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Journal articles on the topic 'Explosive volcanic eruptions Victoria'

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Published: 10 December 2022

Last updated: 28 January 2023

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1

Narcisi, Biancamaria, Marco Proposito, and Massimo Frezzotti. "Ice record of a 13th century explosive volcanic eruption in northern Victoria Land, East Antarctica." Antarctic Science 13, no. 2 (June 2001): 174–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954102001000268.

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A volcanic event, represented by both coarse ash and a prominent sulphate peak, has been detected at a depth of 85.82 m in a 90 m ice core drilled at Talos Dome, northern Victoria Land. Accurate dating of the core, based on counting annual sulphate and nitrate fluctuations and on comparison with records of major known volcanic eruptions, indicates that the event occurred in 1254 ± 2 AD. The source volcano is most likely to be located within the Ross Sea region. In particular, the glass shards have a trachytic composition similar to rocks from The Pleiades and Mount Rittmann (Melbourne volcanic province), about 200 km from Talos Dome. Sulphate concentration is comparable with that of violent extra-Antarctic explosive events recorded in the same core, but atmospheric perturbation was short-lived and localized, suggesting a negligible impact on regional climate. It is suggested that this eruption may represent the most important volcanic explosion in the Melbourne province during the last eight centuries; thus this event may also represent a valuable chrono-stratigraphical marker on the East Antarctic plateau and in adjoining areas.

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2

Nardin, Raffaello, Alessandra Amore, Silvia Becagli, Laura Caiazzo, Massimo Frezzotti, Mirko Severi, Barbara Stenni, and Rita Traversi. "Volcanic Fluxes Over the Last Millennium as Recorded in the Gv7 Ice Core (Northern Victoria Land, Antarctica)." Geosciences 10, no. 1 (January 20, 2020): 38. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10010038.

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Major explosive volcanic eruptions may significantly alter the global atmosphere for about 2–3 years. During that period, volcanic products (mainly H2SO4) with high residence time, stored in the stratosphere or, for shorter times, in the troposphere are gradually deposited onto polar ice caps. Antarctic snow may thus record acidic signals providing a history of past volcanic events. The high resolution sulphate concentration profile along a 197 m long ice core drilled at GV7 (Northern Victoria land) was obtained by Ion Chromatography on around 3500 discrete samples. The relatively high accumulation rate (241 ± 13 mm we yr −1) and the 5-cm sampling resolution allowed a preliminary counted age scale. The obtained stratigraphy covers roughly the last millennium and 24 major volcanic eruptions were identified, dated, and tentatively ascribed to a source volcano. The deposition flux of volcanic sulphate was calculated for each signature and the results were compared with data from other Antarctic ice cores at regional and continental scale. Our results show that the regional variability is of the same order of magnitude as the continental one.

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3

Lane, Christine S., Catherine M. Martin-Jones, and Thomas C. Johnson. "A cryptotephra record from the Lake Victoria sediment core record of Holocene palaeoenvironmental change." Holocene 28, no. 12 (September 21, 2018): 1909–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0959683618798163.

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The sediment record from Lake Victoria is an important archive of regional environmental and climatic conditions, reaching back more than 15,000 cal. years before present (15 ka BP). As the largest lake by area in East Africa, its evolution is key to understanding regional palaeohydrological change during the late Pleistocene and Holocene, including controls on the Nile River flow. As well as important palaeoenvironmental proxies, the lake contains a unique record of explosive volcanism from the central Kenyan Rift, in the form of fine-grained volcanic ash (tephra) layers, interpreted as airfall deposits. In the V95-1P core, collected from the central northern basin of the lake, tephra layers vary in concentration from 10s to 10s of 1000s of glass shards per gram of sediment. None of the tephra are visible to the naked eye, and have only been revealed through careful laboratory processing. Compositional analyses of tephra glass shards has allowed the tephra layers to be correlated to previously unrecognized eruptions of Eburru volcano around 1.2 and 3.8 ka, and Olkaria volcano, prior to 15 ka. These volcanoes lie ~300 km east of the core site in the Kenyan Rift. Our results highlight the potential for developing cryptotephra analysis as a key tool in East African palaeolimnological research. Tephra layers offer opportunities for precise correlation of palaeoenvironmental sequences, as well as windows into the eruption frequency of regional volcanoes and the dispersal of volcanic ash.

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4

Stenni, B., R. Caprioli, L. Cimino, C. Cremisini, O. Flora, R. Gragnani, A. Longinelli, V. Maggi, and S. Torcini. "200 years of isotope and chemical records in a firn core from Hercules Névé, northern Victoria Land, Antarctica." Annals of Glaciology 29 (1999): 106–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/172756499781821175.

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AbstractA 42.2 m firn core was collected at the Hercules Névé plateau (100 km inland and 2960 m a.s.L), northern Victoria Land, during the 1994-95 Italian Antarctic Expedition. Chemical (Cl–, NO3–, SO42–’; δ18O δ18O δ18O; m-2a-1) and isotope (5180) analyses were performed to evaluate the snow-accumulation rate at this site. Tritium measurements were performed in the upper part of the core to narrow down the dating of the core.High nssSO42- concentrations seem to be related to some explosive volcanic eruptions, such as Tambora (AD 1815) and the preceding event called "Unknown" (AD 1809), Coseguina (AD 1835), Makjan (AD 1861), Krakatoa (AD 1883) and Tarawera (AD 1886).A comparison between the seasonal variations observed in the isotope and chemical profiles was carried out in order to reduce the dating uncertainty, using the tritium and the volcanic markers as time constraints. A deposition period of 222 years was determined.The 3 year smoothed «5180 profile shows more negative values from the bottom of the core (dated AD 1770) throughout the 19th century, suggesting "cooler" conditions, in agreement with other East Antarctic ice-core records! Subsequently, a general increase in δ180-values is observed.The calculated average snow-accumulation rates between the above-mentioned time markers are 111-129 kg m-2a-1.

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5

Ismail, Rafika, David Phillips, and William D. Birch. "40Ar/39Ar dating of alkali feldspar megacrysts from selected young volcanoes of the Newer Volcanic Province, Victoria." Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 125, no. 2 (2013): 59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/rs13019.

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The Newer Volcanic Province (NVP) in Victoria, with extension into south-eastern South Australia, represents the youngest chapter of Cenozoic volcanism in south-eastern Australia. However, most ages have been determined by the potassium–argon (K–Ar) method, and the age data are not comprehensive. In addition, few ages exist for the array of scoria cone volcanoes in the NVP. Seven alkali feldspar samples, mostly anorthoclase megacrysts, from volcanic centres in the NVP were used for 40Ar/39Ar dating in the present study. In geochronological order, with ages quoting 95% confidence limits, locations are Mount Franklin near Daylesford (0.110 ± 0.014 Ma), Red Rock near Alvie (0.116 ± 0.048 Ma), Lake Bullenmerri at Camperdown (0.116 ± 0.019 Ma), Ridge Road Quarry near Daylesford (2.01 ± 0.11 Ma) and Mount Kororoit near Diggers Rest (3.74 ± 0.26 Ma). Two samples from The Anakies, near Bacchus Marsh, produced discordant results suggesting a maximum age of ca. 1.9 Ma. The analyses and reported ages in the present study not only provide new geochronological data for the province, but also elucidate the difficulties in dating very young basalts using the 40Ar/39Ar dating method. These results are consistent with the erosion levels of the scoria volcanoes sampled, and indicate a major episode of explosive volcanic activity at ca. 100 ka. In contrast, the more eroded Mount Kororoit is considered to be ca. 3.7 Ma in age. The age of The Anakies is more equivocal owing to the indicated presence of excess argon and a maximum age of ca. 1.9 Ma is suggested for this locality. Given the latter results and lack of precision obtainable from the younger samples, the possibility remains that other samples contained extraneous argon and that the ages generated are thus maximum eruption ages. Analyses of additional samples from these and other localities will be required to further resolve this issue.

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6

Lynch, James S. "Mount Pinatubo—Explosive Volcanic Eruptions." Weather and Forecasting 6, no. 4 (December 1991): 576–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0434(1991)006<0576:mpve>2.0.co;2.

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7

Mader, H. M. "PHYSICAL PROCESSES IN EXPLOSIVE VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS." Multiphase Science and Technology 11, no. 3 (1999): 147–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1615/multscientechn.v11.i3.10.

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8

Dufek, Josef, Michael Manga, and Ameeta Patel. "Granular disruption during explosive volcanic eruptions." Nature Geoscience 5, no. 8 (July 22, 2012): 561–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1524.

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9

BUCKINGHAM, MICHAEL J., and MILTON A. GARCÉS. "AIRBORNE ACOUSTICS OF EXPLOSIVE VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS." Journal of Computational Acoustics 09, no. 03 (September 2001): 1215–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218396x01000802.

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A recently developed theoretical model of the airborne acoustic field from an explosive volcanic eruption of the Strombolian type is described in this article. The magma column is assumed to be a circular cylinder, which is open to the atmosphere at the top, and which opens into a large magma chamber below. The magma itself is treated as a fluid, and the surrounding bedrock is taken to be rigid. An explosive source near the base of the magma column excites the natural resonances of the conduit. These resonances result in displacement of the magma surface, which acts as a piston radiating sound into the atmosphere. The source is modeled in much the same way as an underwater explosion from a high-explosive chemical such as TNT, although in the case of the volcano the detonation mechanism is the ex-solution of magmatic gases under extremely high hydrostatic pressure. The new theory shows compelling agreement with airborne acoustic signatures that were recorded in July 1994 at a distance of 150 m from the western vent of Stromboli volcano, Italy. The theoretical and observed power spectra both display the following features: (1) four energetic peaks below 20 Hz, identified as the first four longitudinal resonances of the magma column; (2) a broad minimum around 30 Hz, interpreted as a source-depth effect, occurring because the source lay close to nulls in the fifth and sixth longitudinal resonances and thus failed to excite these modes; and (3) radial resonance peaks between 35 and 65 Hz. On the basis of the theory, an inversion of the acoustic data from Stromboli yields estimates of the depth (≈100 m) and radius (≈16 m) of the magma column as well as the depth (≈83 m), spectral shape and peak shock wave pressure (≈1 GPa) of the explosive source. Most of the parameters estimated from the acoustic inversion compare favorably with the known geometry and source characteristics of Stromboli.

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10

Woods, Andrew W. "The dynamics of explosive volcanic eruptions." Reviews of Geophysics 33, no. 4 (1995): 495. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/95rg02096.

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11

Telling, J., J. Dufek, and A. Shaikh. "Ash aggregation in explosive volcanic eruptions." Geophysical Research Letters 40, no. 10 (May 28, 2013): 2355–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/grl.50376.

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12

Druitt, T. H., R. A. Mellors, D. M. Pyle, and R. S. J. Sparks. "Explosive volcanism on Santorini, Greece." Geological Magazine 126, no. 2 (March 1989): 95–126. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0016756800006270.

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AbstrctSantorini volcanic field has had 12 major (1–10 km3 or more of magma), and numerous minor, explosive eruptions over the last ~ 200 ka. Deposits from these eruptions (Thera Pyroclastic Formation) are well exposed in caldera-wall successions up to 200 m thick. Each of the major eruptions began with a pumice-fall phase, and most culminated with emplacement of pyroclastic flows. Pyroclastic flows of at least six eruptions deposited proximal lag deposits exposed widely in the caldera wall. The lag deposits include coarse-grained lithic breccias (andesitic to rhyodacitic eruptions) and spatter agglomerates (andesitic eruptions only). Facies associations between lithic breccia, spatter agglomerate, and ignimbrite from the same eruption can be very complex. For some eruptions, lag deposits provide the only evidence for pyroclastic flows, because most of the ignimbrite is buried on the lower flanks of Santorini or under the sea. At least eight eruptions tapped compositionally heterogeneous magma chambers, producing deposits with a range of zoning patterns and compositional gaps. Three eruptions display a silicic–silicic + mafic–silicic zoning not previously reported. Four eruptions vented large volumes of dacitic or rhyodacitic pumice, and may account for 90% or more of all silicic magma discharged from Santorini. The Thera Pyroclastic Formation and coeval lavas record two major mafic-to-silicic cycles of Santorini volcanism. Each cycle commenced with explosive eruptions of andesite or dacite, accompanied by construction of composite shields and stratocones, and culminated in a pair of major dacitic or rhyodacitic eruptions. Sequences of scoria and ash deposits occur between most of the twelve major members and record repeated stratocone or shield construction following a large explosive eruption.Volcanism at Santorini has focussed on a deep NE–SW basement fracture, which has acted as a pathway for magma ascent. At least four major explosive eruptions began at a vent complex on this fracture. Composite volcanoes constructed north of the fracture were dissected by at least three caldera-collapse events associated with the pyroclastic eruptions. Southern Santorini consists of pryoclastic ejecta draped over a pre-volcanic island and a ridge of early- to mid-Pleistocene volcanics. The southern half of the present-day caldera basin is a long-lived, essentially non-volcanic, depression, defined by topographic highs to the south and east, but deepened by subsidence associated with the main northern caldera complex, and is probably not a separate caldera.

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13

Тобратов, С. А., О. С. Железнова, and А. В. Водорезов. "Natural Cyclicity of Explosive Volcanism." Вестник Рязанского государственного университета имени С.А. Есенина, no. 1(74) (April 1, 2022): 138–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.37724/rsu.2022.74.1.013.

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Рассмотрены причины, факторы и закономерности пульсаций вулканической активности (для извержений с VEI не менее 5, без учета вулканов со щелочными лавами). Установлено соответствие эксплозивных событий 1650-летним (ритмы Петтерсона — Шнитникова) и 60–70-летним циклам природной динамики, порождаемым гравитационными взаимодействиями Земли со смежными объектами Солнечной системы (Луной, Солнцем, Венерой, Юпитером). Отмечено, что максимальные по магнитуде извержения концентрируются на стыках смежных циклов; данная закономерность может иметь прогностическое значение. Обоснование вулкано-климатических взаимосвязей осуществлено с использованием теоретических разработок Н. С. Сидоренкова, устанавливающих ведущую роль в подобных процессах закона сохранения момента импульса; индикаторную роль при этом играет замедление осевого вращения Земли, с эпизодами которого синхронизируются крупные эруптивные события. Подчеркнуто, что совместная динамика вулканизма и климата существует, но объясняется не причинно-следственными, а генетическими связями. Выявлено, что максимальные проявления вулканизма соответствуют холодным и гумидным фазам климатической динамики, захватывая часть последующего потепления, а аридные фазы отличаются минимальной эруптивностью. При этом гидроклиматическим индикатором роста опасности крупных извержений может служить трансгрессивный режим Каспийского моря. Рассмотрены особенности Одинцовского межледниковья и середины теплой эпохи викингов (900–950 годы н. э.), которые, вопреки общим закономерностям, отличались повышенным вулканизмом. На примере горизонтов раннеголоценового реликтового торфяника дана характеристика совместной динамики вулканической активности и климата атлантического периода (эруптивный максимум голоцена), взаимосвязей глобального вулканизма и палеоландшафтных процессов на Русской равнине. Установлено наличие двух гумидных подфаз климатического оптимума голоцена — около 6,5–6,3 и 6,2–6,0 тысяч лет назад. На основании выявленных циклических закономерностей выдвинуто предположение о постепенном ослаблении вулканической активности в ближайшие 600 лет, но в холодные фазы 70-летних циклов и при резком снижении массы полярных ледников следует ожидать локальной активизации вулканизма (ближайший этап активизации — 2035–2045 годы). The article treats the causes, factors and patterns of volcanic activity (eruptions rated at least 5 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index, excluding alkaline volcanoes). The article underlines that volcanic eruptions occurring every 1,650 years or 60–70 years (the Petterson-Shnitnikov pattern) are triggered off by the influence of the celestial bodies of the Solar system (Moon, Sun, Venus, Jupiter). It is highlighted that most powerful eruptions occur when volcanic cycle is over and another is about to begin. This information may have prognostic significance. The connection between volcanic eruptions and climate variability is investigated on the basis of N. S. Sidorenkov’s theoretical research, which underlines the leading role of the law of conservation of angular momentum. The slowdown in the Earth’s axial rotation is an indicator synchronized with major eruptive events. The authors emphasize that the connection between volcanic eruptions and climate variability cannot be explained in the simple cause and effect terms, but are of genetic character. The authors underline that most powerful volcanic eruptions coincide with cold and humid climatic conditions, while arid conditions are associated with minimal eruptive activity. The transgression of the Caspian Sea can serve as a hydro-climatic indicator of increasing hazardous effects of powerful volcanic eruptions. The article investigates the peculiarities of the Odintsovo interglacial period and the mid-Viking Age (900–950 AD), which, contrary to general laws, were characterized by excessive volcanism. The article investigates peat relicts to analyze the connection between volcanic eruptions and climate variability in the Atlantic period (Holocene eruptive maximum), as well as to analyze the interconnection between global volcanism and paleolandscapes on the Russian Plain. The article underlines that there are two humid subphases of the Holocene climatic optimum: 6.5-6.3 and 6.2-6.0 thousand years ago. Relying on the discovered patterns, the authors assume that volcanic activity will gradually weaken during the next 600 years. However, it can be predicted that volcanic activity will increase during cold phases (70 years) accompanied by a sharp decrease in the mass of polar glaciers (the nearest phase of activation is 2035–2045).

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14

Woods, Andrew W., and Colm-Cille P. Caulfield. "A laboratory study of explosive volcanic eruptions." Journal of Geophysical Research 97, B5 (1992): 6699. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/92jb00176.

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15

Aravena, Álvaro, Mattia de' Michieli Vitturi, Raffaello Cioni, and Augusto Neri. "Stability of volcanic conduits during explosive eruptions." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 339 (June 2017): 52–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2017.05.003.

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16

Wadsworth, Fabian B., Edward W. Llewellin, Jérémie Vasseur, James E. Gardner, and Hugh Tuffen. "Explosive-effusive volcanic eruption transitions caused by sintering." Science Advances 6, no. 39 (September 2020): eaba7940. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aba7940.

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Silicic volcanic activity has long been framed as either violently explosive or gently effusive. However, recent observations demonstrate that explosive and effusive behavior can occur simultaneously. Here, we propose that rhyolitic magma feeding subaerial eruptions generally fragments during ascent through the upper crust and that effusive eruptions result from conduit blockage and sintering of the pyroclastic products of deeper cryptic fragmentation. Our proposal is supported by (i) rhyolitic lavas are volatile depleted; (ii) textural evidence supports a pyroclastic origin for effusive products; (iii) numerical models show that small ash particles ≲10−5 m can diffusively degas, stick, and sinter to low porosity, in the time available between fragmentation and the surface; and (iv) inferred ascent rates from both explosive and apparently effusive eruptions can overlap. Our model reconciles previously paradoxical observations and offers a new framework in which to evaluate physical, numerical, and geochemical models of Earth’s most violent volcanic eruptions.

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17

Carboni, E., R. G. Grainger, T. A. Mather, D. M. Pyle, G. Thomas, R. Siddans, A. Smith, A. Dudhia, M. L. Koukouli, and D. Balis. "The vertical distribution of volcanic SO<sub>2</sub> plumes measured by IASI." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions 15, no. 17 (September 11, 2015): 24643–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acpd-15-24643-2015.

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Abstract. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is an important atmospheric constituent that plays a crucial role in many atmospheric processes. Volcanic eruptions are a significant source of atmospheric SO2 and its effects and lifetime depend on the SO2 injection altitude. The Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Instrument (IASI) on the Metop satellite can be used to study volcanic emission of SO2 using high-spectral resolution measurements from 1000 to 1200 cm−1 and from 1300 to 1410 (the 7.3 and 8.7 μm SO2 bands). The scheme described in Carboni et al. (2012) has been applied to measure volcanic SO2 amount and altitude for fourteen explosive eruptions from 2008 to 2012. The work includes a comparison with independent measurements: (i) the SO2 column amounts from the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull plumes have been compared with Brewer ground measurements over Europe; (ii) the SO2 plumes heights, for the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull and 2011 Grimsvötn eruptions, have been compared with CALIPSO backscatter profiles. The results of the comparisons show that IASI SO2 measurements are not affected by underlying cloud and are consistent (within the retrieved errors) with the other measurements. The series of analysed eruptions (2008 to 2012) show that the biggest emitter of volcanic SO2 was Nabro, followed by Kasatochi and Grímsvötn. Our observations also show a tendency for volcanic SO2 to be injected to the level of the tropopause during many of the moderately explosive eruptions observed. For the eruptions observed, this tendency was independent of the maximum amount of SO2 (e.g. 0.2 Tg for Dalafilla compared with 1.6 Tg for Nabro) and of the volcanic explosive index (between 3 and 5).

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18

Carboni, Elisa, Roy G. Grainger, Tamsin A. Mather, David M. Pyle, Gareth E. Thomas, Richard Siddans, Andrew J. A. Smith, Anu Dudhia, Mariliza E. Koukouli, and Dimitrios Balis. "The vertical distribution of volcanic SO<sub>2</sub> plumes measured by IASI." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 16, no. 7 (April 7, 2016): 4343–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-4343-2016.

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Abstract. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is an important atmospheric constituent that plays a crucial role in many atmospheric processes. Volcanic eruptions are a significant source of atmospheric SO2 and its effects and lifetime depend on the SO2 injection altitude. The Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI) on the METOP satellite can be used to study volcanic emission of SO2 using high-spectral resolution measurements from 1000 to 1200 and from 1300 to 1410 cm−1 (the 7.3 and 8.7 µm SO2 bands) returning both SO2 amount and altitude data. The scheme described in Carboni et al. (2012) has been applied to measure volcanic SO2 amount and altitude for 14 explosive eruptions from 2008 to 2012. The work includes a comparison with the following independent measurements: (i) the SO2 column amounts from the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull plumes have been compared with Brewer ground measurements over Europe; (ii) the SO2 plumes heights, for the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull and 2011 Grimsvötn eruptions, have been compared with CALIPSO backscatter profiles. The results of the comparisons show that IASI SO2 measurements are not affected by underlying cloud and are consistent (within the retrieved errors) with the other measurements. The series of analysed eruptions (2008 to 2012) show that the biggest emitter of volcanic SO2 was Nabro, followed by Kasatochi and Grímsvötn. Our observations also show a tendency for volcanic SO2 to reach the level of the tropopause during many of the moderately explosive eruptions observed. For the eruptions observed, this tendency was independent of the maximum amount of SO2 (e.g. 0.2 Tg for Dalafilla compared with 1.6 Tg for Nabro) and of the volcanic explosive index (between 3 and 5).

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19

Paik, Seungmok, Seung-Ki Min, and Soon-Il An. "How explosive volcanic eruptions reshape daily precipitation distributions." Weather and Climate Extremes 37 (September 2022): 100489. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2022.100489.

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20

Paik, Seungmok, Seung-Ki Min, and Soon-Il An. "How explosive volcanic eruptions reshape daily precipitation distributions." Weather and Climate Extremes 37 (September 2022): 100489. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wace.2022.100489.

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21

Safronov, Alexander N. "New Theory of Effusive and Explosive Volcanic Eruptions." International Journal of Geosciences 13, no. 02 (2022): 115–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ijg.2022.132007.

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22

Bluth, Gregg J. S., William I. Rose, Ian E. Sprod, and Arlin J. Krueger. "Stratospheric Loading of Sulfur From Explosive Volcanic Eruptions." Journal of Geology 105, no. 6 (November 1997): 671–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/515972.

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23

Huppert, Herbert E., and W. Brian Dade. "Natural Disasters: Explosive Volcanic Eruptions and Gigantic Landslides." Theoretical and Computational Fluid Dynamics 10, no. 1-4 (January 1, 1998): 201–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s001620050059.

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24

Pyle, David M. "Mass and energy budgets of explosive volcanic eruptions." Geophysical Research Letters 22, no. 5 (March 1, 1995): 563–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/95gl00052.

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Reich, Martin, Alejandro Zúñiga, Álvaro Amigo, Gabriel Vargas, Diego Morata, Carlos Palacios, Miguel Ángel Parada, and René D. Garreaud. "Formation of cristobalite nanofibers during explosive volcanic eruptions." Geology 37, no. 5 (May 2009): 435–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/g25457a.1.

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Medici, E. F., J. S. Allen, and G. P. Waite. "Modeling shock waves generated by explosive volcanic eruptions." Geophysical Research Letters 41, no. 2 (January 23, 2014): 414–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2013gl058340.

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Solomonidou, A., A. D. Fortes, and K. Kyriakopoulos. "MODELLING OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS ON TITAN." Bulletin of the Geological Society of Greece 43, no. 5 (July 31, 2017): 2726. http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/bgsg.11679.

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Observations by the Visual Infrared Spectrometer instrument (VIMS) aboard the Cassini mission haveindicated the possible presence of CO2 ice on the surface on Titan, in areas which exhibit highreflectance in specific spectral windows (McCord et al., 2008). Two of the bright spots of significanceare located within the Xanadu region – Tui Regio (located at 20°S, 130°W) and Hotei Regio (locatedat 26°S, 78°W), and there is a further spot situated in proximity to Omacatl Macula (Hayne et al.,2008). Explosive volcanic eruptions of a cryomagma containing H2O and CO2 are modelled forseveral potential scenarios regarding entrained CO2 clathrates. The model yielded a range of valuescorresponding to the fragmentation pressure in the lava conduit, the velocity of the explodingcryomagma, the height of the associated lava fountain and the potential distance covered by ejecta.The results show that a single vent source does not possess the force required to cover an arearesembling Hotei Regio or Tui Regio. Therefore, we consider alternative origins: the area may havebeen resurfaced by small CO2 grains resulting from multiple explosive eruptions emanating from azone of weakness (Hayne et al., 2008); the characteristics of the area are consequential of an eruptionof cryomagma with CO2 and NH3 components (McCord et al., 2008); or finally, long term seasonalwinds transferred small CO2 grains and distributed them within the limits of Tui Regio area.

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Kohno, Mika, and Yoshiyuki Fujii. "Past 220 year bipolar volcanic signals: remarks on common features of their source volcanic eruptions." Annals of Glaciology 35 (2002): 217–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/172756402781816807.

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AbstractDuring the past 220 years, prominent signals of non-sea salt sulfate ion (nssSO42–) concentration exceeding the background level, including both marine biogenic and anthropogenic SO42–, were found in shallow ice cores from site H15 in East Antarctica and Site-J in southern Greenland. They were mostly correlated with past explosive volcanic eruptions. on the basis of this result and published results of shallow ice cores and snow pits at various locations on the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets, eight common signals were found, of which six were assigned to the following explosive eruptions: El Chichόn, Mexico, in 1982; Agung, Indonesia, in 1963; Santa Maria, Guatemala, in 1902; Krakatau, Indonesia, in 1883; Cosiguina, Nicaragua, in 1835; an unknown volcano between 1831 and 1834; Tambora, Indonesia, in 1815; and an unknown volcano in 1809. Volcanic eruptions which have a potential to imprint their signals in both the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets were characterized by (1) location in low latitudes between 20˚N and 10˚ S, and (2) eruption column height ≥25 km, corresponding to a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) ≥5.

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Verkhoturov, Alexey A. "ANALYSIS OF CHANGES IN THE STATE OF ECOSYSTEMS ON ATLASOVA ISLAND (KURIL ISLANDS)." Vestnik SSUGT (Siberian State University of Geosystems and Technologies) 25, no. 3 (2020): 139–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.33764/2411-1759-2020-25-3-139-150.

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The territory of the Kuril Islands is a chain of volcanic structures and is subject, to certain extent, to volcanic hazards. Atlasova Island is composed of products of the Alaid volcano, which is characterized by effusive and explosive activity. The article analyzes the changes in ecosystems on Atlasov island, which are periodically caused by the Alaid volcano eruption. Large amount of pyroclastic material are brought to the surface during explosive eruptions: blocks, bombs, tephra, lapilli and volcanic ash, which is transported in the atmosphere over very long distances. Ecosystems are affected by pyroclastic deposition over a large area of island land. The purpose of this study was to identify the nature and extent of changes in the state of ecosystems affected by volcanic eruptions from multi-zone satellite images of medium resolution. Analysis of data obtained from space systems Landsat and Sentinel for the period 1972 to 2020, in GIS environment allowed us to trace the dynamics and character of the successions to the affected areas on the calculated values of the vegetation index NDVI. Techniques developed in the process of studying this issue can further facili-tate rapid assessment of impacts on ecosystems at the effusive-explosive eruptions and forecast volcanic hazard for surrounding areas.

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Edmonds, Marie. "New geochemical insights into volcanic degassing." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 366, no. 1885 (September 30, 2008): 4559–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2008.0185.

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Magma degassing plays a fundamental role in controlling the style of volcanic eruptions. Whether a volcanic eruption is explosive, or effusive, is of crucial importance to approximately 500 million people living in the shadow of hazardous volcanoes worldwide. Studies of how gases exsolve and separate from magma prior to and during eruptions have been given new impetus by the emergence of more accurate and automated methods to measure volatile species both as volcanic gases and dissolved in the glasses of erupted products. The composition of volcanic gases is dependent on a number of factors, the most important being magma composition and the depth of gas–melt segregation prior to eruption; this latter parameter has proved difficult to constrain in the past, yet is arguably the most critical for controlling eruptive style. Spectroscopic techniques operating in the infrared have proved to be of great value in measuring the composition of gases at high temporal resolution. Such methods, when used in tandem with microanalytical geochemical investigations of erupted products, are leading to better constraints on the depth at which gases are generated and separated from magma. A number of recent studies have focused on transitions between explosive and effusive activity and have led to a better understanding of gas–melt segregation at basaltic volcanoes. Other studies have focused on degassing during intermediate and silicic eruptions. Important new results include the recognition of fluxing by deep-derived gases, which buffer the amount of dissolved volatiles in the melt at shallow depths, and the observation of gas flow up permeable conduit wall shear zones, which may be the primary mechanism for gas loss at the cusp of the most explosive and unpredictable volcanic eruptions. In this paper, I review current and future directions in the field of geochemical studies of volcanic degassing processes and illustrate how the new insights are beginning to change the way in which we understand and classify volcanic eruptions.

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Peng, Youbing, Caiming Shen, Wei-Chyung Wang, and Ying Xu. "Response of Summer Precipitation over Eastern China to Large Volcanic Eruptions." Journal of Climate 23, no. 3 (February 1, 2010): 818–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2009jcli2950.1.

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Abstract Studies of the effects of large volcanic eruptions on regional climate so far have focused mostly on temperature responses. Previous studies using proxy data suggested that coherent droughts over eastern China are associated with explosive low-latitude volcanic eruptions. Here, the authors present an investigation of the responses of summer precipitation over eastern China to large volcanic eruptions through analyzing a 1000-yr global climate model simulation driven by natural and anthropogenic forcing. Superposed epoch analyses of 18 cases of large volcanic eruption indicate that summer precipitation over eastern China significantly decreases in the eruption year and the year after. Model simulation suggests that this reduction of summer precipitation over eastern China can be attributed to a weakening of summer monsoon and a decrease of moisture vapor over tropical oceans caused by large volcanic eruptions.

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Morrissey, M. M. "Burst Conditions of Explosive Volcanic Eruptions Recorded on Microbarographs." Science 275, no. 5304 (February 28, 1997): 1290–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.275.5304.1290.

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Mitchell, Karl L. "Coupled conduit flow and shape in explosive volcanic eruptions." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 143, no. 1-3 (May 2005): 187–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2004.09.017.

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Fontijn, Karen, Gerald G. J. Ernst, Marlina A. Elburg, David Williamson, Edista Abdallah, Shimba Kwelwa, Evelyne Mbede, and Patric Jacobs. "Holocene explosive eruptions in the Rungwe Volcanic Province, Tanzania." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 196, no. 1-2 (September 2010): 91–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2010.07.021.

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35

Pierson, Thomas C., and Jon J. Major. "Hydrogeomorphic Effects of Explosive Volcanic Eruptions on Drainage Basins." Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 42, no. 1 (May 30, 2014): 469–507. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-060313-054913.

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36

Pyle, David M., Paul D. Beattie, and Gregg J. S. Bluth. "Sulphur emissions to the stratosphere from explosive volcanic eruptions." Bulletin of Volcanology 57, no. 8 (July 19, 1996): 663–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s004450050119.

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37

Toohey, Matthew, Kirstin Krüger, Hauke Schmidt, Claudia Timmreck, Michael Sigl, Markus Stoffel, and Rob Wilson. "Disproportionately strong climate forcing from extratropical explosive volcanic eruptions." Nature Geoscience 12, no. 2 (January 28, 2019): 100–107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-018-0286-2.

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38

Haney, Matthew M., Alexa R. Van Eaton, John J. Lyons, Rebecca L. Kramer, David Fee, and Alexandra M. Iezzi. "Volcanic Thunder From Explosive Eruptions at Bogoslof Volcano, Alaska." Geophysical Research Letters 45, no. 8 (April 19, 2018): 3429–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2017gl076911.

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39

Timmreck, C. "Modeling the climatic effects of large explosive volcanic eruptions." Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change 3, no. 6 (October 5, 2012): 545–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wcc.192.

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40

Woods, Andrew W., and Sally M. Bower. "The decompression of volcanic jets in a crater during explosive volcanic eruptions." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 131, no. 3-4 (April 1995): 189–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0012-821x(95)00012-2.

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41

Mangler, Martin F., Chiara Maria Petrone, and Julie Prytulak. "Magma recharge patterns control eruption styles and magnitudes at Popocatépetl volcano (Mexico)." Geology 50, no. 3 (January 5, 2022): 366–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/g49365.1.

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Abstract Diffusion chronometry has produced petrological evidence that magma recharge in mafic to intermediate systems can trigger volcanic eruptions within weeks to months. However, less is known about longer-term recharge frequencies and durations priming magma reservoirs for eruptions. We use Fe-Mg diffusion modeling in orthopyroxene to show that the duration, frequency, and timing of pre-eruptive recharge at Popocatépetl volcano (Mexico) vary systematically with eruption style and magnitude. Effusive eruptions are preceded by 9–13 yr of increased recharge activity, compared to 15–100 yr for explosive eruptions. Explosive eruptions also record a higher number of individual recharge episodes priming the plumbing system. The largest explosive eruptions are further distinguished by an ~1 yr recharge hiatus directly prior to eruption. Our results offer valuable context for the interpretation of ongoing activity at Popocatépetl, and seeking similar correlations at other arc volcanoes may advance eruption forecasting by including constraints on potential eruption size and style.

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42

Self, S. "The effects and consequences of very large explosive volcanic eruptions." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 364, no. 1845 (June 28, 2006): 2073–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2006.1814.

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Every now and again Earth experiences tremendous explosive volcanic eruptions, considerably bigger than the largest witnessed in historic times. Those yielding more than 450 km 3 of magma have been called super-eruptions. The record of such eruptions is incomplete; the most recent known example occurred 26 000 years ago. It is more likely that the Earth will next experience a super-eruption than an impact from a large meteorite greater than 1 km in diameter. Depending on where the volcano is located, the effects will be felt globally or at least by a whole hemisphere. Large areas will be devastated by pyroclastic flow deposits, and the more widely dispersed ash falls will be laid down over continent-sized areas. The most widespread effects will be derived from volcanic gases, sulphur gases being particularly important. This gas is converted into sulphuric acid aerosols in the stratosphere and layers of aerosol can cover the global atmosphere within a few weeks to months. These remain for several years and affect atmospheric circulation causing surface temperature to fall in many regions. Effects include temporary reductions in light levels and severe and unseasonable weather (including cool summers and colder-than-normal winters). Some aspects of the understanding and prediction of super-eruptions are problematic because they are well outside modern experience. Our global society is now very different to that affected by past, modest-sized volcanic activity and is highly vulnerable to catastrophic damage of infrastructure by natural disasters. Major disruption of services that society depends upon can be expected for periods of months to, perhaps, years after the next very large explosive eruption and the cost to global financial markets will be high and sustained.

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43

Staunton-Sykes, John, Thomas J. Aubry, Youngsub M. Shin, James Weber, Lauren R. Marshall, Nathan Luke Abraham, Alex Archibald, and Anja Schmidt. "Co-emission of volcanic sulfur and halogens amplifies volcanic effective radiative forcing." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 21, no. 11 (June 14, 2021): 9009–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-9009-2021.

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Abstract. The evolution of volcanic sulfur and the resulting radiative forcing following explosive volcanic eruptions is well understood. Petrological evidence suggests that significant amounts of halogens may be co-emitted alongside sulfur in some explosive volcanic eruptions, and satellite evidence indicates that detectable amounts of these halogens may reach the stratosphere. In this study, we utilise an aerosol–chemistry–climate model to simulate stratospheric volcanic eruption emission scenarios of two sizes, both with and without co-emission of volcanic halogens, in order to understand how co-emitted halogens may alter the life cycle of volcanic sulfur, stratospheric chemistry, and the resulting radiative forcing. We simulate a large (10 Tg of SO2) and very large (56 Tg of SO2) sulfur-only eruption scenario and a corresponding large (10 Tg SO2, 1.5 Tg HCl, 0.0086 Tg HBr) and very large (56 Tg SO2, 15 Tg HCl, 0.086 Tg HBr) co-emission eruption scenario. The eruption scenarios simulated in this work are hypothetical, but they are comparable to Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) 6 (e.g. 1991 Mt Pinatubo) and VEI 7 (e.g. 1257 Mt Samalas) eruptions, representing 1-in-50–100-year and 1-in-500–1000-year events, respectively, with plausible amounts of co-emitted halogens based on satellite observations and volcanic plume modelling. We show that co-emission of volcanic halogens and sulfur into the stratosphere increases the volcanic effective radiative forcing (ERF) by 24 % and 30 % in large and very large co-emission scenarios compared to sulfur-only emission. This is caused by an increase in both the forcing from volcanic aerosol–radiation interactions (ERFari) and composition of the stratosphere (ERFclear,clean). Volcanic halogens catalyse the destruction of stratospheric ozone, which results in significant stratospheric cooling, offsetting the aerosol heating simulated in sulfur-only scenarios and resulting in net stratospheric cooling. The ozone-induced stratospheric cooling prevents aerosol self-lofting and keeps the volcanic aerosol lower in the stratosphere with a shorter lifetime. This results in reduced growth by condensation and coagulation and a smaller peak global-mean effective radius compared to sulfur-only simulations. The smaller effective radius found in both co-emission scenarios is closer to the peak scattering efficiency radius of sulfate aerosol, and thus co-emission of halogens results in larger peak global-mean ERFari (6 % and 8 %). Co-emission of volcanic halogens results in significant stratospheric ozone, methane, and water vapour reductions, resulting in significant increases in peak global-mean ERFclear,clean (> 100 %), predominantly due to ozone loss. The dramatic global-mean ozone depletion simulated in large (22 %) and very large (57 %) co-emission scenarios would result in very high levels of UV exposure on the Earth's surface, with important implications for society and the biosphere. This work shows for the first time that co-emission of plausible amounts of volcanic halogens can amplify the volcanic ERF in simulations of explosive eruptions. It highlights the need to include volcanic halogen emissions when simulating the climate impacts of past or future eruptions, as well as the necessity to maintain space-borne observations of stratospheric compounds to better constrain the stratospheric injection estimates of volcanic eruptions.

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44

Zielinski, Gregory A. "Climatic Impact of Volcanic Eruptions." Scientific World JOURNAL 2 (2002): 869–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1100/tsw.2002.83.

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Volcanic eruptions have the potential to force global climate, provided they are explosive enough to emit at least 1–5 megaton of sulfur gases into the stratosphere. The sulfuric acid produced during oxidation of these gases will both absorb and reflect incoming solar radiation, thus warming the stratosphere and cooling the Earth’s surface. Maximum global cooling on the order of 0.2–0.3°C, using instrumental temperature records, occurs in the first 2 years after the eruption, with lesser cooling possibly up to the 4th year. Equatorial eruptions are able to affect global climate, whereas mid- to high-latitude events will impact the hemisphere of origin. However, regional responses may differ, including the possibility of winter warming following certain eruptions. Also, El Niño warming may override the cooling induced by volcanic activity. Evaluation of different style eruptions as well as of multiple eruptions closely spaced in time beyond the instrumental record is attained through the analysis of ice-core, tree-ring, and geologic records. Using these data in conjunction with climate proxy data indicates that multiple eruptions may force climate on decadal time scales, as appears to have occurred during the Little Ice Age (i.e., roughly AD 1400s–1800s). The Toba mega-eruption of ~75,000 years ago may have injected extremely large amounts of material into the stratosphere that remained aloft for up to about 7 years. This scenario could lead to the initiation of feedback mechanisms within the climate system, such as cooling of sea-surface temperatures. These interacting mechanisms following a mega-eruption may cool climate on centennial time scales.

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45

McGregor, Shayne, and Axel Timmermann. "The Effect of Explosive Tropical Volcanism on ENSO." Journal of Climate 24, no. 8 (April 15, 2011): 2178–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2010jcli3990.1.

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Abstract This study examines the response of El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to massive volcanic eruptions in a suite of coupled general circulation model (CGCM) simulations utilizing the Community Climate System Model, version 3 (CCSM3). The authors find that the radiative forcing due to volcanic aerosols injected into the stratosphere induces a model climatic response that projects onto the ENSO mode and initially creates a La Niña event that peaks around the time the volcanic forcing peaks. The curl of the wind stress changes accompanying this volcanically forced equatorial region cooling acts to recharge the equatorial region heat. For weaker volcanic eruptions, this recharging results in an El Niño event about two seasons after the peak of the volcanic forcing. The results of the CCSM3 volcanic forcing experiments lead the authors to propose that the initial tropical Pacific Ocean response to volcanic forcing is determined by four different mechanisms—one process is the dynamical thermostat mechanism (the mean upwelling of anomalous temperature) and the other processes are related to the zonal equatorial gradients of the mean cloud albedo, Newtonian cooling, and mixed layer depth. The zonal gradient in CCSM3 set by both mixed layer depth and Newtonian cooling terms oppose the zonal sea surface temperature anomaly (SSTA) gradient produced by the dynamical thermostat and initially dominate the mixed layer zonal equatorial heat budget response. Applying this knowledge to a simple volcanically forced mixed layer equation using observed estimates of the spatially varying variables, the authors again find that the mixed layer depth and Newtonian cooling terms oppose and dominate the zonal SSTA gradient produced by the dynamical thermostat. This implies that the observed initial response to volcanic forcing should be La Niña–like not El Niño, as suggested by paleoclimate records.

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46

Cadoux, Anita, Susann Tegtmeier, and Alessandro Aiuppa. "Natural Halogen Emissions to the Atmosphere: Sources, Flux, and Environmental Impact." Elements 18, no. 1 (February 1, 2022): 27–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.2138/gselements.18.1.27.

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Understanding the atmospheric geochemical cycle of both natural and anthropogenic halogens is important because of the detrimental effect halogens have on the environment, notably on tropospheric and stratospheric ozone. Oceans are the primary natural source for atmospheric Cl, F, Br, and I, but anthropogenic emissions are still important, especially for Cl. While emissions of human-made halocarbons (e.g., chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs) are expected to continue to decrease allowing progressive stratospheric ozone recovery, volcanic activity (e.g., clusters of mid-scale explosive eruptions or large-scale explosive eruptions) might disturb this recovery over the next decades. This review provides a synthesis of natural halogen fluxes from oceanic, terrestrial, and volcanic sources, and discusses the role of natural halogen species on atmosphere chemistry and their environmental impact.

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47

Fagents, S. A., and L. Wilson. "Explosive volcanic eruptions-VII. The ranges of pyroclasts ejected in transient volcanic explosions." Geophysical Journal International 113, no. 2 (May 1993): 359–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246x.1993.tb00892.x.

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48

Shevtsov, Boris M., Pavel P. Firstov, Nina V. Cherneva, Robert H. Holzworth, and Renat R. Akbashev. "Lightning and electrical activity during the Shiveluch volcano eruption on 16 November 2014." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 16, no. 3 (March 29, 2016): 871–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-16-871-2016.

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Abstract. According to World Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN) data, a sequence of lightning discharges was detected which occurred in the area of the explosive eruption of Shiveluch volcano on 16 November 2014 in Kamchatka. Information on the ash cloud motion was confirmed by the measurements of atmospheric electricity, satellite observations and meteorological and seismic data. It was concluded that WWLLN resolution is enough to detect the earlier stage of volcanic explosive eruption when electrification processes develop the most intensively. The lightning method has the undeniable advantage for the fast remote sensing of volcanic electric activity anywhere in the world. There is a good opportunity for the development of WWLLN technology to observe explosive volcanic eruptions.

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Di Genova, Danilo, Richard A. Brooker, Heidy M. Mader, James W. E. Drewitt, Alessandro Longo, Joachim Deubener, Daniel R. Neuville, et al. "In situ observation of nanolite growth in volcanic melt: A driving force for explosive eruptions." Science Advances 6, no. 39 (September 2020): eabb0413. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abb0413.

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Although gas exsolution is a major driving force behind explosive volcanic eruptions, viscosity is critical in controlling the escape of bubbles and switching between explosive and effusive behavior. Temperature and composition control melt viscosity, but crystallization above a critical volume (>30 volume %) can lock up the magma, triggering an explosion. Here, we present an alternative to this well-established paradigm by showing how an unexpectedly small volume of nano-sized crystals can cause a disproportionate increase in magma viscosity. Our in situ observations on a basaltic melt, rheological measurements in an analog system, and modeling demonstrate how just a few volume % of nanolites results in a marked increase in viscosity above the critical value needed for explosive fragmentation, even for a low-viscosity melt. Images of nanolites from low-viscosity explosive eruptions and an experimentally produced basaltic pumice show syn-eruptive growth, possibly nucleating a high bubble number density.

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Nomikou, Paraskevi, Christian Hübscher, and Steven Carey. "The Christiana–Santorini–Kolumbo Volcanic Field." Elements 15, no. 3 (June 1, 2019): 171–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.2138/gselements.15.3.171.

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The Christiana–Santorini–Kolumbo volcanic field in the South Aegean Sea (Greece) is one of the most important in Europe, having produced more than 100 explosive eruptions in the last 400,000 years. Its volcanic centers include the extinct Christiana Volcano and associated seamounts, Santorini caldera with its intracaldera Kameni Volcano, Kolumbo Volcano, and 24 other submarine cones of the Kolumbo chain. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, submarine mass wasting, neotectonics and gas releases from these centers pose significant geohazards to human populations and infrastructures of the Eastern Mediterranean region. Defining the geological processes and structures that contribute to these geohazards will provide an important framework to guide future monitoring and research activities aimed at hazard mitigation.

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