amygdala displayed an increased response to CTX+ compared to CTX− colour blocks during the Acquisition and Extinction sessions and the ACC displayed an increased response to CTX+ compared to CTX− colour blocks during Extinction only. In addition, a greater conditioned response (CTX+ minus CTX−) was observed in the ACC when comparing the Extinction and Acquisition sessions. Correlation analyses further showed that higher levels of TA were associated with a higher conditioned response in the amygdala during Extinction as well as a greater differential conditioned response (i.e. Extinction>Acquisition) in the ACC.ConclusionsOur results support the idea that individuals with high levels of anxiety-relevant traits and vulnerable to developing an anxiety disorder display a more resilient anxiety response during extinction that is characterized by hyper-responsivity in the amygdala.

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Valentino, Amber L., M. Alice Shillingsburg, Nathan A. Call, Britney Burton, and Crystal N. Bowen. "An Investigation of Extinction-Induced Vocalizations." Behavior Modification 35, no. 3 (March 10, 2011): 284–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0145445511398412.

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Kalisch, Raffael, Anna M. V. Gerlicher, and Sevil Duvarci. "A Dopaminergic Basis for Fear Extinction." Trends in Cognitive Sciences 23, no. 4 (April 2019): 274–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2019.01.013.

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Ricker, Sean T., and Mark E. Bouton. "Reacquisition following extinction in appetitive conditioning." Animal Learning & Behavior 24, no. 4 (December 1996): 423–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/bf03199014.

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Lancaster, Cynthia L., Marie-H. Monfils, and Michael J. Telch. "Augmenting exposure therapy with pre-extinction fear memory reactivation and deepened extinction: A randomized controlled trial." Behaviour Research and Therapy 135 (December 2020): 103730. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2020.103730.

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Anderson, Craig A., Johnie J. Allen, Courtney Plante, Adele Quigley-McBride, Alison Lovett, and Jeffrey N. Rokkum. "The MTurkification of Social and Personality Psychology." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 45, no. 6 (October 13, 2018): 842–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167218798821.

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The potential role of brief online studies in changing the types of research and theories likely to evolve is examined in the context of earlier changes in theory and methods in social and personality psychology, changes that favored low-difficulty, high-volume studies. An evolutionary metaphor suggests that the current publication environment of social and personality psychology is a highly competitive one, and that academic survival and reproduction processes (getting a job, tenure/promotion, grants, awards, good graduate students) can result in the extinction of important research domains. Tracking the prevalence of brief online studies, exemplified by studies using Amazon Mechanical Turk, in three top journals ( Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology) reveals a dramatic increase in their frequency and proportion. Implications, suggestions, and questions concerning this trend for the field and questions for its practitioners are discussed.

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