Academic literature on the topic 'Explosives, fuels, related products'

This investigation promotes the design of emulsion explosives and the development of detonation theory on a microscale. As the total composition of oxidizing and reducing elements of the reactants leave related to the thermochemistry of the system, the computational details of predicting the temperatures of detonation were introduced. It was found that a significant improvement was achieved in the emulsion explosives with an aquiferous system. An improvement in the detonation synthesis of nanolithium and zinc oxides is due to the formation of an activated matrix of the metal nitrates’ oxidizer with the corresponding fuel. Temperatures of detonation of emulsion explosives and explosive formulations are predicted using thermochemistry information. The methodology assumes that the heat of detonation of an explosive compound of composition CaHbNcOdLieZnf can be approximated as the difference between the heats of formation of the detonation products and that of the explosive, divided by the formula weight of the explosive. For the calculations in which the first set of decomposition products is assumed, predicted temperatures of detonation of emulsion explosives with the product H2O in the gas phase have a deviation of 413.66 K from results with the product H2O in the liquid state. Fine-particle lithium and zinc oxides have been prepared by the detonation of emulsion explosives of the metal nitrates, M (NO3) x (M = Li, Zn) as oxidizers and paraffine as fuels, at high temperature and short reaction time. The detonation products were identified from X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) patterns, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) measurements. XRD analysis shows that nanoparticles of lithium and zinc oxides can be produced from detonation of emulsion explosives due to fast quenching as well as appropriate detonation velocity and temperature.

Unlike most military high explosives, which are characterized by an almost plane detonation front, ammonium nitratebased commercial explosives, such as ANFO (ammonium nitrate/fuel oil mixture) and emulsion explosives, are characterized by a curved detonation front. The curvature is directly related to the rate of radial expansion of detonation products in the detonation driving zone and the rate of chemical reactions, and it is one of the characteristics of nonideal explosives. The detonation theories used to model the nonideal behaviour of explosives require both reaction rate and rate of radial expansion to be known/specified as input data. Unfortunately, neither can be measured and what is mostly used is a link between these rates and parameters which can be more easily measured. In this paper, the Wood-Kirkwood approach of determination of radial expansion through the radius of detonation front curvature and the electro-optical technique for experimental determination of detonation front curvature of ANFO explosives is applied. It was shown that an experimentally determined radius of detonation front curvature vs charge diameter, incorporated in the Wood-Kirkwood detonation theory, can satisfactorily reproduce experimental detonation velocity-charge diameter data for ANFO explosives, especially when the pressure-based reaction rate law is also calibrated (D=1.3 and k=0.06 1/(μs/GPaD)).

This article presents the findings of a study investigating the explosion and combustion parameters of dust from the raw biomass of wheat straw and energy willow and from the products of biomass torrefaction generated at temperatures ranging from 220 to 300 °C. Agricultural waste and energy crops and their modifications, e.g., in the torrefaction process, did not find a place in explosive risk research, which the authors decided to present in their work. The study was designed to estimate explosion hazard during the processing of the materials into fuels and during the storage process. The measurements recorded a maximum explosion pressure Pmax in the case of dust from biomass ranging from 7.2 to 7.3 bar and for dust from torrefied materials amounting to 7.5–9.2 bar, and a maximum rate of pressure rise over time (dp/dt)max in raw biomass ranging from 201.4 to 261.3 bar/s and in torrefied materials amounting to 209.6–296.6 bar/s. The estimated explosion index Kstmax for raw biomass was 55–72 m*bar/s and for torrefied materials was in the range from 57 to 81 m*bar/s. In the results, the authors present values for specific types of fuel which differ significantly depending on the type of biomass. The research findings show that the torrefaction process used in fuel production is not associated with a significantly greater risk of explosion and the materials obtained may safely be used as an alternative to conventional solid fuels. Given the growing interest in the use of biomass and in the variety of biomass processing methods for energy-related purposes, it seems there is a need for research to develop appropriate guidelines and for effective practices to be introduced in the energy industry in order to ensure the safety of the processes used in the production of novel fuels especially in small installations converting these materials into more efficient energy material.

The results of experimental research of processes of ignition and combustion of particles of aluminum and magnesium alloys in gaseous purges of high-temperature decomposition of solid pyrotechnic fuels leading to their fire explosive hazardous development are presented. The relevance of these research is due to the wide scope of application of pyrotechnic products based on pyrotechnic mixtures of powders of aluminum-magnesium alloys with additives of organic substances, in particular applications in military technology and use in various industries related to the rotation of solid pyrotechnic equipment. Accordingly, in case of fire at facilities where pyrotechnic products are kept or during their transportation there exists the risk of ignition of pyrotechnic mixtures with different acceleration of their subsequent combustion process and destruction of the pyrotechnic products. As a result, high-temperature combustion products are formed, which are fire hazardous to the surrounding environment. Based on the foregoing, it is necessary to obtain data on the regularities of ignition and combustion particles of aluminum-magnesium alloys, which determines the ability to predict the properties of fire hazard pyrotechnic mixtures. As a result of conducted research, data on the ignition and combustion of particles of aluminum-magnesium alloys was obtained, in particular, the dependence of the delay time of the particles of aluminum-magnesium alloys on their chemical composition was obtained, the data on the process of combustion of particles of aluminum-magnesium alloys was obtained, the data on the effect of additives to aluminum-magnesium alloys was obtained.

This paper describes a new method for prediction of the Chapman–Jouguet detonation parameters of CaHbNcOdLieMnf explosives for mixture of some of low temperature explosion explosives at 0 = 1000 kg/m3. Explosion temperatures of water-gel explosives and explosive formulations are predicted using thermochemistry information. The methodology assumes that the heat of detonation of an explosive compound of products composition H2O–CO2–CO–Li2O–MnO2–Mn2O3 can be approximated as the difference between the heats of formation of the detonation products and that of the explosive, divided by the formula weight of the explosive. For the calculations in which the first set of decomposition products is assumed, predicted temperatures of explosion of water-gel explosives with the product H2O in the gas phase have a deviation of 153.29 K from results with the product H2O in the liquid state. Lithium and manganese oxides have been prepared by the explosion of water-gel explosives of the metal nitrates, M (NO3) x (M = Li, Mn) as oxidizers and glycol as fuels, at relative low temperature. We have also used the Dulong-Petit’s values of the specific heat for liquid phase H2O. Lithium manganese oxide powders with chrysanthemum-like morphology secondary particles, but with smaller primary particles of diameters from 5 to 30 nm and a variety of morphologies were found. The oxides produced by this cheap method affirmed the validity of explosion synthesis of nano-size materials for lithium ion batteries.

The most accessible and popular means of destruction of rocks, which are used in the extraction of ores, non-metallic minerals, mining and chemical raw materials, are the cheap explosives, in the Russian technical literature called granulites or AS-DT, in the foreign — ANFO. The article presents the research carried out to improve the formulation and explosive properties of granulites A6, Igdanit, Igdanit-P, A3. They are aimed at using the modern raw material base, increasing the efficiency of blasting, the safety of manufacturing and loading drill holes and boreholes, maintaining a balanced composition, and preserving physical stability, providing energy potential with secondary aluminum additives. Further development of granulites is aimed at creating a line of formulations using saltpeter with variable technical parameters, mixed fuels in the form of liquid (waste oil products, fuel mixtures, diesel fuel) and solid (coal powder, coke fines, rubber crumbs) phases. Based on the use of the cheap explosives in the formulation of recycling materials formed at the mining enterprises, blasting technologies are being improved, and mixing and charging equipment is being developed. The proposed approaches are aimed at maintaining high technical and economic indicators of the use of explosives, ensuring the stationarity of the explosive process and the completeness of detonation of granulites reducing the sensitivity to mechanical and thermal influences, and maintaining susceptibility to initiation by practical means of an explosive pulse. When compiling the new formulations of granulites to reduce production costs, it is proposed to use the most economical types of oxidants and fuels with ensuring quality control of mixing components with different technological properties and conditioning the temperature-viscosity properties of the waste oil products.

Analog emulsion explosives production, observed its detonation. Deflagration and detonation of explosives determine how the phenomenon is long plagued with explosive materials in the field of military issues directly related to the safe and efficient use of explosives, by observing the special emulsion explosive blasting product, you can visually distinguish qualitatively blasting boundaries. Emulsion explosive detonation accompanied undecomposed completely yellow mist generated, and XRD test results showed the product to an amorphous structure, with detonation products feature a clear distinction.Then the factors of hot spots generated in the production of emulsion explosives and the occurred conditions of the heat accumulation are analyzed and summarized.

The statistics is presented in the article concerning the industrial explosives consumption in the world and in the Russian Federation, based on which it is possible to estimate the scale of emission of toxic gaseous explosion products into the environment. The mechanism of formation of gaseous explosion products depending on the oxygen balance of the mixed ammonium nitrate explosive is briefly outlined. In the methodological part of the work, an overview is made related to some computational methods for determining the qualitative and quantitative compositions of gaseous explosion products of industrial explosives based on ammonium nitrate. The main regularities of the influence of physical and physicochemical factors surrounding the charge of an industrial explosive on the formation of toxic gaseous explosion products are described. Computational part of the work is a description of the calculation parameters and the used software packages Shock and Detonation and Real, and the tabulated results of the calculations in comparison with the experimental data obtained from the literature sources. When discussing the results, it is shown that using theoretical calculation methods, only an approximate estimate (with an error of more than 32 %) of the qualitative and quantitative compositions of gaseous explosion products is possible. Doubt is expressed about the conversion coefficient of the concentration of nitrogen oxides to the conditional carbon monoxide-6.5, which is adopted for use in the calculations without substantiating the reasons. It is concluded that only computational methods for determining the composition of gaseous explosion products are available, the results of which are far from reality, and experimental methods are only partially close to the real conditions, respectively, it is required to develop new computational methods. It is noted that the prospect for the development of this topic is the creation of a new computational software package based on the experimental data.

Mining industry is growing rapidly during the last few years. It shows that the use of explosives is a crucial part mining industry explosion and drilling costs take about 40% of all mining related expenditure. Cost effective explosion procurement and services will help mining industry to save time and money. This process demands the automation of the production of explosives with the goal to save time and manufacture safe and reliable products. This article provides an overview of creating an automated system design for emulsification by using technology of proportionally mixed liquid.

Nuclear fuel utilization program from front-end up to back-end processes especially spent fuel management have been monitored and safeguarded by the IAEA in order to ensure the utilization of nuclear fuels from all nuclear facilities including nuclear fuel reprocessing facilities are dedicated only for civil and peaceful purposes. Nuclear fuel production processes including reactor criticality condition is one of the major topics in term of nuclear fuel sustainability which related to energy security issues. Meanwhile, reduction level or preventing processes of nuclear fuel utilization from its potential risk from nuclear explosive purposes should be also strengthened and prioritized. To increase the intrinsic proliferation resistance of nuclear fuel, one of the potential ways is by increasing the material barrier level such as isotopic barrier. In case of plutonium, increasing the intrinsic properties of plutonium isotopes can be used by increasing material barrier of even mass number (Pu-238, Pu-240 and Pu-242). In this study, the effect of different irradiation process during reactor operation which related to discharged fuel burnup have been used and decay time to analyzed its dependeny to plutonium production as well as plutonium production dependency to decay or cooling time processes. Fuel production analysis of the reactor are based on the spent fuel of light water reactor (LWR) with different discharged fuel burnup (33 GWd/t, 50 GWd/t and 60 GWd/t) and different decay or cooling time process (1 to 30 years cooling time). Fuel behavior optimization of LWR design are obtained by using ORIGEN code by employing some modules for analyzing fuel production dependencies to burnup and decay time processes. In this study, two parameters for investigating the material barriers are adopted such as decay heat (DH) and spontaneous fission neutron (SFN) compositions. The compositions of DH and SFN are sensitive to the composition of isotopic plutonium especially more sensitive to even mass plutonium composition. Higher discharged fuel burnup level produces more even mass plutonium compositions and effectively reduce Pu-239 production because of more fissile Pu-239 are consumed for higher burnup. Isotopic Pu-238 gives the highest DH contributor, while Isotope Pu-240 obtains the highest contribution of SFN followed by other plutonium isotopes. DH and SFN compositions of plutonium can be increased effectively by increasing burnup process. Longer decay time is also effective to increase SFN compositions because of its dependency to all even mass plutonium while it gives less DH compositions because of its dependency to the contribution of Pu-238.

If you ask a child to draw a factory, you’ll most likely see a picture of huge chimneys pouring out dark smoke. Adults might come up with associations like explosions, barren industrial estates, and wasted energy and raw materials. Chemical plants, with their endless pipes and weird smells, have a particularly bad name when it comes to damaging our soil and atmosphere. Chemistry today is—we have to admit—far from ideal. Many of the industry’s perceived sins relate directly to its gigantic size. You only have to look at our power stations or the factories that produce our plastics: They’re growing bigger all the time. They often need huge cooling installations to get rid of all the excess heat. This is just another way of saying that they use far too much energy. Bigger plants bring bigger dangers. Things can go very badly in a large installation. The repercussions of an accident can be dramatic, which is why safety is such a key feature when designing them. But that imposes restrictions on the installation’s operations. It often means that we have to operate the processes far from the optimum. Operators need to play it safe at the expense of additional material and energy consumption. Truckloads of by-products must be removed—often in such vast quantities that there’s hardly any useful purpose they can serve. In classic refining techniques, for instance, it’s hard to adjust the ratio between light and heavy oil products. If you need a lot of gasoline, you end up with an excess of fuel oil, or vice versa. Increased scale has long been the chemical industry’s watchword and for compelling technical and financial reasons. A large vessel, for instance, is easier to insulate than a small one. There are other arguments in favor of large scale: Investment costs, personnel levels, maintenance, administrative costs, and land use have all traditionally been lower per unit of product in a big plant. Until recently, it’s always been an issue of bigger meaning more efficient and cheaper. Nowadays, however, the classic approach is incresingly unnecessary.

Partially oxidized organic compounds, i.e., those containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, and optionally other heteroatoms, are often referred to as “oxygenates” because they contain O-atoms as well as a C-atom skeleton. These enter the atmosphere as emissions from various industrial and transportation-related operations, evaporation and release from home usage of certain products, and release from vegetation. They are also formed in the atmosphere as oxidation products of all hydrocarbon emissions that enter the atmosphere from mobile and stationary sources as well as natural emissions from plants and animals. The common oxygenates consist of the alcohols (ROH), ethers (ROR), aldehydes (RCHO), ketones [RC(O)R], esters [RC(O)OR], and acids [RC(O)OH] together with N-atom-containing oxygenates and other less abundant classes of oxygen-containing organic compounds. The use of alternative fuels is increasing and is anticipated to continue to grow in the future. Many of these alternative fuels are oxygenates: methanol, ethanol, butanol, fatty acid methyl esters, and other biofuels. Thus, the scientific community is interested in identifying the important sources and sinks for these compounds. As with the hydrocarbons, the oxygenates serve as fuel for the reactions that generate ozone and other air pollutants within the troposphere. In illustration, consider the influence of the very common and important oxygenate, formaldehyde (CH2O).

With a growing demand for milk and dairy products coupled with concerns regarding greenhouse gas emissions, the sustainable use of on-farm energy resources is essential. Milk production requires electrical energy for powering plant equipment, liquid fuels for powering machinery, indirect energy for fertilizer and feed production, and embodied energy within machinery and buildings. Conventional dairy farms require 54% more primary energy inputs than organic farms due to greater use of fertiliser and concentrate feed. Pasture-based feeding systems showed 55% less feed energy demand. The installation of milk pre-cooling and variable speed drive drives can be effective measures to mitigate on-farm electricity use in the milking shed, while solar PV systems have the potential to cost effectively reduce energy related greenhouse gas emissions. Energy demand and cost savings vary from farm-to-farm, so tools such as the Dairy Energy Decision Support Tool are essential for informing stakeholders about effective smart energy strategies that can reduce energy demand.

Environment concerns related to the use of fossil fuels are reflected in proposals for new conversion technologies to produce biofuels from biomass. The biofuels produced in this context have the same characteristics as petroleum derivatives, however, with reduced greenhouse gas emissions and with no sulfur in their molecular structures. In this context, a reactive distillation (RD) column was designed, constructed, installed, and operated using process intensification principles. It was applied in the production of biodiesel, using residual frying oil as the raw material, by the transesterification reaction, in a continuous regime. The process started with alcohol in excess in the reboiler, located in the bottom of the RD, which was heated through the combustion gas of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) to produce ethanol vapor, which was recirculated in the column until stabilization. In this stage, the reagents were inserted into the feed tanks. Thus, the tank valves were opened for each reactant. The reaction products were recovered during the experiment from the bottom of the column and they were distilled to obtain two phases, biodiesel and glycerol. The results obtained from this study show that the use of an RD column can produce biodiesel in a continuou regime.

Cellular metabolism is divided into catabolism — responsible for converting nutrients into the energy sources and smaller molecules required for the chemical reactions of the body — and anabolism, which is the interconversion and synthesis of the molecules that maintain the body’s structure and function. This chapter examines the control of metabolism and the central metabolic pathways. Such control includes compartmentalization of metabolic processes and the cooperation between the metabolic activities of different organs. Metabolic control is important because metabolism must match the availability of nutrients to the demand for the products of the metabolic processes and both will vary over time. The synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), with its high-energy phosphate bond, lies at the heart of these central metabolic pathways. Most of the ATP is produced by oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria, but glycolysis and the tricarboxylic acid cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle) provide additional amounts. Of the nutrients entering the body from the diet, fat, glucose, and amino acids are the main fuels for cellular metabolism. The utilization of lipids, fatty acids, and ketone bodies is important in metabolism in addition to the key role played by glucose. Glucose is the fuel for energy production in glycolysis. It is also manufactured by gluconeogenesis and stored as glycogen by glycogenesis. It is important to know how different organs utilize different fuels and how energy production alters between the fed state and starvation. Amino-acid metabolism and coenzymes in amino acid oxidation are also important although some details, including the urea cycle, have not been covered here. Energy balance and the relationship between food intake and energy expenditure lead to the concept of body mass index (BMI). The BMI offers a quick method of quantifying the nutritional status of a person, and BMI values may be helpful in assessing the risk of, for example, obesity-related diseases such as type II diabetes and coronary heart disease. Cellular metabolism not only contributes to the medical sciences background to clinical reasoning, but there are also a number of identifiable, inborn errors of metabolism. While individually rare (with incidences of approx. 1–25 per 100,000 births), collectively they present a considerable number of new cases each year.

Operating CANDU PHWRs present significant challenges with respect to their ability to mitigate accidents that are beyond the envelope of design basis drafted over 40 years ago. Today, consideration of severe accidents is a public as well as a regulatory requirement whose implementation begs serious reconsideration in an international coordinated effort. The PHWR enhanced vulnerabilities to accidents such as a sustained loss of AC power, as in Fukushima, arise not only out of the inherent design features but also out of the institutional arrangements that surround their licensing. For one, the reactors will, in absence of a containing pressure vessel as in PWRs, put fission product activity directly into the containment, sport multiple potential containment bypass vulnerabilities and produce copious amounts of flammable gases due to presence of large amounts of Zircaloy in fuel channels and carbon steel in feeders. The relatively thin walled, stepped, welded Calandria vessel into which the disassembled core debris will rest has potential to mechanically fail early, causing explosive and energetic interactions of hot debris with enveloping water. This can catastrophically fail the reactor structures. For severe accidents the containments, well designed for design basis accidents, are either small and weak as in single unit plants or unable to practically take any significant over pressure in negative pressure multi-unit reactor buildings that depend upon a single vacuum building, too small for a multi-unit severe accident. The paper presents analytical arguments in support of these observations, lists conclusions from a series of design reviews and discusses development of ROSHNI, a new generation PHWR dedicated computer code package for simulating an unmitigated station blackout scenario. It does not directly address the institutional issues that handicap a potent reduction of the residual risk posed by continued operation of these reactors without serious design upgrades but discusses the regulatory failures in this regard. It introduces ROSHNI, a newly developed severe accident simulation package that models the reactor core in a greatly enhanced detail necessitated by the variability amongst reactor fuel channels. For a single unit CANDU 6 reactor, the code simulates thermal-mechanical degradation of 4,560 fuel bundles in 380 diverse fuel channels individually (for a total of over 70,000 dissimilar fuel entities) and computes source terms into containment of flammable deuterium gas and fission products. A number of questions are raised about differences between Hydrogen source terms and mitigation measures that are being implemented for light water reactors and Deuterium specific reaction kinetics in generation and mitigation that must be clearly differentiated but ignored so far by PHWR operators. A discussion of effectiveness of certain severe accident specific design upgrade measures that have been implemented at some operating plants is also addressed. For example, potential for a smaller than optimum number (for severe accidents) of PARS units to actually cause Deuterium/Hydrogen explosions as an unintended consequence is discussed. Continued reluctance of CANDU utilities to address a long standing issue of inadequacy of reactor overpressure protection is also detailed.

The mixture of the extreme low temperature fluid and the normal temperature fluid becomes the cause which causes pressure vessel and piping system crush due to explosive boiling and rapid freezing. In recent years in Japan, the demand of cryogenic fluids like a LH2, LNG is increasing because of the advance of fuel cell device technology, hydrogen of engine, and stream of consciousness for environmental agreement. On the other hand, as for fisheries as well, the use of a source of energy that environment load is small has been being a pressing need. Therefore, we carried out the experiments related to promotion of evaporating cryogenic fluids, in the contact directly of the water and liquid nitrogen.

Much literature is available on fungal lipids and their capability as a renewable oil platform for alternate fuels, chemicals, and food products. Microbial oils will not displace all edible oils soon, given techno-economical hurdles in commercialization. However, continued research & development can flatten the curve of deforestation and land-use impacts associated with cultivating these crops. To better understand how oleaginous yeasts and fungi could alleviate the challenges related to the energy-environment-food nexus, it becomes critical to investigate their potential environmental impacts quantitively compared to other feedstocks. Life cycle analysis or assessment (LCA) is a standard tool used for this purpose. LCA studies are not being conducted on a broader scale for fungus-derived oils than their phototrophic algal counterparts. The different stages in the life cycle of fungal lipid production that can be analyzed for environmental implications include cultivation and fermentation, oil extraction; further downstream processing; and end-use. The LCA method for fungal lipid-derived biofuel production systems should cover the main sustainability concerns of biofuel production systems: energy efficiency, climate change, and land occupation. With the scope of microbial oil applications expanding beyond non-fuel encompassing food, supplements, and medicines, their subsequent environmental implications need to be investigated. Further work is required in this area. There are significant knowledge gaps in life cycle inventory and impact assessment information for non-fuel applications.

In this paper I construct gravity model for Lithuania and analyse pandemic-related changes of Lithuania’s goods export. Results suggest that pandemic resulted in a decreased export of aircraft, railway products, meat and preparations of cereals and milk. Positive influence was registered for beverages and spirits, tobacco, furniture, electric appliances, fuels, vehicles and medical and pharmaceutical products. I find that Lithuania’s export of products of higher complexity was more often affected positively by the pandemic. Results show positive influence of the pandemic for Lithuania’s export to countries of higher economic complexity and the ones having stronger trade relations with Lithu-ania. There was no relationship between the effects of the pandemic and the size of the destination countries.

In recent years, social media have become ubiquitous and important for social networking and content sharing. Moreover, the content generated by these websites remains largely untapped. Some researchers proved that social media have been a valuable source to predict the future outcomes of some events such as box-office movie revenues or political elections. Social media are also used by companies to measure the sentiment of customers about their brand and products. This work proposes a new social media based model to measure how users perceive new products from a technical point of view. This model relies on the analysis of advantages and drawbacks of products, which are both important aspects evaluated by consumers during the buying decision process. This model is based on a lexicon developed in a related work (Chiarello et. al, 2017) to analyse patents and detect advantages and drawbacks connected to a certain technology. The results show that when a product has a certain technological complexity and fuels a more technical debate, advantages and drawbacks analysis is more efficient than sentiment analysis in producing technical-functional judgements.

Alternative fuels research has been on going for well over many years at a number of institutions. Driven by oil price and consumption, engine emissions and climate change, along with the lack of sustainable fossil fuels, transportation sector has generated an interest in alternative, renewable sources of fuel for internal combustion engines. The focus has ranged from feed stock optimization to engine-out emissions, performance and durability. Biofuels for transportation sector, including alcohols (ethanol, methanol…etc.), biodiesel, and other liquid and gaseous fuels such as methane and hydrogen, have the potential to displace a considerable amount of petroleum-based fuels around the world. First generation biofuels are produced from sugars, starches, or vegetable oils. On the contrary, the second generation biofuels are produced from cellulosic materials, agricultural wastes, switch grasses and algae rather than sugar and starch. By not using food crops, second generation biofuel production is much more sustainable and has a lower impact on food production. Also known as advanced biofuels, the second-generation biofuels are still in the development stage. Combining higher energy yields, lower requirements for fertilizer and land, and the absence of competition with food, second generation biofuels, when available at prices equivalent to petroleum derived products, offer a truly sustainable alternative for transportation fuels. There are main four issues related to alternative fuels: production, transportation, storage, handling and usage. This paper presents a review of recent literature related to the alternative fuels usage and the impact of these fuels on fuel injection systems, and fuel atomization and sprays for both spark-ignition and compression-ignition engines. Effect of these renewable fuels on both internal flow and external flow characteristics of the fuel injector will be presented.

Coal is the fuel most able to cover world deficiencies in oil and natural gas. This motivates the development of new and more effective technologies for coal conversion into other fuels. Such technologies are focused on coal gasification with production of syngas or gaseous hydrocarbon fuels, as well as on direct coal liquefaction with production of liquid fuels. The benefits of plasma application in these technologies is based on the high selectivity of the plasma chemical processes, the high efficiency of conversion of different types of coal including those of low quality, relative simplicity of the process control, and significant reduction in the production of ashes, sulphur, and nitrogen oxides. In the coal gasifier, two-phase turbulent flow is coupled with heating and evaporation of coal particles, devolatilization of volatile material, the char combustion (heterogeneous/porous oxidation) or gasification, the gas phase reaction/oxidation (homogeneous oxidation) of gaseous products from coal particles. The present work reviews literature data concerning modelling of coal gasification. Current state of related kinetic models for coal particle gasification, plasma chemistry and CFD tools is reviewed.

Over the last few years, the importance of detecting sulphur in petroleum products has increased dramatically. This is related to the necessity of complying with increasingly stringent government regulations and ensuring product quality. Reasons for detection and Monitoring of sulphur in different petroleum products has existed for the last so many years, but detection limits have been reduced dramatically in recent times. The sulphur analyzers for present requirements must now have the ability to detect sulphur from 1 parts per billion to 500 parts per million. This paper discusses about the following aspects: • Indian Emission standards • Evolution of BS 3/4/5 grades • Need for online sulphur analyzers (OSA) in Pipeline industry. • Detection technology • Various options available in Online sulphur analyzers Low Sulphur norms in Petroleum Products have evolved due to the following reasons: - SO2 formed during combustion of fuels in IC engines damage the engines. - Acids of SO2 increase rusting of engine parts, piston rings and cylinder walls. - In environment, SO2 converts to Sulphuric acid by reaction with moisture and harm vegetation, aquatic, animal and human life. - SO2 also corrodes man made buildings and monuments This paper also explains about the various types of Online Suplhur analyzers users in HPCL and the issues faced with the same at feld level.

The article deals with the reforms in the oil and gas industry and investment projects in the industry. To ensure the competitiveness of enterprises in the oil and gas. A number of problems related to the competitiveness of oil and gas enterprises have been identified and research is being conducted. Investment projects in the oil and gas industry are highlighted in the creation of infrastructure facilities and cooperation with international financial institutions. Great attention is paid to the economic growth in the member-states of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and further development of the industrial transport system. Liquefied petroleum products have the highest annual growth rates in non-CIS countries. Statistical data show that the amount of fuel required to meet the increasing demand for fuels in the world needs to be increased. The article describes how to solve the problem gradually leaving the monopoly.

Interests in coal-to-liquid (CTL) and other fuels have grown greatly in the last couple of years with steadily increasing oil prices. National energy security concerns related to liquid transportation fuels also have revived interests in alternative liquid fuel sources. Coal-to-fuel technologies feature high efficiency energy conversion and environmental advantages. While a number of factors are driving coal-to-fuel projects forward, there are several barriers to wide commercialization, such as financial, construction, operation, and technical risks. The purpose of this study is to investigate the performance features of CTL and other coal-to-fuel systems based on different gasification technologies. The target products are Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) crude and synthesis natural gas (SNG). Two types of entrained-flow gasifier based coal-to-fuel systems are simulated and their performance features are discussed. One is single-stage water quench (WQ) cooling entrained-flow gasifier, and another is two-stage syngas cooling (SC) entrained-flow gasifier. The conservation of energy (first law of thermodynamics) and the quality of energy (second law of thermodynamics) for the systems are both investigated. The results of exergy analysis provide insights about the potential targets for technology improvement. The features of different gasifier-based coal-to-fuel systems are discussed. The results provide information about the research and development priorities in future.

There is a growing wave of concern for the embodied carbon in traded goods. One manifestation of that concern is large economies such as the USA and the European Union enacting climate-related trade measures, including border carbon adjustment. This paper reviews more than ten climate-related trade measures that are currently enacted or under discussion globally and five initiatives from large companies to source low-carbon inputs. It then assesses Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Perus vulnerability to trade restrictions, based on estimated greenhouse gas intensity of their exported goods (using an input-output analysis) relative to other global producers, and an exposure analysis that assesses the likelihood that current importers of these products might implement climate-related trade measures. Finally, it reviews existing scenarios of global oil, natural gas and coal demand, and asks what they mean for fossil fuel exports from these countries. Agricultural goods stand out as vulnerable, as they are the main driver of deforestation and associated emissions. The most serious threat is the vulnerability of fossil fuel exports, primarily crude oil and gas, which dominate the four countries current exports. The paper exposes recommendations in terms of diversifying the economy away from fossil fuels and preparing exporters to comply with emerging climate-related trade restrictions.

Macroeconomic summary Several factors contributed to an increase in projected inflation on the forecast horizon, keeping it above the target rate. These included inflation in December that surpassed expectations (5.62%), indexation to higher inflation rates for various baskets in the consumer price index (CPI), a significant real increase in the legal minimum wage, persistent external and domestic inflationary supply shocks, and heightened exchange rate pressures. The CPI for foods was affected by the persistence of external and domestic supply shocks and was the most significant contributor to unexpectedly high inflation in the fourth quarter. Price adjustments for fuels and certain utilities can explain the acceleration in inflation for regulated items, which was more significant than anticipated. Prices in the CPI for goods excluding food and regulated items also rose more than expected. This was partly due to a smaller effect on prices from the national government’s VAT-free day than anticipated by the technical staff and more persistent external pressures, including via peso depreciation. By contrast, the CPI for services excluding food and regulated items accelerated less than expected, partly reflecting strong competition in the communications sector. This was the only major CPI basket for which prices increased below the target inflation rate. The technical staff revised its inflation forecast upward in response to certain external shocks (prices, costs, and depreciation) and domestic shocks (e.g., on meat products) that were stronger and more persistent than anticipated in the previous report. Observed inflation and a real increase in the legal minimum wage also exceeded expectations, which would boost inflation by affecting price indexation, labor costs, and inflation expectations. The technical staff now expects year-end headline inflation of 4.3% in 2022 and 3.4% in 2023; core inflation is projected to be 4.5% and 3.6%, respectively. These forecasts consider the lapse of certain price relief measures associated with the COVID-19 health emergency, which would contribute to temporarily keeping inflation above the target on the forecast horizon. It is important to note that these estimates continue to contain a significant degree of uncertainty, mainly related to the development of external and domestic supply shocks and their ultimate effects on prices. Other contributing factors include high price volatility and measurement uncertainty related to the extension of Colombia’s health emergency and tax relief measures (such as the VAT-free days) associated with the Social Investment Law (Ley de Inversión Social). The as-yet uncertain magnitude of the effects of a recent real increase in the legal minimum wage (that was high by historical standards) and high observed and expected inflation, are additional factors weighing on the overall uncertainty of the estimates in this report. The size of excess productive capacity remaining in the economy and the degree to which it is closing are also uncertain, as the evolution of the pandemic continues to represent a significant forecast risk. margin, could be less dynamic than expected. And the normalization of monetary policy in the United States could come more quickly than projected in this report, which could negatively affect international financing costs. Finally, there remains a significant degree of uncertainty related to the duration of supply chocks and the degree to which macroeconomic and political conditions could negatively affect the recovery in investment. The technical staff revised its GDP growth projection for 2022 from 4.7% to 4.3% (Graph 1.3). This revision accounts for the likelihood that a larger portion of the recent positive dynamic in private consumption would be transitory than previously expected. This estimate also contemplates less dynamic investment behavior than forecast in the previous report amid less favorable financial conditions and a highly uncertain investment environment. Third-quarter GDP growth (12.9%), which was similar to projections from the October report, and the fourth-quarter growth forecast (8.7%) reflect a positive consumption trend, which has been revised upward. This dynamic has been driven by both public and private spending. Investment growth, meanwhile, has been weaker than forecast. Available fourth-quarter data suggest that consumption spending for the period would have exceeded estimates from October, thanks to three consecutive months that included VAT-free days, a relatively low COVID-19 caseload, and mobility indicators similar to their pre-pandemic levels. By contrast, the most recently available figures on new housing developments and machinery and equipment imports suggest that investment, while continuing to rise, is growing at a slower rate than anticipated in the previous report. The trade deficit is expected to have widened, as imports would have grown at a high level and outpaced exports. Given the above, the technical staff now expects fourth-quarter economic growth of 8.7%, with overall growth for 2021 of 9.9%. Several factors should continue to contribute to output recovery in 2022, though some of these may be less significant than previously forecast. International financial conditions are expected to be less favorable, though external demand should continue to recover and terms of trade continue to increase amid higher projected oil prices. Lower unemployment rates and subsequent positive effects on household income, despite increased inflation, would also boost output recovery, as would progress in the national vaccination campaign. The technical staff expects that the conditions that have favored recent high levels of consumption would be, in large part, transitory. Consumption spending is expected to grow at a slower rate in 2022. Gross fixed capital formation (GFCF) would continue to recover, approaching its pre-pandemic level, though at a slower rate than anticipated in the previous report. This would be due to lower observed GFCF levels and the potential impact of political and fiscal uncertainty. Meanwhile, the policy interest rate would be less expansionary as the process of monetary policy normalization continues. Given the above, growth in 2022 is forecast to decelerate to 4.3% (previously 4.7%). In 2023, that figure (3.1%) is projected to converge to levels closer to the potential growth rate. In this case, excess productive capacity would be expected to tighten at a similar rate as projected in the previous report. The trade deficit would tighten more than previously projected on the forecast horizon, due to expectations of an improved export dynamic and moderation in imports. The growth forecast for 2022 considers a low basis of comparison from the first half of 2021. However, there remain significant downside risks to this forecast. The current projection does not, for example, account for any additional effects on economic activity resulting from further waves of COVID-19. High private consumption levels, which have already surpassed pre-pandemic levels by a large margin, could be less dynamic than expected. And the normalization of monetary policy in the United States could come more quickly than projected in this report, which could negatively affect international financing costs. Finally, there remains a significant degree of uncertainty related to the duration of supply chocks and the degree to which macroeconomic and political conditions could negatively affect the recovery in investment. External demand for Colombian goods and services should continue to recover amid significant global inflation pressures, high oil prices, and less favorable international financial conditions than those estimated in October. Economic activity among Colombia’s major trade partners recovered in 2021 amid countries reopening and ample international liquidity. However, that growth has been somewhat restricted by global supply chain disruptions and new outbreaks of COVID-19. The technical staff has revised its growth forecast for Colombia’s main trade partners from 6.3% to 6.9% for 2021, and from 3.4% to 3.3% for 2022; trade partner economies are expected to grow 2.6% in 2023. Colombia’s annual terms of trade increased in 2021, largely on higher oil, coffee, and coal prices. This improvement came despite increased prices for goods and services imports. The expected oil price trajectory has been revised upward, partly to supply restrictions and lagging investment in the sector that would offset reduced growth forecasts in some major economies. Elevated freight and raw materials costs and supply chain disruptions continue to affect global goods production, and have led to increases in global prices. Coupled with the recovery in global demand, this has put upward pressure on external inflation. Several emerging market economies have continued to normalize monetary policy in this context. Meanwhile, in the United States, the Federal Reserve has anticipated an end to its asset buying program. U.S. inflation in December (7.0%) was again surprisingly high and market average inflation forecasts for 2022 have increased. The Fed is expected to increase its policy rate during the first quarter of 2022, with quarterly increases anticipated over the rest of the year. For its part, Colombia’s sovereign risk premium has increased and is forecast to remain on a higher path, to levels above the 15-year-average, on the forecast horizon. This would be partly due to the effects of a less expansionary monetary policy in the United States and the accumulation of macroeconomic imbalances in Colombia. Given the above, international financial conditions are projected to be less favorable than anticipated in the October report. The increase in Colombia’s external financing costs could be more significant if upward pressures on inflation in the United States persist and monetary policy is normalized more quickly than contemplated in this report. As detailed in Section 2.3, uncertainty surrounding international financial conditions continues to be unusually high. Along with other considerations, recent concerns over the potential effects of new COVID-19 variants, the persistence of global supply chain disruptions, energy crises in certain countries, growing geopolitical tensions, and a more significant deceleration in China are all factors underlying this uncertainty. The changing macroeconomic environment toward greater inflation and unanchoring risks on inflation expectations imply a reduction in the space available for monetary policy stimulus. Recovery in domestic demand and a reduction in excess productive capacity have come in line with the technical staff’s expectations from the October report. Some upside risks to inflation have materialized, while medium-term inflation expectations have increased and are above the 3% target. Monetary policy remains expansionary. Significant global inflationary pressures and the unexpected increase in the CPI in December point to more persistent effects from recent supply shocks. Core inflation is trending upward, but remains below the 3% target. Headline and core inflation projections have increased on the forecast horizon and are above the target rate through the end of 2023. Meanwhile, the expected dynamism of domestic demand would be in line with low levels of excess productive capacity. An accumulation of macroeconomic imbalances in Colombia and the increased likelihood of a faster normalization of monetary policy in the United States would put upward pressure on sovereign risk perceptions in a more persistent manner, with implications for the exchange rate and the natural rate of interest. Persistent disruptions to international supply chains, a high real increase in the legal minimum wage, and the indexation of various baskets in the CPI to higher inflation rates could affect price expectations and push inflation above the target more persistently. These factors suggest that the space to maintain monetary stimulus has continued to diminish, though monetary policy remains expansionary. 1.2 Monetary policy decision Banco de la República’s board of directors (BDBR) in its meetings in December 2021 and January 2022 voted to continue normalizing monetary policy. The BDBR voted by a majority in these two meetings to increase the benchmark interest rate by 50 and 100 basis points, respectively, bringing the policy rate to 4.0%.