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1
McGlynn, Sean. "British Nationalism and Europe: A Medieval Comparison." Politics 16, no. 3 (September 1996): 167–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9256.1996.tb00036.x.
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This paper draws attention to the notable parallels between the problems faced by John Major and his government over Europe and a comparative situation from the 13th century. It shows that nationalism has been a leading force in politics for far longer than chronocentric analysis has allowed and that rulers – whether kings or prime ministers – ignore it at their own cost.1
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Schneidmüller, Bernd. "Rule by Consensus." Medieval History Journal 16, no. 2 (October 2013): 449–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0971945813514994.
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This article analyses specific characteristics of pre-modern rule in medieval central Europe. It becomes clear from the analysis that although the notion of monarchy implies a single ruler (mon-archia), it was actually the case, however, that in political practice, the kings and rulers of the Holy Roman Empire had to come to an arrangement with the elites and nobles. Therefore, the famous model developed by Max Weber regarding the three types of legitimate rule: legal, traditional and charismatic, fall short of encompassing the alterity and plurality of politics in the Middle Ages. Here, the concept of consensual rule is conceptualised through the use of additional case studies. These case studies more appropriately capture the fluid decision-making process in the Middle Ages through ongoing negotiation. Thus, the kings and emperors are clearly integrated into the framework of pre-modern oligarchies and therefore offer a counter-outline to the doctrine of divine right.
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Schmoeckel, Mathias. "Zur Bedeutung der Reformation." Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte: Kanonistische Abteilung 102, no. 1 (September 1, 2016): 317–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.26498/zrgka-2016-0113.
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Abstract The Importance of the Protestant Reformation: It might be difficult for some lawyers to accept the influence of theology on law, but in a Europe forged by the Christian faith its basic assumptions necessarily had an influence on law. The most important contribution of the Protestant Reformation may be its epistemology, which modernised European science and also its jurisprudence. With the end of the Church as the single institution establishing justice and truth, every single person had the opportunity to define what was just and equitable. This paper concentrates on the impact of the Protestant Reformation on international public law, which was conceived at Wittenberg in the 1530s as a device to impose rules between kings and states regardless of their confession. The hope of ameliorating international relations or even of establishing perpetual peace through law is an assumption, which we already find in Melanchthon’s writings. This relies on the optimistic premise that good rules explain how to behave correctly and that people can learn from the law. In the 20th century, children themselves became holders of the right to education, which demonstrates this confidence of the Protestant Reformation in our time.
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Firmanto, Taufik. "KEDUDUKAN MORAL DAN HUKUM DALAM BANGUNAN HUKUM INDONESIA." SANGAJI: Jurnal Pemikiran Syariah dan Hukum 1, no. 1 (March 28, 2017): 96–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.52266/sangaji.v1i1.81.
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Discoursing between law and morality is an interesting conversation among a legal scholars and jurists. Observing of legal developments are reviewed historically, the morality of jurisprudence from time to time undergoes sharp reductions. In the early stages of modern human civilization, the morality of jurisprudence still stands firmly on the foundation of the religion (christian). Moral judgments about good or bad, right or wrong, are consistently restored to the divine rules. Faced with the power of the church and the kings, came the antithesis of contradictory extreme thought, the idea that denied the existence of God or rejected the hegemony of religion and the church. The opposing of two rivals in concepts, theories and practices are concerning of the moral role of life. In turn, it had a significant influence on the development of jurisprudence in Europe at the time, leading to the spread of colonization in the eastern hemisphere.
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Penna, L. R. "Written and customary provisions relating to the conduct of hostilities and treatment of victims of armed conflicts in ancient India." International Review of the Red Cross 29, no. 271 (August 1989): 333–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020860400074519.
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Two thousand years before Grotius, Rachel, or Ayala recalled Europe to humanitarianism, ancient Indians had a body of rules for governing the relations between the States of the sub-continent in the event of armed conflicts. According to Professor A. L. Basham:“…in no other part of the ancient world were the relations of man and man, and of man and the state, so fair and humane… No other ancient law-giver proclaimed such noble ideals of fair play in battle as did Manu. In all her history of warfare Hindu India has few tales to tell of cities put to the sword or of the massacre of non-combatants. The ghastly sadism of the Kings of Assyria, who flayed their captives alive, is completely without parallel in ancient India. There was sporadic cruelty and oppression no doubt, but in comparison with conditions in other cultures, it was mild. To us the most striking feature of ancient Indian civilization is its humanity.”
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Bay, Edna G. "Belief, Legitimacy and theKpojito: An Institutional History of the ‘Queen Mother’ in Precolonial Dahomey." Journal of African History 36, no. 1 (March 1995): 1–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853700026955.
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This article traces chronologically the rise and fall of the office of thekpojito, the female reign-mate to the kings of Dahomey. The women who becamekpojitoin the eighteenth century were central to the efforts of the kings to establish legitimacy and assert control over the kingdom's expanding territory. The office reached its zenith in mid-century whenKpojitoHwanjile and King Tegbesu gained office and effectively ruled in tandem, thereby solidifying an ideological model that persisted to the end of the kingdom. The model posited a balance of power between male and female, royal and commoner. Subsequently, powerful women of the king's household worked with ambitious princes to build coalitions to seize power at times of royal succession. When their efforts succeeded, the prince was installed as king and the woman askpojito. By the nineteenth century, princes began to find alternative sources of support in their struggles for the kingship and alternative sources of guidance once enthroned. The royal family became more central in the state as princes and princesses replaced commoners in high offices. Even though alliances between princes and their fathers' wives continued, non-royal women within the palace were more constrained in their ability to wield power and the influence of thekpojitofell into steep decline.The institutional history of thekpojitois discerned through an analysis of religious change in Dahomey. Because the hierarchy of the gods was manipulated by the monarchy to reflect its changing conceptions of the nature of power, the history of religion represents an intellectual history of the ruling class. Central among the religious changes and cultural influences that had a probable impact on the office of thekpojito, and more broadly on the ability of women to exercise power in the state, were contacts with Europe and with Yoruba-speaking peoples. Those influences were associated with cultural and religious visions that promoted the individual, the male, and the royal.
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Prescott, Anne Lake. "The 2011 Josephine Waters Bennett Lecture: From the Sheephook to the Scepter: The Ambiguities of David's Rise to the Throne*." Renaissance Quarterly 65, no. 1 (2012): 1–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/665834.
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AbstractKing David's rise from tending sheep to governing Israel impressed Renaissance writers, not least the poets and clergymen who found a model in his musical “psalmograph.” Yet ambiguities nestle in allusions to his career. Though many stressed that his ascent was thanks to divine election and not to ambition or guile, the fact remained that David did not inherit his scepter. Europe, though, was for the most part ruled by those with dynastic claims, and it had a class system in which literal shepherds should know their place, even if the Bible asserts that the valleys shall be exalted and the mountains made low. Comments on kings and bishops as shepherds, on shepherds as kings, and on David's upward career are fascinating to trace precisely because their social and political context can give them the energy of a concealed ambivalence.
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Bremmer, Jan N. "Prophets, Seers, and Politics in Greece, Israel, and Early Modern Europe." Numen 40, no. 2 (1993): 150–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156852793x00121.
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AbstractAfter a short introduction on the study of the history of religions at Groningen, this paper analyses the relationship between prophets (seers) and political power. Concentrating on Greece, Israel and early modern Europe it poses three questions. First, do seers operate independently of political rulers? Secondly, does the influence of prophets change when the political structure changes? Thirdly, does the medium of prophecy remain constant or does it change over time? In Greece, seers were closely connected with the political elite, especially the kings. As their main function was the legitimation of choices, their public influence started to wane with the rise of democracy and public political debate. In Israel we can note the concomitant rise of the king and decline of the prophet, who remains only influential from the margin of society. At the same time, we can see the gradual disappearance of ecstasy among the prophets and the growing influence of writing. After the return from exile the growing importance of the Torah led to a gradual merger of prophets and priests. Finally, in early modern Europe prophecy flourished especially in the Protestant areas, but lost ground in the seventeenth century through the centralisation of power, the introduction of the printing press, and the changing intellectual climate. In my conclusion I stress the importance of the histoire événementielle for the history of religions and ask for more interest in the religious history of Europe.
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BLAYDES, LISA, and ERIC CHANEY. "The Feudal Revolution and Europe's Rise: Political Divergence of the Christian West and the Muslim World before 1500 CE." American Political Science Review 107, no. 1 (January 28, 2013): 16–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003055412000561.
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We document a divergence in the duration of rule for monarchs in Western Europe and the Islamic world beginning in the medieval period. While leadership tenures in the two regions were similar in the 8th century, Christian kings became increasingly long lived compared to Muslim sultans. We argue that forms of executive constraint that emerged under feudal institutions in Western Europe were associated with increased political stability and find empirical support for this argument. While feudal institutions served as the basis for military recruitment by European monarchs, Muslim sultans relied on mamlukism—or the use of military slaves imported from non-Muslim lands. Dependence on mamluk armies limited the bargaining strength of local notablesvis-à-visthe sultan, hindering the development of a productively adversarial relationship between ruler and local elites. We argue that Muslim societies’ reliance on mamluks, rather than local elites, as the basis for military leadership, may explain why the Glorious Revolution occurred in England, not Egypt.
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Ivonina, Ludmila. "The Theater of Death of the XVII–XVIII Centuries: The Kings of Western Europe and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealthon the Threshold of Eternity." Izvestia of Smolensk State University, no. 1(57) (July 3, 2022): 187–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.35785/2072-9464-2022-57-1-187-200.
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The perception of death in the Early Modern Time was largely based on ancient traditions. The process of death was a form of public communication and required the presence of spectators.The agony of kings was a kind of caesure between the past and the future, when the subjects were demonstrated the status of the state and its ruler, and at the same time, personal and state interests were clashed and resolved.
In contrast to the solemn departure to the other world of West Europe sovereigns, a vivid example of which was the death of the French king Louis XIV,
the last minutes of the the Polish kings’lives, in particular, Jan Sobieski and Augustus the Strong, were more likely a personal and deeply religious act, rather than a national event. To a large extent it was facilitated by the state system of
thePolish-Lithuanian Commonwealthas a gentry republic with an elected king. The «theater of death» of the French king was in the service of Majesty until the last minute, while the «first among equals» in Poland could die like an ordinary person and get only a «theater after death» – a magnificent funeral ceremony.
The public process of the demise of the monarchs in the Early Modern Time was largely determined not only by the sovereign’s personality, but also by the geopolitical position and state structure of the territory he controlled.
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Bagge, Sverre Håkon. "History, Archaeology and Cultural Comparison." European Review 28, no. 3 (March 31, 2020): 465–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1062798719000590.
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Ian Morris’s Why the West Rules – for Now (2010) is a brilliant book, dealing with Eurasian history from the first civilisations to the present. It takes an intermediate position in the famous debate about Europe and the rest of the world and European dominance during the last few centuries. Morris uses all kinds of sources. However, his general approach is staunchly materialistic: the motors of history are fear, sloth and greed. Cultural differences do exist, but can be explained by the former factors. This is an attitude not confined to archaeologists, nor necessarily shared by all of them, but may nevertheless have something to do with Morris’s background in this field. One objection is that Morris may have underestimated the importance of institutional factors; he does not discuss the division of Europe into separate states, which has often been regarded as a central factor in ‘the Rise of the West’. This in turn raises the question of the ‘two hand-maidens’ and their relationship to the EU. If political division is an essential feature of Europe, what will happen if this division disappears?
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Januszek-Sieradzka, Agnieszka. "„Przenosząc się ciągle z miejsca na miejsce obyczajem Numidów”. Jagiellońscy władcy i ich rodziny w czasie morowego powietrza w XV–XVI w." Studia Historica Gedanensia 12, no. 2 (2021): 93–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/23916001hg.21.007.14989.
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“Constantly moving from place to place like Numidians”. Jagiellonian rulers and their families in times of pestilence in the XVth and XVIth centuries In all early-modern Europe, epidemics were a very frequent phenomenon. In the XVth and XVIth centuries, the one effective way of avoiding the danger of infection and near certain death was to flee from a place threatened by plague. In the XVth century, a quite short journey was often sufficient, or else monarchs decided right away on a distant journey to the less-populated Lithuania, attempting to turn this to use in terms of the system of using royal progresses as a way of exercising power. In the XVIth century, especially in the second half, only one move to even a distant locality was insufficient, and the king and members of his family were compelled to move to a succession of places. Kings and their families almost always spent a period of isolation on their own estates. There were exceptions when the ruler was able to enjoy the hospitality of magnate or church estates. Through the nearly two hundred years of Jagiellonian rule, there is only one case (in 1572) when one can see the incautious behavior of the court as contributing to spread of plague. Although in the XVth century one can still find traces of real fear of pestilence among the royals and dramatic descriptions of huge, often exaggerated, losses of population, in the next century an outbreak of plague is seen rather as a passing inconvenience in life, cause of bothersome confusions in the normal functioning of the state or of changes in the royal family’s.
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Haldén, Peter. "Heteronymous politics beyond anarchy and hierarchy: The multiplication of forms of rule 750–1300." Journal of International Political Theory 13, no. 3 (July 6, 2017): 266–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1755088217715482.
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Anarchy and hierarchy are two central concepts of International Relations theory but as conventionally defined they cannot describe political life for most of Western history. Neither concept describes the structure of medieval politics well. Rather, many different principles of differentiation existed simultaneously, both stratificatory and segmentary. The situation was closer to anarchy as understood as the absence of overarching principles of order rather than as ‘anarchy’ in the conventional sense used in international relations and absence of government. The power of the Popes over temporal rulers was considerable, but it never corresponded to the concept ‘hierarchy’ as conventionally understood either. Between c. 700 and c. 1300, Europe became more heteronymous as time went by, not less. More principles of differentiation were developed, and both Popes and kings became more powerful. The reinvention of the papacy after the ‘Investiture Controversy’ (1075–1122) created a system of law and practices in which European monarchs and realms were embedded, but it did not create an all-powerful papacy.
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Classen, Albrecht. "Falconry in the Mediterranean Context During the Pre-Modern Era, ed. Charles Burnett and Baudouin Van den Abele. Bibliotheca Cynegetica, 9. Geneva: Droz, 2021, 352, 17 color and 14 b/w ill." Mediaevistik 34, no. 1 (January 1, 2021): 300–302. http://dx.doi.org/10.3726/med.2021.01.31.
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Curiously, while many historians are looking for new ways of identifying medieval globalism, focusing on trade, slavery, medicine, political contacts, and travel, the international interest in falconry during the pre-modern period has not yet attracted the same interest, at least in that context. However, hunting with falcons and other birds of prey has always been one of the major pleasure activities for the nobility both in the Middle East and in Europe. In fact, that sport probably originated from Persia, if not India or Mongolia, and became, very similar to playing chess, one of the central cultural modalities for the aristocracy to seek entertainment and to represent their own social class in a most impressive fashion. Falconry was the type of hunting exclusively for kings and other rulers, which explains why the trade of various types of falcons from northern Europe – especially the gyrfalcon – to the far south and east, even to the Arabic world (Mamluk Egypt), was quite common. The high cost for those precious birds of prey did not matter in those social circles. Falconry has already been studied numerous times, especially with regard to the famous book on the art of hunting with birds by Emperor Frederick II, and to the many references to falcons in medieval literature. The global perspective, however, has not yet been taken into consideration carefully enough.
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SAITO, OSAMU. "Marriage, family labour and the stem family household: traditional Japan in a comparative perspective." Continuity and Change 15, no. 1 (May 2000): 17–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s026841609900346x.
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John Hajnal's classic essay published in 1965 on European marriage patterns contrasted western with eastern Europe in terms of age at marriage and proportion never-married. In a more recent article, ‘Two kinds of pre-industrial household formation system’, which is indeed a development from his 1965 essay, the life-cycle is taken into explicit consideration by use of the concept of household formation. In addition, he makes some geographical alterations to his previous argument: the ‘West’ is narrowly defined to cover ‘north-west’ European countries, whereas the ‘East’ now extends beyond the eastern European boundaries to Asian countries such as China and India.To this formulation there can be two kinds of response from scholars specializing in the Far East, especially traditional Japan. One is concerned with the lack of full discussion of a stem family system in Hajnal's article. He suggests that while some versions of this system are ‘compatible with the general north-west European household formation rules’ and some others are not, ‘[n]o kind of stem family system can be classified as a joint household system’; but unfortunately, no detailed stem family household formation rules are specified, nor is there any discussion of Japan's family system, which has been regarded as a typical example of the stem type.
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Flecha, Ramon. "Modern and Postmodern Racism in Europe: Dialogic Approach and Anti-Racist Pedagogies." Harvard Educational Review 69, no. 2 (July 1, 1999): 150–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.17763/haer.69.2.3346055q431g2u03.
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In this article, Ramón Flecha discusses the growth of racism in modern-day Europe and the challenges it poses for education and educators. The author distinguishes between two kinds of racism: an older, modern racism and a newer, postmodern racism. The former is based on arguments of inequality and the existence of inferior or superior ethnicities and races. The latter holds that ethnicities and races are neither inferior nor superior; they are merely different. It emphasizes the impossibility of equitable dialogue among different races and ethnicities to establish common rules for living together. Although a tradition of anti-racist education exists in Europe, educators often do not have the intellectual and educational tools to combat this form of racism. Flecha suggests that educators have tried to combat racism by developing anti-racist pedagogies that use the relativist approach advocated by contemporary thinkers such as Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida. He argues that this approach challenges modern racism but actually promotes postmodern racism. Drawing from works of dialogic theorists such as Paulo Freire and Jürgen Habermas, Flecha recommends instead that educators use the dialogic approach, which emphasizes the need for equal rights among all people, to develop effective anti-racist pedagogies that can deal simultaneously with both forms of racism.
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Lichte, Erika Fischer. "What Are the Rules of the Game? Some Remarks on The Yellow Jacket." Theatre Survey 36, no. 1 (May 1995): 21–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0040557400006463.
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The vast caravan out of Ceylon … arrived safely in Europe in April 1884 … There were sixty-seven people, twenty-five elephants … and a great many oxen of various kinds. The ethnographic exhibition included hundreds of different shows, and even the vegetative world was represented in numerous exhibits … My Singhalese troupe was veiled in the ancient wondrous world of India; not only had we captured the vibrant, picturesque, outward appearance of India, but also the shimmer of its mystique. The colourful, captivating sight of the caravanserai, the majestic elephants, partly bedecked in golden saddlery, partly in work harnesses, pulling gigantic loads; the slim, attractive, doe-eyed dancers with their sensuous movements and last of all the great religious Perra-Harra procession-conjured up a magic web which subjected the public entirely to it … The exhibition was opened in Hamburg… After Hamburg came Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, and Vienna … From Vienna it went to Berlin … In the following years, 1885 and 1886, I traveled with the same exhibition through southern Germany, Switzerland and Vienna a second time, and finally set out for England … It was in Paris, at the height of its success, that the Ceylon exhibition finally came to an end. The average number of visitors to the Jardin d'Acclimatisation on a Sunday was 50,000-60,000. Throughout the two and a half month duration of the exhibition, the number of visitors was nearly one million.
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Roșu, Felicia. "Free from Obedience: Constitutional Expressions of the Right of Resistance in Early Modern Transylvania and Poland-Lithuania." European History Quarterly 47, no. 1 (December 16, 2016): 6–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265691416671095.
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With its tradition of elected kings and rebellious nobility, Poland-Lithuania has acquired a certain amount of fame that extends beyond its own region. To anybody who has heard of the Polish-Lithuanian political system, it would probably come as no surprise that the Commonwealth’s laws included the right to disobey a king who broke the promises he had made at his election. This version of the right of resistance was introduced in Poland-Lithuania’s laws in 1573, and, with very few modifications, it was confirmed by all of Poland-Lithuania’s subsequent monarchs and remained valid until the late eighteenth century, when the country disappeared off the map of Europe. In contrast to that of Poland-Lithuania, Transylvania’s history is much more obscure to outsiders, even though it too included elected rulers, enthronement conditions and the right of resistance. The latter was introduced into Transylvania’s constitutions later than in Poland-Lithuania; its first explicit mention dates from 1613. Its lineage, however, can be traced back to one of Europe’s earliest known versions of a resistance clause: the Hungarian Golden Bull of 1222. While the Polish-Lithuanian formulation was milder, more passive and less specific than some of the Transylvanian versions, its practical application was more effective than it ever became in Transylvania. This article discusses the development and variations of the right of resistance in early modern Polish-Lithuanian and Transylvanian constitutions and it offers some reflections on the complex relationship between constitutional theory and political practices. The Transylvanian case is analysed in more detail because it is relatively less well known.
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Knobler, Adam. "The Power of Distance: The Transformation of European Perceptions of Self and Other, 1100-1600." Medieval Encounters 19, no. 4 (2013): 434–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15700674-12342146.
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Abstract Anthropologists such as Mary Helms have noted a historical linkage between the phenomena of perceived distance and perceived power. In this article I apply this paradigm to the history of European imperial expansion between the twelfth and the sixteenth century. In the Middle Ages, European popes and kings imbued the mythic ruler Prester John with great power in part because he was unseen and believed to live at a great distance. By associating the Mongols, and the Ethiopians after them, with Prester John, both of these peoples became an embodiment of this distance/power paradigm in Western European eyes. Latins hoped that the Mongols or Ethiopians would use their “power” to assist the West in their crusading battles in the Holy Land. When the Portuguese and Spanish began their voyages of expansion, they applied the same paradigm to the peoples they encountered in Asia, Africa and the Americas. When distance between Europe and these other continents was breached, however, the Iberian view of the others’ power diminished. Simultaneously, the Spanish and Portuguese perception of their own power increased as they, not “Prester John”, became the conquerors of distance.
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KOSMAN, Marceli. "Na tronie i obok tronu. O kobietach w życiu publicznym Polski przedrozbiorowej." Przegląd Politologiczny, no. 2 (November 2, 2018): 207–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.14746/pp.2011.16.2.20.
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The royal throne was a permanent element of feudal political culture, and the institution of the monarchy, albeit decidedly less significant, has survived until today, playing a primarily symbolic role in the democratic systems in Europe. The subject of the paper looks at the role of Polish rulers’ wives, as the majority of monarchs started a family, and their offspring later took the throne. This was the case of both great dynasties – the Piasts, from the mid-10th century, i.e. from the baptism of Mieszko I, and the Jagiellons (until 1572). After these dynasties ended, the period of elective kings, who were crowned with their wives, started. Over the years, at the very least, the informal role of the queens was growing. This process paved the way to women’s liberation, and, as of the end of the 18th century, it also encompassed the families of magnates and affluent gentry. A meaningful statement can be found in the poetry written by Bishop Ignacy Krasicki in the latter half of the same century, when he addressed men saying: “we rule the world, and women rule us”. The paper is only a sketch and promises a more in-depth monographic study.
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Wojciechowski, Rafał. "UMOWA KOMENDY W ŚREDNIOWIECZU." Zeszyty Prawnicze 4, no. 1 (May 30, 2017): 57. http://dx.doi.org/10.21697/zp.2004.4.1.04.
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T h e C o m m e n d a C o n t r a c t in t h e M i d d l e A g e s Summary The author of this article deals with the commenda contract in the Middle Ages. First of all he characterized the most important features of the commenda contract in Italy, because in this country it appeared already in the 10th century. One kind of the commenda contract was one-sided. The contract of this kind consisted in an agreement, in accordance with which one party invested some capital and the other contributed his enterprise. The liability of the partner who invested capital was limited only to its amount. Differently from the modern continental Kommanditgesellschaft or société en accommandite, in the one-sided contract the active partner was not liable for possible losses. This feature of the contract was connected with the fact that commenda was made for a single trade expedition, in which the risk of loss concerned the invested capital only. In the mutual commenda the partner who put into commenda the enterprise made his own material contribution which enlarged his share in the profits.The commenda spread subsequently throughout Europe. This phenomenon was supported by the general development of the lex mercatoria i.e. common merchants law, whose basic provisions were widely accepted everywhere, from Iberian Peninsula to Scandinavia. The commenda contract was popular also outside Europe, especially in the vast Islamic areas. Commenda was called there mudaraba. Similarly to Christians in Europe, Muslems used precise and, to some extent, standardized collection of legal rules concerning trade, including different kinds of companies. Even local rulers in south-eastern Asia who converted to Islam promoted Islamic trade law including mudaraba.Because of the great popularity of the commenda contract in the Middle Ages, since the middle of 19th century discussions have been conducted on the origins of this contract. It is unquestionable that commenda was already well-known in Mesopotamic societies in the times of Hammurabi. However it is not clear how commenda entered the medieval European lex mercatoria. Various scholars connect the beginnings of medieval commenda with Jewish, Islamic or Byzantine law systems. The author of this article notices that at present the arguments for Arabic beginnings of the commenda contract prevail. It is not surprising, taking into consideration that many inventions and ideas were handed down to the medieval Europe just by the Arabs.
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Holovchenko, Volodymyr. "HISTORICAL BASES FOR AGGRESSIVE FOREIGN POLICY STRATEGY OF RUSSIA." ACTUAL PROBLEMS OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 2, no. 127 (2016): 20–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/apmv.2016.127.2.20-34.
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Unprovoked armed aggression of Russia against Ukraine after victory of the Dignity Revolution in it and annexation of Crimea, kindling and financial and material support of separatist rebellions in the eastern regions of our country actualized analysis of international historical reasons of aggressive behavior of Russia, primarily regarding the former Soviet republics. Therefore, an attempt to look back this problem in the context of the medieval international relations in Central and Eastern Europe and the formation of autocratic ideology Grand Duchy of Moscow, Moscow kingdom and the Russian Empire was made in article. In view of that Rurik dynasty and related to them by women Romanovs had the beginnings from rulers of Kyivan Rus, Moscow grand dukes, kings and Petersburg emperors saw all the lands, that once belonged to it (mainly Ukrainian), as part of their historical heritage. Joining and later incorporation of Ukraine into the Russian Empire, from their point of view, was like returning of lost once patrimony. And the fact that Ukrainian and Belorussian lands formerly were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Rus and Rzeczpospolita, or had their own political autonomy and time to develop a separate cultural, religious and public-political tradition, was seen as distortions caused by ostensibly forced distancing of these countries from the king. Leading Moscow and St. Petersburg intellectuals both conservative and liberal-democratic were able and can to argue about the nature of Russian nationality, but they never had the slightest doubt as to «russkost» of Ukrainian, Belarusian and Baltic lands. This view completely coincides with the official position of the Russian autocracy and is now the basis for the foreign policy strategy of Vladimir Putin.
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Mears, John A. "The Thirty Years' War, the “General Crisis,” and the Origins of a Standing Professional Army in the Habsburg Monarchy." Central European History 21, no. 2 (June 1988): 122–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938900012711.
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One of the most striking features of seventeenth-century state building was the formation of standing armies. Kings and princes throughout Europe, responding to conditions of almost constant strife, were compelled to transform ineffective feudal levies and unruly bands of mercenaries into regularized bodies of professional troops, making ever larger and more costly military establishments instruments of rational foreign policy rather than the preserves of the old nobility or freebootingcondottieri. In building armies of the new type, European monarchs had to surmount determined opposition from two sources: the local representative bodies (estates) which were reluctant to grant rulers the powers of taxation necessary for the maintenance of permanent troops, and the mercenary colonels who were expected to relinquish their rights as independent recruiting masters and subordinate themselves to the state. By the middle decades of the seventeenth century, various territorial sovereigns were successfully mastering this opposition to their political authority and were able to take an essential step in the direction of true standing armies by routinely keeping strong military forces under their command at the conclusion of a campaign, thereby diminishing their reliance on contingents approved by the provincial estates or soldiers hastily raised by private entrepreneurs to meet specific emergencies.
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MacDONALD, ALAN R. "Ecclesiastical Representation in Parliament in Post-Reformation Scotland: The Two Kingdoms Theory in Practice." Journal of Ecclesiastical History 50, no. 1 (January 1999): 38–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022046998008458.
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Jean Calvin, in his Institutes of the Christian religion, wrote that ‘there is a twofold government of man; one aspect is spiritual…the second is political…. There are in man, so to speak, two worlds, over which different kings and different laws have authority’. He emphasised this further by stating that ‘we must keep in mind that distinction which we previously laid down so that we do not (as commonly happens) unwisely mingle these two, which have a completely different nature’. The idea of the separation of spiritual and temporal jurisdictions was, of course, no post-Reformation innovation but had been a theme over centuries of conflict between popes and secular princes throughout Europe. With the fragmentation of western Christendom in the sixteenth century, the issue came to prominence within individual states, not least Scotland. As early as 1559, during the civil war which led to the Reformation, a letter to the regent, Mary of Guise, from ‘the professouris of Christis ewangell’ mentioned two ‘kingdomes’. It asserted that there was ‘ane kingdome temporall’ and ‘Christis kingdome’, the Kirk, and that the former ought to be ruled by ‘mortell men’ and the latter by Christ alone. The regent was described as ‘ane servand and na quein havand na preheminence nor authoritie above the kyrk’.
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Jacobsen, Grethe. "Less Favored – More Favored: Queenship and the Special Case of Margrete of Denmark, 1353-1412." Fund og Forskning i Det Kongelige Biblioteks Samlinger 44 (October 14, 2005): 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.7146/fof.v44i3.133003.
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Some ten years ago, the German historian Armin Wolf published an article on reigning queens, that is, queens ruling in their own right not as spouse or widow of a king in medieval Europe. Among the women, he dealt with, was the Danish queen Margrete whom he considered representative of a general European pattern according to which women could inherit the throne and under special circumstances remain there. Margrete, however, does not fit into this pattern. She was regent and for a brief period reigning queen of three countries with different traditions and legislation concerning royal succession. The legal foundation of her reign was not inheritance, but a combination of traditional regency for a minor king and exceptional regency for the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden in general. The career of Margrete was founded on a mixture of rules and practices for female exercise of power, which combined with her great political intelligence produced an unusual career. The history of Margrete illustrates well the legal conditions in which gender could offer women advantages as well as disadvantages.
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Huzain, Muh. "Pengaruh Peradaban Islam Terhadap Dunia Barat." TASAMUH: Jurnal Studi Islam 10, no. 2 (September 3, 2018): 355–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.47945/tasamuh.v10i2.77.
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The emergence of Islam influenced the revolution and made a wave of culture toward a new world when experiencing an era of darkness. The progress of Greek civilization in the Westcould not be continued by the Roman empire and Roman domination in the classical era until the middle ages; which was then therise of the West in the era of renaissance in the 14-16th century.This paper will reveal the influence of Islam on the development of the Western world, since the emergence of contact between Islam with the West in the Classical era until the middle ages. There are different opinions among historians about who and when the first contact between Islam and the West took place. The first contact, however, occurred when the areas of East Roman government (Byzantium), Syria (638) and Egypt (640) fell into the hands of the Islamic government during the reign of Caliph 'Umar bin Khaţţāb. The Second contact, at the beginning of the eighth and ninth centuries occurred when the kings of Islam were able to rule Spain (711-1472), Portugal (716-1147), and important Mediterranean islands such as Sardinia (740-1050), Cicilia (827-1091), Malta (870-1090) as well as several small areas in Southern Italy and French Southern France. The third contact, took place in Eastern Europe from the fourteenth to early twentieth century when the Ottoman empire ruled the Balkan peninsula (Eastern Europe) and Southern Russia. The Ottoman empire's powers in Europe covered Yunāni, Bulgaria, Albania, Romania, Yugoslavia, Hungary, parts of Rhode, Cyprus, Austria and parts of Russia. Of the three periods of contact, the greatest influence was in the second contact period, where the decline of Western science in the dark era, while in the Islamic world developed advanced and produces scientists, thinkers and intellectuals in various sciences. This influence can be seen from the sending of students studying to the university of Islamic area, the establishment of the university, the translation and copying of various scientific literature such as natural science (Science of astronomy, Mathematics, Chemistry, Pharmacy, medicine, architecture etc) and Social Science history, philosophy, politics, economics, earth sciences, sociology, law, culture, language, literature, art, etc.). The Historians recognize that the influence of Islamic civilization is very great on the development of the West, which culminated in the renaissance or rise of Western civilization in Europe after the dark era.
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Huzain, Muh. "PENGARUH PERADABAN ISLAM TERHADAP DUNIA BARAT." Tasamuh: Jurnal Studi Islam 10, no. 2 (November 7, 2018): 355–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.32489/tasamuh.41.
Full textAbstract:
The emergence of Islam influenced the revolution and made a wave of culture toward a new world when experiencing an era of darkness. The progress of Greek civilization in the West could not be continued by the Roman empire and Roman domination in the classical era until the middle ages; which was then the rise of the West in the era of renaissance in the 14-16th century. This paper will reveal the influence of Islam on the development of the Western world, since the emergence of contact between Islam with the West in the Classical era until the middle ages. There are different opinions among historians about who and when the first contact between Islam and the West took place. The first contact, however, occurred when the areas of East Roman government (Byzantium), Syria (638) and Egypt (640) fell into the hands of the Islamic government during the reign of Caliph 'Umar bin Khaţţāb. The Second contact, at the beginning of the eighth and ninth centuries occurred when the kings of Islam were able to rule Spain (711-1472), Portugal (716-1147), and important Mediterranean islands such as Sardinia (740-1050), Cicilia (827-1091), Malta (870-1090) as well as several small areas in Southern Italy and French Southern France. The third contact, took place in Eastern Europe from the fourteenth to early twentieth century when the Ottoman empire ruled the Balkan peninsula (Eastern Europe) and Southern Russia. The Ottoman empire's powers in Europe covered Yunāni, Bulgaria, Albania, Romania, Yugoslavia, Hungary, parts of Rhode, Cyprus, Austria and parts of Russia. Of the three periods of contact, the greatest influence was in the second contact period, where the decline of Western science in the dark era, while in the Islamic world developed advanced and produces scientists, thinkers and intellectuals in various sciences. This influence can be seen from the sending of students studying to the university of Islamic area, the establishment of the university, the translation and copying of various scientific literature such as natural science (Science of astronomy, Mathematics, Chemistry, Pharmacy, medicine, architecture etc) and Social Science history, philosophy, politics, economics, earth sciences, sociology, law, culture, language, literature, art, etc.). The Historians recognize that the influence of Islamic civilization is very great on the development of the West, which culminated in the renaissance or rise of Western civilization in Europe after the dark era.
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Chegu, Sadhika, and Maddi V. Nagabhushanam. "A Comprehensive Study on Regulation of Herbal Drugs in India, US and European Union." International Journal of Drug Regulatory Affairs 9, no. 1 (March 19, 2021): 78–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.22270/ijdra.v9i1.458.
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The current investigation surveys the guidelines of natural medications in the India US and Europe and illuminates issues identified with their clinical preliminaries. Natural medications have been utilized for quite a while in various frameworks of wellbeing like Ayurveda, Yunani, Sidha and Homeopathy for treating number of infections. It is an exceptionally hard to perform clinical investigation on Hm’s medications in light of the fact that these medications are an unpredictable mix of dynamic fixings. It is subsequently hard to distinguish the fixing which is answerable for the remedial impact among different elements of Hm’s medications. The normalization of Hm’s medications is likewise a troublesome assignment. Notwithstanding every one of these issues are existing public interest has expanded towards natural medications in last two thirty years in light of their long history of treating the illness securely. The laws and guidelines for natural medications are distinctive in various nations. The WHO has expressed that every nation ought to have a framework to control Hm’s medications in their region. In Europe, the Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC) was established in accordance with Regulation (EC) No 726/2004 and Directive 2004/24/EC, which introduced a simplified registration procedure for traditional herbal medicinal products in EU Member States. The primary obligation of HMPC is to assess and give approval for natural medications based on their wellbeing and adequacy. In US spices are delegated dietary enhancements after the presentation of the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) in1994. In US natural medications are sorted into two kinds, first is OTC Hm’s medications and medications which required NDA endorsement. In India the Department of AYUSH has made rules for quality improvement of natural substances. The current investigation audits the guidelines of herbal medications (Hm’s) in the India US and Europe illuminates issues identified with their clinical preliminaries.
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Stojković-Ivković, Mirjana. "Treatment of mentally disturbed persons in medieval Serbia." Psihijatrija danas 52, no. 1-2 (2020): 5–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/psihdan2001005s.
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The treatment of mental health patients in Serbia in the Middle ages was the same as in other European countries. Medicine of that time was based on science, the use of magic rituals and witchcraft was banned. Doctors from Serbia, Byzantium and the national doctors had been educated in Salerno and Montpellier, the most developed centers of medicine. They took the exam in front of the government Medical testimony. The development of medicine was followed in the Hodoloski code which was considered the oldest record of folk medicine and the Hilandar medical code which represented a collection of medieval scientific European medicine and Serbian medicine culture (XII-XV). The first Serbian hospital was established in Hilandar in 1199. The founder was Saint Sava who wrote the rules about the work of the hospital. Actually, it was the practice for all medical facilities that were opened later. We know about mental diseases and healing in Serbia from Lives of Saints in monasteries Zica (from 1207) and Decani (1327) and from the biography of Medieval ruler (king) Stephen of Decani. The illustrations of healing some patients with mental diseases were shown on frescoes and in the lives of saints. In Medieval Serbia, there were 49 foreign doctors working (15 in XIV, 30 in XV and 4 in XVI century) and until Turkish conquest Serbia took a very important place in Medieval Europe. Objective of this paper is to show where psychiatric patients were treated in Medieval Serbia, the way they were treated, who treated them, where the hospitals were and what kind of treatment wereapplied.
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Sommerville, Johann P. "English and European Political Ideas in the Early Seventeenth Century: Revisionism and the Case of Absolutism." Journal of British Studies 35, no. 2 (April 1996): 168–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/386103.
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The central argument of this article is that English political thinking in the early seventeenth century was not distinctively English. More particularly, we shall see that a number of English writers put forward political doctrines that were precisely the same as those of Continental theorists who are usually described as absolutists. If the Continental thinkers were absolutists, then so were the English writers. The theory of absolutism vested sovereign power in the ruler alone and forbade disobedience to the sovereign's commands unless they contradicted the injunctions of God Himself. It is with the theory of absolutism and not with its practice that this article is concerned.To claim that English and Continental ideas closely resembled each other, and that absolutism flourished on both sides of the Channel, is to challenge not only the old Whig interpretation of English history but also the newer views of so-called revisionists. True, the revisionists often say that they reject Whig ideas. But in fact they adopt some of the central contentions of the Whigs. In order to set what follows into a broad historiographical context, it may be worthwhile to elaborate a little on this theme.Whig historians of the nineteenth century were keen to emphasize the distinctiveness of England's political development. The Anglo-Saxons, they argued, brought free and democratic institutions into England from their Teutonic forests. Elsewhere in Europe, liberty succumbed to the authoritarianism of popes, kings, and Roman lawyers, but the sea kept foreigners and their unpleasant ways out of England, and there freedom lived on. When the Conqueror came, the old English liberties were for a while in jeopardy.
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Kirillova, Ekaterina. "Boots of the King, or On the Specialization and Separation of Crafts in Paris in the 13th Century." Journal of Economic History and History of Economics 19, no. 2 (June 30, 2018): 225–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.17150/2308-2588.2018.19(2).225-239.
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The corporate system with a typical monopoly on professional activities did not exist in all cities of medieval Western Europe. Moreover, in some cities in certain periods of their history even regulation of crafts by the authorities was minimal. The lack of visible regulation is often perceived as anarchy, although this has never meant a lack of control and norms that have been unconditionally enforced, whether they have been written in laws and regulations or not. The control functions were performed by the strongest regulator for traditional society - custom. The article considers the duty of 32 sous on the «boots of the king» («les hueses le Roy») on the basis of the Parisian regulations of the XIII century (the «Book of Crafts» of Etienne Boileau). This duty should be paid annually by masters shoemakers (cordouanniers and çavetonniers), and saddlers (selliers). The study of this duty allows referring to the history of the relationships of artisans engaged in the leather treatment, to the history of the emergence and separation of the corporations. The craft specialization in the Middle Ages is a well-known phenomenon. However, this process is hardly traced in documents and, therefore, has been largely unexplored. Shoemakers that sewed new shoes (shoemakers), and shoemakers that repaired the old ones (shoe repairers, savetiers) is one of the most famous examples of the craft specialization. In different cities and at different times, they could be separate corporations or one. As a result, the article clarifies the rules of the payment for the «boots of the king» (the participation of different masters and crafts), reveals the traces of the former alliance of three at the time of the «Book of Crafts» separate corporations, as well as the preservation of control functions by the shoemakers.
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KOCH, EBBA. "Jahangir as Francis Bacon's Ideal of the King as an Observer and Investigator of Nature." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 19, no. 3 (July 2009): 293–338. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1356186309009699.
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AbstractThe Mughal Empire is paradigmatic in many of its formulations, and it is epitomised in the persons of its first six padshahs or emperors. The Great Mughals, Grao Mogor, Grand Mogul, Großmogul or Groote Mogul, as the padshahs were known in Europe, have been considered as paragons of rulership. In critical appraisals, which were the prevailing view in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, they were the quintessential Oriental despots, held up as a warning to those rulers in Europe with similar aspirations. One thinks here especially of Francois Bernier's letters of the Mughal court to his French contacts which included Colbert, the minister of Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715). In more sympathetic (and more recent) eyes, such as those of the world-traveller, philosopher and enthusiastic inter-culturalist Count Hermann Keyserling, who was in India in 1911, they were “the grandest rulers brought forth by mankind”. Keyserling came to this conclusion because the Mughals “combined in their personalities so many divers talents: they were men of action, refined diplomats, experienced judges of the human psyche, and at the same time aesthetes and dreamers”. He felt that such a “superior human synthesis” (grossartige Menscheitsynthese) had not shown itself in any European king. Here I discuss to what extent the emperor Jahangir fulfilled Francis Bacon's ideal of the perfect ruler.
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Weller, Matthias. "Portable Antiquities in the Modern European Context: Law, Ethics, Policy and Practice (Pecz, Hungary, July 12–13, 2007)." International Journal of Cultural Property 15, no. 4 (November 2008): 417–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0940739108080351.
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July 12–13, 2007, the Institute of Art and Law, Leicester, invited numerous experts to an international meeting at Pecz, Hungary, about the legal and ethical issues of portable antiquities in Europe. Norman Palmer (Barrister, King's College, London) introduced the participants to the questions revolving around treasure trove and the various ways to legally structure claims for recovery of portable antiquities under both public and private law. In particular, he addressed the issue of interdependencies between potentially strong substantive law on treasure trove or protection of cultural property on the one hand and limits of implementation of such rules in cross-border cases on the other hand. Jeremy Scott (Withers LLP, London) further illustrated this issue with reference to the most recent English cases of Iran v. Berend—no renvoi in English choice of law on moveable property and (if there were renvoi) no lex originis under French choice of law—and Iran v. Barakat—no application of foreign public law such as Iranian patrimony law by English courts. In the meantime the latter case has been reversed on appeal. Kurt Siehr (Max-Planck-Institute for Private International and Foreign Law, Hamburg) outlined the mechanisms offered by community law, in particular under Directive 93/7/EEC, for the protection of cultural property of member states vis-à-vis other member states. Zsolt Visy (Pecz University) demonstrated the typical difficulties of the protection of archaeological objects found in the ground but illegally exported with reference to the highly problematic history of the Sevso Treasure. Visy also underlined the fact that most legal remedies depend on the precise attribution of the moveable object in question to a certain state. In the following a tour de raison was offered through various national legal systems on how treasure trove is regulated and to what extent claims for recovery of antiquities can be raised. Weller pointed to the peculiarity under German law that the rules on treasure trove are rather unsophisticated compared to the voluminous statutory regimes in other states and that the competency to rule on treasure trove primarily lies with the states of the Federal Republic of Germany—a situation that necessarily results in a variety of solutions. Although many rules of general nature supplement the regime of treasure trove under German law, the law on treasure trove appeared to be a suitable object for unification on the federal level, and on this occasion the protection of archaeological objects found in the ground should be strengthened. In the second part of the meeting, Guido Carducci (UNESCO, Paris) presented a comparison between the regimes of claims for recovery of antiquities under the 1970 UNESCO Convention and the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention. Patty Gerstenblith (DePaul University, United States) commented on the interaction between foreign patrimony law and domestic criminal prosecution under the National Stolen Property Act with reference to the famous case in US v. Schultz. In the following round table talk with Kurt Siehr, Jeremy Scott, and Weller, the crucial issue of the application of foreign public law such as patrimony law was discussed from a comparative perspective; and Weller drew the attention to the 1975 Wiesbaden Resolution on the Application of Foreign Public Law of the Institute of International Law, by which the world leading conflicts scholars of the time had already agreed on the principle that there was no good reason a priori to exclude foreign public law from its application by a domestic court. Further presentations on the relevance of soft law, codes of ethics, and practical issues of archaeological excavations provided a comprehensive picture of the legal and ethical issues of portable antiquities in Europe.
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SHORT, PATRICIA. "EUROPE READIES CHEMICALS RULES." Chemical & Engineering News 84, no. 50 (December 11, 2006): 9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cen-v084n050.p009.
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Southard, Edna Carter, and Jonathan Brown. "Kings and Connoisseurs: Collecting Art in Seventeenth Century Europe." Sixteenth Century Journal 27, no. 3 (1996): 914. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2544097.
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Gleissner, S. "Kings and Connoisseurs. Collecting art in seventeenth-century Europe." Journal of the History of Collections 9, no. 1 (January 1, 1997): 174–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jhc/9.1.174.
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Valentinova, Dorothea. "Iustitia and Corruptio in Liber Constitutionum sive Lex Gundobada." Studia Ceranea. Journal of the Waldemar Ceran Research Centre for the History and Culture of the Mediterranean Area and South-East Europe 12 (December 30, 2022): 215–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/2084-140x.12.35.
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After 476, Flavius Gundobadus, King of the Burgundians (473–516), sought ways and means to consolidate and strengthen his power, including through legal regulation of the relations between the Burgundians themselves, on the one hand, and between the Burgundians and the Gallo-Romans, on the other. Thus, Liber Constitutionum sive Lex Gundobada was issued, the main purpose of which is the legal regulation of the complex relations in the kingdom, through a codification of the preserved customary law – an embodiment of tribal traditions, practices, and customs, with reasonable use of Roman legal ideas, notions, and norms.
The translation and analysis of selected provisions from Lex Gundobada in this paper show the extent to which the Burgundians perceived, received, adopted, and adapted some of the most valuable Roman legal and moral rules and principles, especially the Roman concepts of iustitia and corruptio, and how the rights of both the Burgundians and the Romans were regulated and protected through them.
Lex Burgundionum is part of a series of legal Barbarian codes, compiled, adapted, published, and applied in the Barbarian regna between the 5th and 9th centuries. These codes are one of the significant and true sources for the historical reconstruction of the socio-political, socio-cultural, and legal-administrative transition from the late Roman Empire to the German kingdoms and early medieval Europe. They manifest how historically the arena of clashes, confrontations, and wars between Romanitas and Barbaritas gradually became a contact zone of legal reception, of cultural, legal, and socio-political influences, from which a new world will be born, a successor to the old ones, and a new legal system – the Romano-Germanic one.
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Cairovic, Ivica. "Relationship of church and state in Anglo-Saxon England in the first half of the 8th century: The case of the King Eadberht (737/738-758) and the archbishop of Ecgbert (735-766)." Zbornik Matice srpske za drustvene nauke, no. 171 (2019): 411–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/zmsdn1971411c.
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Eadberht was the king of Northumbria from 737/738 until 758, and his reign was understood and interpreted through the centuries as a return to the imperial desires and hints that the Nortambrian rulers had in the 7th century. On the other hand, the economic development of the northern part of the British Isles was obvious in this period. Although Eadberht had major internal political problems, as several candidates for the position of the ruler were a permanent danger, he confirmed his status in several battles in which he defeated the rivals for the throne and continued to rule independently. 421 In the year of 758, Eadberht abdicated for the benefit of his son and settled down in York, where his brother Ecgbert was Archbishop. This act shows that the prodigious relationship between these two rulers was one of the strongest links in an unbroken chain of close relations between state and Church in the first half of the 8th century. Archbishop Ecgbert died in 766 and was buried in the Cathedral Church in York. During his archbishop service, Ecgbert was seen as a church reformer, but the same continued after his death, as indicated by the creators of the canons and disciplinary provisions for the Anglo-Saxon clergy and the laity who attributed their writings to Ecgbert. It is concluded that Ecgbert was serving the Church in the canonical, dogmatic, pastoral, and exegetical fields. On the other hand, concerning the state, the authorities and Anglo-Saxon society, in general, had the help of his brother, King Eadberht. It was this family relationship that paved the way for the relationship between the Church and the state in Anglo-Saxon England. Thus, a very close relationship between the Archbishop and the King in the later period of the British Isles is proof of the tradition that started in the first half of the 8th century in Northumbria and York. On the other hand, the relationship between Church and state property was established in the earlier period, and in the period when Ecgbert and Eadberht ruled, it is only directed to the family of the ruling house deciding on the property of the Church and the state. One of the best examples for this is family monasteries, headed by a hegumen from the ruling family, who worked with a relative who ruled the areas in which the monastery was. This paper analyzes available historical sources to determine the relationship between clergymenand rulers in Anglo-Saxon England in the first half of the 8th century. The historical methodology in this study will describe the relationship between Church and State in Anglo-Saxon England, on the example of Eadberht, King Northumbria (737/738-758), and his brother Ecgbert, the first Archbishop of York (735-766). An example of the symphony of church and state in Anglo-Saxon England in the first half of the 8th century is the example of Ecgbert and Eadberht, that can serve to understand later historical phenomena in the history of the Church and the state of Western Europe, especially when analyzing the phenomenon of investiture. Thus, the proposed research with its conclusion hypotheses can serve as a first step in the process of analyzing the phenomenon of investiture and its eventual conclusion in the late Middle Ages in Western Europe.
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Dolgin, Elie. "Europe reviews primate rights rules." Nature Medicine 16, no. 4 (April 2010): 352. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nm0410-352a.
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Meyer, Helen. "Harmonized copyright rules across Europe." Computers & Security 18, no. 3 (January 1999): 232–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0167-4048(99)90937-9.
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Lewkowicz, Łukasz. "Polsko-czechosłowackie konwencje turystyczne jako przykład współpracy transgranicznej." Sprawy Narodowościowe, no. 45 (December 31, 2014): 125–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.11649/sn.2014.027.
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Polish-Czechoslovak tourist conventions as an example of transfrontier cooperationThe article provides a general description of Polish-Czechoslovak tourist conventions from inter- and post-war periods. It presents the conditions of signing of these unique international agreements, the decision-making process, as well as the basic principles of the conventions. Overall, the tourist conventions are special kinds mostly bilateral international agreements aimed at simplifying the rules of transfrontier traffic within a region attractive to tourists, such as the Carpathian and Sudetic borderlands. Poland and Czechoslovakia were the precursors of this kind of transfrontier cooperation across Europe. The first tourist convention was signed in 1925 as a direct result of so-called Cracow Protocols, which aimed at regulating economic, communication and tourist issues with Czechoslovakia after the Jaworzyna Spiska conflict. The next tourist agreement of 1955 was adopted as a result of the post-Stalinist Thaw, which allowed a certain liberalization of the border regime between the two countries. The agreement was amended and extended in 1961-1962, and was in force till the early 1980s. The experiences of the functioning of the tourist conventions became a model for Euroregions which stared to emerge in the area under discussion. Moreover, they also served as a model for central authorities in liberalizing the border regime in the 1990s. Polsko-czechosłowackie konwencje turystyczne jako przykład współpracy transgranicznejCelem artykułu była ogólna charakterystyka polsko-czechosłowackich konwencji turystycznych z okresu między- i powojennego. Przedstawione zostały uwarunkowania podpisania tych unikatowych umów międzynarodowych, proces decyzyjny, poddano analizie również podstawowe założenia konwencji. Generalnie konwencje turystyczne to specyficzny rodzaj, najczęściej bilateralnych, umów międzynarodowych służących uproszczeniu zasad ruchu transgranicznego w obrębie atrakcyjnego turystycznie regionu, w tym przypadku pogranicza karpackiego i sudeckiego. Polska i Czechosłowacja były prekursorami tego rodzaju współpracy transgranicznej w całej Europie. Pierwsza konwencja turystyczna została podpisana w 1925 roku jako bezpośredni rezultat tzw. protokołów krakowskich mających na celu uregulowanie kwestii gospodarczych, komunikacyjnych i turystycznych z Czechosłowacją po zakończeniu konfliktu o Jaworzynę Spiską. Kolejna umowa turystyczna z 1955 roku przyjęta została jako efekt postalinowskiej odwilży, która pozwoliła na pewną liberalizację reżimu granicznego między obu państwami. Umowa była nowelizowana i poszerzana w latach 1961-1962 i obowiązywała do początku lat 80. XX wieku. Doświadczenia funkcjonowania konwencji turystycznych stały się wzorcem dla tworzących się na badanym obszarze euroregionów. Stanowiły również wzorzec dla władz centralnych podejmujących działania liberalizujące reżim graniczny w latach 90.
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KIS, Nazar. "IMPERIAL RITUALS AND PUBLIC CELEBRATION OF POLISH NATIONAL ANNIVERSARIES IN HABSBURG LVIV." Ukraine: Cultural Heritage, National Identity, Statehood 34 (2021): 28–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.33402/ukr.2021-34-28-35.
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The study shows how imperial rituals (traditionally used at the meeting of the emperor or to celebrate the anniversaries of his reign) become part of national commemorative practices in Lviv. The process of adaptation and use of the European tradition of patriotic mass events in the city is demonstrated on the examples of Polish historical anniversaries. The connection between the constitutional reforms in the state and the transition of national celebrations from the private to the public sphere is highlighted. It is alleged that in the second half of the 19th century in Western Europe became popular mass events designed to strengthen the position of ruling elites. In the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires celebrated the birthdays of rulers, in France – the republican holidays, in Germany – the anniversaries of military victories. With the help of railways, it was possible to gather large masses of subjects in one place under one pretext, thus «turning» them into a nation. It was stated that celebrating past Polish victories was a much safer occupation for Polish elites than preparing for a new uprising. Even more patriotic than the usual «organic work». Therefore, commemorative practices have become extremely popular in Halychyna. As noted, in the days of mass politics, the Polish political nation could no longer be limited exclusively to the nobility, it was necessary to involve the Masurian peasants and the bourgeoisie in the national project. And since there was fierce competition among various political groups, mass events «for the people» had to be interesting and understandable to the general public. It was found that historical events were not only «mentioned», they were also interpreted and popularized accordingly. Depending on who organized the celebrations and to whom such activities were directed, either the democracy of the former Commonwealth, or the peaceful coexistence of different nations («Poland, Lithuania, and Rus’»), or the military victories of kings, or sacrifice, loyalty and the courage of the bourgeoisie were brought to the fore. The methodological basis of the study comprises the principles of historicism, objectivity, and systematics. General scientific and special research methods were used in solving the set tasks: historiographical analysis, generalization, chronological, retrospective. The scientific novelty of the work lies in a comprehensive analysis of the state of the study of the issue in modern historiography and a comparison of existing data with the available evidence of the time. And also in the complex analysis of mass actions as the phenomenon. Based on modern research and source material, it is shown that with the growing role of local self-government, the Polish historical narrative began to dominate over the general imperial in the public space of Lviv. At the same time, it maintained a semblance of loyalty to the central government, taking full advantage of constitutional freedoms to advance the national «agenda». Over time, there were changes in the senses that reached the general public through rituals: kings and victories were replaced by the constitution of May 3, which provided rights and freedoms for the «people» in the modern sense of the term. And with the aggravation of interethnic relations, the militarization of mass celebrations became more visible, when the municipal guards were no longer the municipal guards, but members of the scout organizations, which symbolically replaced the Austrian military on the city streets. Prospects for further research are that this period was very full of similar actions, which have not yet been the subject of research by historians. Their analysis will help to better understand the processes that eventually led to the well-known events in Lviv after the First World War.
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Staab, Franz. "The Anointing and Coronation of Kings in Early Modern Europe." Philosophy and History 19, no. 2 (1986): 152–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/philhist198619296.
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Bagerius, Henric, and Christine Ekholst. "Kings and favourites: politics and sexuality in late medieval Europe." Journal of Medieval History 43, no. 3 (May 22, 2017): 298–319. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03044181.2017.1322999.
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Eisner, M. "Killing Kings: Patterns of Regicide in Europe, AD 600-1800." British Journal of Criminology 51, no. 3 (January 31, 2011): 556–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azr004.
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Weiler, Joseph H. H. "A Christian Europe? Europe and Christianity: Rules of Commitment." European View 6, no. 1 (December 2007): 143–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12290-007-0020-8.
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Sundqvist, Olof. "The Ceremony of “King Taking” at the Swedish Mora Stone." Religionsvidenskabeligt Tidsskrift 74 (March 25, 2022): 89–118. http://dx.doi.org/10.7146/rt.v74i.132103.
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ABSTRACT: There are no sources which explicitly describe the complete initiation ritual of a pre-Christian king in ancient Scandinavia. However, there are sources from Scandinavia and Europe more broadly describing medieval royal inaugurations that may be based on older ceremonies related to the initiations of pre-Christian rulers. Whether or not elements in the medieval royal inauguration at Mora, south of presentday Uppsala (Sweden), are based on pre-Christian traditions is an old research problem. This royal initiation ritual is visible in the medieval provincial laws of Sweden and other sources. This study argues that there are traces of older traditions behind the medieval versions of the ritual sequence called “king taking” (OSw taka konong) performed at the Mora Stone. Focus is on the location of the ritual site, the terminology used in the preserved textual sources, and the ritual actions and paraphernalia applied when performing this ceremony. A comparative method is applied, which includes archaeological finds and written sources related not only to ancient Sweden and Scandinavia, but also to the Germanic, Slavic, and Celtic areas of Europe. Finally, the question of the mythical dimensions of inaugurations are discussed and the study’s results are related to theories about cultic continuation during the transition to Christianity and theories about religious legitimation of rulership.
RESUME: Der er ingen kilder, som eksplicit beskriver en initiation af en førkristen konge i Skandinavien. Til gengæld er der kilder fra Skandinavien og andre dele af Europa, som beskriver kongelige indsættelsesritualer i middelalderen, ritualer som kan være baseret på ældre ceremonier knyttet til initiationer af førkristne herskere. Hvorvidt elementer af kongelige indsættelsesritualer ved Mora, syd for nutidens Uppsala (Sverige) er baseret på førkristne traditioner, er et gammelt forskningsspørgsmål. Dette studie argumenterer for, at der er spor af ældre traditioner bag de middelalderlige 90 Olof Sundqvist versioner af den ritualsekvens, som kaldes ”at tage konge” (OSw taka konong), som fandt sted ved Mora sten. Studiet fokuserer på ritualpladsens lokalitet, den terminologi, som anvendes omkring ritualet i de overleverede skriftlige kilder og de rituelle handlinger og genstande, som benyttes ved udførelsen af ceremonien. En komparative metode benyttes, idet studiet baserer sig på arkæologiske fund og skriftlige kilder, som knytter sig ikke blot til Sverige og Skandinavien, men også til de germanske, slaviske og keltiske områder af Europa. Til slut diskuteres den mytiske dimension af indsættelsesritualerne, og studiets resultater relateres til teorier dels om kultkontinuitet ved overgangen til kristendommen og dels om religiøs legitimering af herskerrollen.
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Håkansson, Håkan. "Alchemy of the Ancient Goths: Johannes Bureus’ Search for the Lost Wisdom of Scandinavia." Early Science and Medicine 17, no. 5 (2012): 500–522. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/10.1163/15733823-175000a3.
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The Swedish polymath Johannes Bureus (1568–1652), Royal Librarian and close friend of King Gustavus Adolphus, is primarily known as an exponent of early modern “Gothicism,” i.e., the idea that the ancient Goths of Scandinavia were the first rulers of Europe and Sweden the true origin of Western culture. But Bureus was also an avid reader of alchemical literature, as well as a practising alchemist. Influenced by the Neoplatonic revival of the Renaissance, he viewed alchemy as part of a prisca theologia stemming from the ancient Goths, arguing that the Scandinavian runes constituted a “Gothic Cabala,” in which the secrets of all sciences—including alchemy—had been hidden for posterity. Drawing on Bureus’ notes, glosses and excerpts from textual sources, this article considers the role attributed to alchemy in his quest for this lost wisdom of the Goths.
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Söderström, Rebecca. "Regulating Banks in Europe." European Company Law 12, Issue 2 (April 1, 2015): 115–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.54648/eucl2015017.
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EU banking regulation has grown from a fundamental set of rules targeting the vast majority of banks, to a large amount of detailed rules with a focus to regulate the few very large banks in the Union. The EU passport for conducting banking business and other financial services was one of the first regulatory steps in this field. Today the rules are highly harmonized and also supervision is in focus not least since the Banking Union was set up.
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Hoffman-Strock, Martha, and Paul Kleber Monod. "The Power of Kings: Monarchy and Religion in Europe, 1589-1715." Sixteenth Century Journal 33, no. 2 (2002): 616. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4144011.
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