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1
Black, Antony. "Classical Islam and Medieval Europe: A Comparison of Political Philosophies and Cultures." Political Studies 41, no. 1 (March 1993): 58–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1993.tb01637.x.
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There were fundamental differences in political philosophy and culture between Islamic and western-Christian or European civilization in the period up to c.1500, notably concerning the nature of the political community, of religious law and of the mode of political discourse. Europe proved open to Greco–Roman influences and thus developed, as Islam did not, a notion of the legitimate secular state.
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Thu Trang, Le. "An Insight of European Political Culture: Development and Features." International Journal of Arts, Humanities & Social Science 04, no. 01 (January 15, 2023): 16–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.56734/ijahss.v4n1a2.
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Political culture is a popular concept in many countries around the world. The paper is expected to contribute to a deeper understanding and introduction of some characteristics of European political culture. This can also be seen as a cultural approach to politics. Being one of the cradles of human civilization with the famous Greco-Roman civilization, Europe inherits the quintessence of other civilizations to bring it to a new level and gained brilliant achievements in terms of economics, politics, culture, etc. The politics of Europe has emerged, had certain achievements, and significantly influenced the political culture all over the world. The study on European political culture is considered as the study of the most basic characteristics of the modern world political culture.
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Huzain, Muh. "Pengaruh Peradaban Islam Terhadap Dunia Barat." TASAMUH: Jurnal Studi Islam 10, no. 2 (September 3, 2018): 355–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.47945/tasamuh.v10i2.77.
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The emergence of Islam influenced the revolution and made a wave of culture toward a new world when experiencing an era of darkness. The progress of Greek civilization in the Westcould not be continued by the Roman empire and Roman domination in the classical era until the middle ages; which was then therise of the West in the era of renaissance in the 14-16th century.This paper will reveal the influence of Islam on the development of the Western world, since the emergence of contact between Islam with the West in the Classical era until the middle ages. There are different opinions among historians about who and when the first contact between Islam and the West took place. The first contact, however, occurred when the areas of East Roman government (Byzantium), Syria (638) and Egypt (640) fell into the hands of the Islamic government during the reign of Caliph 'Umar bin Khaţţāb. The Second contact, at the beginning of the eighth and ninth centuries occurred when the kings of Islam were able to rule Spain (711-1472), Portugal (716-1147), and important Mediterranean islands such as Sardinia (740-1050), Cicilia (827-1091), Malta (870-1090) as well as several small areas in Southern Italy and French Southern France. The third contact, took place in Eastern Europe from the fourteenth to early twentieth century when the Ottoman empire ruled the Balkan peninsula (Eastern Europe) and Southern Russia. The Ottoman empire's powers in Europe covered Yunāni, Bulgaria, Albania, Romania, Yugoslavia, Hungary, parts of Rhode, Cyprus, Austria and parts of Russia. Of the three periods of contact, the greatest influence was in the second contact period, where the decline of Western science in the dark era, while in the Islamic world developed advanced and produces scientists, thinkers and intellectuals in various sciences. This influence can be seen from the sending of students studying to the university of Islamic area, the establishment of the university, the translation and copying of various scientific literature such as natural science (Science of astronomy, Mathematics, Chemistry, Pharmacy, medicine, architecture etc) and Social Science history, philosophy, politics, economics, earth sciences, sociology, law, culture, language, literature, art, etc.). The Historians recognize that the influence of Islamic civilization is very great on the development of the West, which culminated in the renaissance or rise of Western civilization in Europe after the dark era.
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Huzain, Muh. "PENGARUH PERADABAN ISLAM TERHADAP DUNIA BARAT." Tasamuh: Jurnal Studi Islam 10, no. 2 (November 7, 2018): 355–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.32489/tasamuh.41.
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The emergence of Islam influenced the revolution and made a wave of culture toward a new world when experiencing an era of darkness. The progress of Greek civilization in the West could not be continued by the Roman empire and Roman domination in the classical era until the middle ages; which was then the rise of the West in the era of renaissance in the 14-16th century. This paper will reveal the influence of Islam on the development of the Western world, since the emergence of contact between Islam with the West in the Classical era until the middle ages. There are different opinions among historians about who and when the first contact between Islam and the West took place. The first contact, however, occurred when the areas of East Roman government (Byzantium), Syria (638) and Egypt (640) fell into the hands of the Islamic government during the reign of Caliph 'Umar bin Khaţţāb. The Second contact, at the beginning of the eighth and ninth centuries occurred when the kings of Islam were able to rule Spain (711-1472), Portugal (716-1147), and important Mediterranean islands such as Sardinia (740-1050), Cicilia (827-1091), Malta (870-1090) as well as several small areas in Southern Italy and French Southern France. The third contact, took place in Eastern Europe from the fourteenth to early twentieth century when the Ottoman empire ruled the Balkan peninsula (Eastern Europe) and Southern Russia. The Ottoman empire's powers in Europe covered Yunāni, Bulgaria, Albania, Romania, Yugoslavia, Hungary, parts of Rhode, Cyprus, Austria and parts of Russia. Of the three periods of contact, the greatest influence was in the second contact period, where the decline of Western science in the dark era, while in the Islamic world developed advanced and produces scientists, thinkers and intellectuals in various sciences. This influence can be seen from the sending of students studying to the university of Islamic area, the establishment of the university, the translation and copying of various scientific literature such as natural science (Science of astronomy, Mathematics, Chemistry, Pharmacy, medicine, architecture etc) and Social Science history, philosophy, politics, economics, earth sciences, sociology, law, culture, language, literature, art, etc.). The Historians recognize that the influence of Islamic civilization is very great on the development of the West, which culminated in the renaissance or rise of Western civilization in Europe after the dark era.
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Bachrach, David S. "Dominik Trump, Römisches Recht im Karolingerreich: Studien zur Überlieferungs- und Rezeptionsgeschichte der Epitome Aegidii. Quellen und Forschungen zum Recht im Mittelalter 13. Ostfildern: Jan Thorbecke Verlag, 2021, pp. 340." Mediaevistik 34, no. 1 (January 1, 2021): 407–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.3726/med.2021.01.85.
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The study of legal practice, legal theory, and the issuing of law in early medieval Europe has seen a fundamental paradigm shift over the past three decades as scholars have rejected an older model of the Germanic invasions and/or migrations toppling Roman civilization in the lands of the erstwhile western Empire. It is now well understood that the so-called “barbarian law codes” were, in fact, composite bodies of law drawn from a variety of Roman sources, including not only the compendia produced under the auspices of Emperors Theodosius II (402‐450) and Justinian (527‐565), but also Roman provincial law and Roman military law. This new understanding of the enormous influence of Roman law, in its many forms, on early medieval legal thinking and practice was driven by a detailed re-evaluation of legal texts, which continues unabated to the present day. The volume under consideration here, the revised doctoral dissertation of Dominik Trump completed at the University of Cologne, offers a close examination of an epitome of the Lex Romana Visigothorum, issued by King Alaric II between 505‐507. This epitome, called the Epitome Aegidii after its first editor Pieter Gillis (1486‐1533), played a significant role in both legal studies and practice in the Regnum Francorum because of its great utility. As Trump observes, despite its brevity the Epitome Aegidii has the same range of sources as the Lex Romana. These are the Codex Theodosianus, novellae from after the reign of Theodosius, Pseduo-Pauline sentences, the Codex Gregorianus, the Codex Hermogenionus, and a short responsum from Aemilius Papinianus. The Epitome, therefore, provides yet another index of the value with which legal thinkers and practitioners in early medieval Europe regarded the choices made by the advisors of King Alaric when designing and executing his legal compendium.
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Janković, Marko A. "The Concept of Romanization and its Role in the Constitution of the Classical Archaeologies of the Western Balkans." Issues in Ethnology and Anthropology 8, no. 3 (February 27, 2016): 747. http://dx.doi.org/10.21301/eap.v8i3.6.
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The traditional concept of Romanization has heavily influenced the methodology of research of the Roman monuments in Europe. The basic principles of the concept have been laid out by Theodor Mommsen, the German historian and an expert in epigraphy, who was the first to define the relationships between the Roman "civilization" and the local populations in his book The History of Rome. Mommsen presents a process in which two different political, economic and technological communities meet, and the inferior one is inevitably assimilated. Through the adoption of language, script, customs and material culture, the local communities become more Roman, i.e. they are romanized. This paradigm framework has fundamentally changed the way in which the researchers approach the Roman past. This was the first time that the material culture was explained inside archaeology as the discipline associated to history. The introduction of the concept of Romanization enabled the scholars to analyze the material culture in the context of everyday activities, regardless of their artistic value. Although this concept is a largely simplified view of the past, it has marked the Roman archaeology throughout the 20th century. At the moment when Mommsen's ideas are accepted and elaborated in Western Europe, the discipline of archaeology is formed in the Balkans, the first researchers are trained and the first modern archaeological researches are launched. The paper analyses the influence of his ideas upon the formation of Classical archaeology in Croatia and Serbia, two significantly different political contexts.
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Baburin, Sergey N. "LAW ENFORCEMENT ISSUES: INFLUENCE OF THE ROMAN LAW ON RUSSIAN CONSTITUTIONIALISM." Law Enforcement Review 4, no. 1 (May 25, 2020): 5–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.24147/2542-1514.2020.4(1).5-13.
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The subject. Modern law enforcement is considered in harmony with the spiritual and moral foundations of legal culture through the use of ideas and approaches of Roman law.
The purpose. An attempt has been made to assess the influence of Roman Law on Rus-sian constitutionalism and modern law enforcement on the basis of the spiritual and moral traditions of Russian legal culture.
The methodology. Methods of dialectical logic, analysis and synthesis, comparative-historical, formal-legal methods were used. The main method is comparison of founda-tions of Roman law with the basic principles of Russian constitutionalism.
The main results and scope of their application. The problem of influence of Roman law on Russian constitutionalism and, in general, on the basis of modern Russian law en-forcement is raised. If universalism and individualism should be believed as the founda-tions of classical Roman law, then the basis of Russian law is community and social soli-darity. In Russia collective property and joint work as well as ancestral structure in the form of a rural community reached the modern times, while in ancient Rome their disap-pearance was the basis of the formation of Roman law. National peculiarities of the Rus-sian legal and political systems are determined by cultural-historical (civilizational) cir-cumstances, especially by the natural and climatic factors. It was in the communal world of Russia that the idea of Christian equality has formed the basis of the model of life, while in Western Europe the community has followed the path of individualization of the individual and differentiation of elites and masses according to the criteria of social suc-cess. The absolute belief in law as a phenomenon of social planning and a tool for com-promise between different parts of
society, inherited from Roman law, formed the Romano-German and Anglo-Saxon worldview, but it did not take root in Russian legal culture. Modern Russian constitution-alism, while poorly considering the Roman-Byzantine origins of national Russian law, is wrong in its denial of the national-cultural and historical adaptation of European legal in-stitutions and principles.
Conclusions. One of the important results of the study is the conclusion that the social value of Roman law in Russian Constitutionalism includes the moral mission of Roman law and a high assessment of the normative value of the heritage of Roman law. The val-ue depravity of the current Constitution of the Russian Federation can be eliminated, its defects can and should be corrected on the basis of the Roman law tradition, but this should be done only by adequately assessing the own experience of law enforcement, the thousand-year state-legal and spiritual development of the Russian civilization.
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Meler, Arkadiy. "The Constitution of Christian Europe: The Milan Edict 1700 years ago laid the foundations of modern civilization." Religious Freedom, no. 17-18 (December 24, 2013): 62–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.32420/rs.2013.17-18.987.
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This year, the Christian world celebrates the 1700th anniversary of the edict of Milan by Emperor Constantine the Great (272-337), proclaiming the freedom of the Christian faith and laying the foundations for a unified European civilization, united by a common religious world outlook. By its direct influence on the development of "European humanity," the edict of Milan can not be compared to any historical event, either before or after. In ancient Europe there was not a single world outlook, and therefore there could not be an event that marks the beginning of antiquity precisely as a world outlook. At the first glance, modernist Europe possessed a general secular world outlook, but it was, in one way or another, associated with the former Christian foundation and had no axial event, extending its generations for several centuries of new peace treaties and revolutions. In Christian Europe, such an event is exactly the Milan Edict of 313, whose name is forgotten the last of all the events associated with the Christianization of the Roman Empire.
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Bergler, Thomas E. "Youth, Christianity, and the Crisis of Civilization, 1930–1945." Religion and American Culture: A Journal of Interpretation 24, no. 2 (2014): 259–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/rac.2014.24.2.259.
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AbstractDuring the 1930s and 1940s, the Great Depression and the rise of communism and fascism in Europe convinced a broad spectrum of Americans that they were living through a prolonged “crisis of civilization” with real potential to destroy all they held dear. Meanwhile, they saw evidence that these global problems put young people especially at risk for immorality, loss of hope, and political subversion. Because the “youth problem” and the “world crisis” seemed to be inextricably linked, even the everyday behaviors of young people took on a heightened political significance in the eyes of many adults. Christian leaders from across the spectrum of churches—Mainline Protestant, Evangelical, Roman Catholic, and African American—did not just capitalize on this obsession with youth and the fate of civilization; they did all they could to fan those flames. They did so not cynically, but sincerely, believing that they could and should save the world by saving American youth. Yet these leaders were also making a bid for influence in American society and for control of the future of their churches. The resulting politicized views of youth and youth work would not only influence the outcomes of internal church battles, but they would also shape how various Christian groups responded to the Cold War.
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Halapsis, Oleksy. "INDIVIDUALISM ALLOWED ACCESS." Politology bulletin, no. 80 (2018): 35–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/2415-881x.2018.80.35-45.
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The purpose of the article is to identified the origin and essence of Western individualism. Methods of research. I used the methodology of post-nonclassical metaphysics of history, as well as the methods of epistemological polytheism and com parative. Results. The first sprouts of individualism can be detected in Greek poleis. It is the crisis of the polis system in Ancient Greece that predetermined the disappointment of the Greeks in the old collectivist ideals. Roman collectivism quite naturally got along with ideas about civil liberties and the dignity of an individual citizen. The idea of citizenship was brought to the theoretical perfection by moving it beyond the boundaries of city walls. The Christian ideal is not a self-sufficient person, but the community of believers. It is the weakening of the church’s position and the strengthening of the influence of Antiquity that led to the formation of the Western style of thinking, which became the basis of the new European civilizational project. John Locke rethought the Hobbesian «Roman» theory of the social contract, thereby laying the foundations of liberalism, and hence of individualism. However, radically changing the hierarchical society, even the shaken revolution and the restoration of the Stuarts, no theoretical work could not. But in the New World, free from class barriers, Locke’s ideas found a much more fertile soil. Conclusions. The Western version of individualism emerges as a civilizational ideal at the junction of two completely different paradigms — the Ancient (Greek and Roman) and the Christian. Being present in the «body» of the West, individualism could not access its code. The latter was guarded by numerous barriers, among which the Catholic collectivism and the class divisions of hierarchical society were the most powerful guards. In American society, security barriers were significantly weaker, which allowed individualism to develop in the United States. Then American individualism returned to Europe and is now perceived as an integral element of Western civilization.
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POZNYAK, Stepan, and Halyna Ivaniuk. "KNOWLEDGE ABOUT SOILS IN THE CIVILIZATIONS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD." SCIENTIFIC ISSUES OF TERNOPIL VOLODYMYR HNATIUK NATIONAL PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY. SERIES: GEOGRAPHY 52, no. 1 (May 30, 2022): 4–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.25128/2519-4577.22.1.1.
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The article examines the development of knowledge about soils in the era of ancient civilizations, including Sumerian, Egyptian, Harappan, ancient Chinese and Ancient Greek and Roman empires, as well as Trypillia culture, which spread in VI-III millennium BC in the forest-steppe zone, between the Carpathians and the Dnieper and belonged to the civilization of Old Europe.
Soil science as a science was formed in the late nineteenth century, but its history began several millennia before. It is closely connected with the development of agriculture and the whole civilization. According to the English historian G.T. Bokl, the soil (its fertility) had the greatest influence on the origin and development of civilizations of the Ancient world.
In the valleys of the Nile, Tigris, Euphrates, Indus in VI-VII millennium BC there was already a controlled irrigation of land, which was the main function of the first state formations that emerged there. The Egyptians learned to build a complex irrigation system of pools and canals. Of the cereals, barley was grown the most, and of the industrial crops, flax; kept the land cadastre, paid taxes according to the area and quality of land.
The valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates suffered much more from flooding and salinization, which affected on all agriculture in the region. In the states of the Mesopotamia (Sumer, Assyria, Babylon) irrigation systems were actively developed, two crops were harvested per year. In the countries of the Mesopotamia there was also a cadastre and they knew the difference in the quality of the soils.
Widespread introduction of farming in ancient Ukraine began with the spread of Trypillia culture. The people of Trypillia cultivated the soil with a hoes and used a wooden plow. The main cereals were covered wheat and naked barley. Trypillia had plenty of land with fertile soils, a set of cultivated plants suitable for growing locally and thousands of years of experience in farming. Soils were fertilized with manure; crop rotation was applied.
The ancient Greeks were the first to speak about the profile structure of the soil and saw in the soil a body that changes over time. They called fertility an important property of the soil, often linking it to weather and cultivation conditions.
Unlike the Greeks, who developed a philosophical direction, thinking about the origin, change and organization of soil cover, the Romans were interested in more practical issues (methods of cultivation, fertilization of soils). The statesmen of that time considered agriculture to be the source of power, thanks to which the state achieved world domination and the highest power, and even wealthy people cultivated the soil.
The main achievements of the ancient Greeks and Romans in the doctrine of soils were: development of their classification; identification of the best soils for field crops, grapes, olives; development of agricultural measures that allow to preserve and increase soil productivity; formulation of the law of declining soil fertility; creation of the first classification of fertilizers, recipes for composting, evidence of the effectiveness of green manures; collection and systematization of data on soil properties; maintaining a strict cadastre, the assessment of land by their area, fertility and yield; legal issues of soil use.
Key words: soil, agriculture, irrigation, cadastre, civilization, Ancient world.
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Kazanski, Michel, and Anna Vladimirovna Mastykovа. "Inlaid Buckles and Plates from the Great Migration Period Showing Relief Scroll Decorations: Byzantium and Barbaricum." Античная древность и средние века 50 (2022): 83–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.15826/adsv.2022.50.005.
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This article examines the inlaid artefacts with garnets decorated with carved spirals, which originate from Kerch and date from the late stage of the Great Migration Period. According to B. Arrhenius, carved gemstones occurring in Europe in the Hunnic and Post-Hunnic Periods were the products of Mediterranean workshops, primarily of Constantinople. This stone-working technology requires specific skills; the barbarians did not have this technology in the period in question. The finds from Kerch were possibly imported from Constantinople, as the Cimmerian Bosporos was closely connected with the Eastern Roman Empire in political and economic respect. However, it is still possible that the artefacts featuring the carved designs in question were produced in the Western Mediterranean workshops. The first thing to meet the eye is the appearance of a significant number of metal ware showing comparable spiral decorations in the Barbaricum in the said period. The artefacts showing the most similar style concentrated in Eastern Europe; there also are the finds of the kind from Central Europe and southern Scandinavia. It is very likely that metal objects with spiral decorations, prestigious in themselves and in some cases undoubtedly originated from “chieftain” complexes or the centres of power, imitated even more prestigious artefacts featuring carved garnets, like those found in Kerch. If it was the case, the Central European and Scandinavian finds possibly imitated not only Byzantine ware, but also certain ornaments from the Western Mediterranean, for example from Ravenna. Be that as it may, it seems that the rather wide distribution of metal artefacts featuring two-scroll spiral decorations indicates a significant influence of the elite Mediterranean / Byzantine culture on the barbarian elite, which also occurred in other elements of the “princely” civilization of the European Barbaricum in the fifth and sixth centuries.
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Kardis, Kamil, Michal Valčo, Katarina Valčova, and Gabriel Pal'a. "The Threat of Religious Fundamentalism and the European Immigration Crisis." Bogoslovska smotra 91, no. 5 (2022): 1161–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.53745/bs.91.5.11.
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A significant part of the crisis of our contemporary European societies can be attributed to misplaced and abused religious zeal in various forms of religious fundamentalism, both domestically grown as well as imported and shared by the immigrants to Europe from third-world countries. To deal with this complex phenomenon in the European environment, it is necessary to conceive the analysis of the presented issue into a sociological scheme based on three premises: (1) diagnosis of migration processes in the context of growing population movements in Europe, (2) identification of determinants and factors that cause these movements, as well as (3) a proposal to solve the current situation in the spirit of social teaching of the Roman Catholic Church. Our paper is an attempt to interpret and compare the opinions of selected experts on this sensitive issue and, with the help of their opinions, to present some guiding ideas on the path to possible solutions to the current situation. We begin by describing the ideological deconstruction of the moral and cultural world as evidenced in the postmodern society, accompanied by processes of subjectivization and individualization, which acquired a societal context in Europe and North America in the 1960s. We then turn to exploring the context of religious change (from a theological-sociological perspective). The religiosity of postmodern man becomes a mixture of various correct, albeit often contradictory, discontinuous elements , involving a small dose of love for one's neighbor, often taking the form of friendly affection and showing emotions towards animals and the external environment, ideologically correct psychology as well as parapsychology, supplemented by esoteric, occult and astrological notions, while staying open to the possibility for Eastern philosophies and the sects. Islamic fundamentalism is seen as a reaction to this religious-cultural context that is perceived (by conservative Muslims and Christians alike) as hostile to traditional values, ideas about the world, and ideals. The context of contemporary Islam’s influence on the European religious landscape and culture is scrutinized in the next section of our paper. In Europe, the number of Christians will fall from 74.5% to 65.2% between 2010 and 2050, while the number of non-believers (nones) will increase from 18.8% to 23.3%, and the number of Muslims will also almost double from 5.9% to 10.2%. The growth of Muslims in Europe will be affected by both birth rates and migration. A part of our critical analysis points to the self-destructive tendencies of some European elites and cultural influencers/policy makers. After outlining some forecasts and developments, and offering initial critical views on the transpiring phenomena, we move on to delineating possible solutions to this situation. Due to the complexity of the problem, there is no ready-made, simple way to handle this situation. While immigrants have always played in important role in the European history, a growing number of political scientists talk in particular about the internal protection of Europe, that is, the inevitability of protecting its constitutive, fundamental values and rights. If Europe is not to lose its face and cultural/moral fiber, it is important to uphold its constitutive values. This will not be possible without an intentional struggle to reinvent its moral and spiritual heritage with every new generation without forfeiting the fundamentals upon which our culture and civilization has been built. The concluding section of our paper focuses on the Catholic Church's position on this issue and its recent proposals for resolving the migration crisis. The Church’s teaching that state officials and others who profess Christianity but reject refugees are hypocrites because Jesus would accept these people should be balanced by a critical call to be aware that our obligation to love and care for our neighbor extends not only to the immigrants and their families but also to the families and individuals of the European host countries. Our fear of Islamization of Christian Europe may be an indication that we Europeans have very little confidence in our own faith. Accordingly, we will not be able to preserve the Christian faith by living it secluded in our churches, but by presenting our Christian spirit - by accepting these refugees and by helping them in their concrete circumstances, and by engaging them (as well as our secular counterparts) publicly with due respect in an open-ended discourse of metanarratives.
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Hu, Hsun-Ming, Véronique Michel, Patricia Valensi, Horng-Sheng Mii, Elisabetta Starnini, Marta Zunino, and Chuan-Chou Shen. "Stalagmite-Inferred Climate in the Western Mediterranean during the Roman Warm Period." Climate 10, no. 7 (June 23, 2022): 93. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cli10070093.
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The circum-Mediterranean region is the cradle of ancient civilizations that had their roots in the Holocene. Climate change has been considered a key element that contributed to their rise or fall. The Roman Warm Period (RWP), 200 B.C. to 400 A.D., was the warmest period in Europe during the last two thousand years. Hydroclimatic change at the end of the RWP has been suggested as a possible influence on the stability of the Roman political regime and the eventual collapse of the Roman Empire in 476 A.D. A lack of precise proxy records hampers our understanding of hydroclimatic variability over the RWP. Here we present a stalagmite-based climate record from 550 ± 10 B.C. to 950 ± 7 A.D. (2σ) from northern Italy, which reveals a climatic trend of warming and increased humidity throughout the RWP. By comparison with other proxy records in Europe and the circum-Mediterranean region, we argue that the warm, humid climate in southern Europe could be linked to the multi-centennial warming of the Mediterranean Sea. Our record further suggests a century-long rapid drying trend from the early-4th to early-5th century, followed by a 100-year-long drought event, which could have influenced the fall of the Roman Empire.
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Di Berardino, S. E. "Water and sanitation management in medieval Portugal." Water Supply 18, no. 2 (July 10, 2017): 630–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2017.132.
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Abstract Water and sanitation played a crucial role in the evolution of Portugal and its empire, which in the sixteenth century dominated large portions of the world. Two relevant civilizations, the Roman Empire and the Arab invasion, had great influence on Portugal's water and sanitation knowledge. Following the creation of Portugal in AD 1143, the Cistercian order was called for removing Arab influence and received large domains, where it built large monasteries, all provided with remarkable examples of water supply, sanitation and waste management, merging the Roman background in sanitary engineering with the local Arab experience. One of them, the Monastery of Christ in Tomar, is provided with a brilliant water and waste self-sustainable system, based on rainwater collection and storage, wastewater treatment and application in agriculture of treated waste and effluent. It testifies to the experience and innovative expertise of the Cistercian Order in sanitary/hydraulic engineering. It shows also one of the world's first examples of a wastewater treatment plant. Their knowledge influenced also the lifestyle and water management of Portuguese medieval cities, ruled by municipalism, and protected the population from pestilence until the first half of the fourteenth century, making Portugal a powerful country, in contrast with the rest of Europe.
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Lenkiewicz, Tomasz. "Spuścizna świata antycznego w życiu politycznym Europy." Gdańskie Studia Międzynarodowe 14 (December 30, 2016): 55–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0010.1226.
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The precise conceptualization of a spatial dimension of Europe is highly controversial. Taking the diversity of criteria, factors and determinants into account, one may tell that Europe is perceived as a geographic, cultural, meta-political, political and civilization space. The arbitrary indication of Ural Mountains as an eastern border of Europe is still being questioned. Common roots of European tradition and identity are being found in Greek, Roman and Judeo-Christian tradition. Europe as geographical identificator emerged in ancient Greece and had axiological content from its very begining.
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Molodiakov, Vasily E. "“Defender of the West”: Henri Massis against Spengler, Hitler and Germany." Almanac “Essays on Conservatism” 65 (March 1, 2020): 235–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.24030/24092517-2020-0-4-235-245.
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This article analyzes the position on German civilization and different political regimes in Germany of the French conservative political philosopher Henri Massis (1886-1970). Catholic and French nationalist, follower of Maurice Barrès and Charles Maurras, Massis during all his life remained a Germanophobe and saw Germany, as well as Russia, not belonging to European civilization and being a dangerous enemies of the “West”. According to Massis ‘the West’ was limited to the Roman-Catholic part of Europe with France in the center, as the inheritor of Hellenized Christian Rome. Massis considered that civilization as the sole ‘authentic’ one. For many years Massis critisized the views of Oswald Spengler as representative of the “catastrophic theory of history” and precursor of national socialism.
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ARSHAD, RASYIDAH, SYAIDATUN NAZIRAH ABU ZAHRIN, and NURUL SHAHIRAH ABDUL SAMAD. "THE IMPACT OF SPANISH INQUISITION ON ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION." MALIM: JURNAL PENGAJIAN UMUM ASIA TENGGARA (SEA JOURNAL OF GENERAL STUDIES) 21, no. 1 (November 10, 2020): 199–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.17576/malim-2020-2101-16.
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The Spanish Inquisition was established as an official body blessed by the Roman Catholic Church, because the Catholic rulers Isabella and Ferdinand were determined to rid Spain of any heretics or non-Catholics. The greatest impact of the inquisition was the banishment of Islam from Spain. Spain has been a vibrant civilization for six centuries, serving as the shield of other religions. There was no divine guidance left untouched, or even a small group of believers left. It has resulted in Islam being delayed in Christian Europe for several decades. Even though Muslims have come to Europe in the last two centuries, Islam has been practiced as a personal religion of worship and prayer, but never as a government that has protected and enriched the lives of all religions, as we have seen during the Muslim rule of Andalusia. The aim of this paper is specifically to discuss the policies of the Spanish Inquisition on the Muslims in Andalusia. Muslim policies are discussed in great depth compared to other groups, because they were the majority and most resistant to policies. The analysis of the impact of the Inquisition is important to understand how Islam was eradicated from the Spanish society and later re-emerged as a significant presence in Spain.
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Muresan, Raluca. "Constructing a Periphery." Historical Studies on Central Europe 2, no. 1 (June 16, 2022): 121–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.47074/hsce.2022-1.06.
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Based on the analysis of articles published in theater periodicals in the Holy Roman Empire, thisstudy explores the enlightened cultural and symbolic geographies as reflected in the late eighteenth-centuryGerman theatrical press. Larry Wolff has shown that western travelers tend to locate the borders of civilizedEurope in Habsburg lands situated east of Vienna, namely in Galicia and Hungary. If theatrical periodicalsand travel memoirs by western travelers share a common interest in the frontiers of civilized Europe, thespecific geography of civilization entails several contradictions in the two medias. Larry Wolff has shownthat western travelers tend to locate the borders of civilized Europe in Habsburg lands situated east ofVienna, namely in Galicia and Hungary. By contrast, in theatrical journals based in the Holy Roman Empire,the borders of civilization seem to be concentrated south-eastwards, along the Ottoman frontier, namely inHungary and in the countries of St. Stephen’s Crown. The article seeks to elucidate variations by pointing togeographical and political factors, as well as to differences between these two literary genres. Unlike traveljournals, theater periodicals in the Holy Roman Empire had to give a general overview of contemporarytheater life, by pointing to the mobilities of itinerant theatrical, especially German, companies, and bydocumenting their repertoire. This article reveals how the specific construction of an imagined Europeanperiphery reflected by the periodicals is determined both by their networks of contributors and by the tastefor exotic, namely Turkish subjects, in eighteenth-century dramas and operas. Hence, such philosophicgeographies are shaped both by the origin, the language, the genre and by the major themes of suchperiodicals.
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Kurnia, Muhammad, and Rahmat Hidayat. "The Miracle of Arabic Language: From Pre-Islamic To Islamization." Jurnal Ilmu Agama: Mengkaji Doktrin, Pemikiran, dan Fenomena Agama 23, no. 2 (December 19, 2022): 129–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.19109/jia.v23i2.15064.
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Language contributes greatly to human civilization. Among the world's major languages spoken by mankind is Arabic. Arabic influences many aspects of life, such as Roman civilization in many fields, even music and poetry. Jahiliyyah Arabic only serves as a literary language. But when Islam came, Arabic underwent a very significant development, becoming the language of science. This is what is meant by the process of Islamization. This study aims to explain the influence of Islam on Arabic. Therefore, through this paper it can be concluded that even though there are several Arabic terms that are the same as those used during the Jahiliyyah and the advent of Islam, basically they have different meanings and emphasis. Islam came to have an influence in facilitating the pronunciation of Arabic terms which were previously complicated or even providing new Arabic vocabulary that was not known during the Jahiliyya period.
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Pop, Călin Cornel. "Particularities of the Cultural Tourism in Zalău in the Context of the European Heritage: The Roman Festival Zalău Porolissum." Studia Universitatis Babeș-Bolyai Geographia 64, no. 2 (December 20, 2020): 117–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.24193/subbgeogr.2019.2.06.
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"Particularities of the Cultural Tourism in Zalău in the Context of the European Heritage: the Roman Festival Zalău Porolissum. Covering an area of 3,850 square kms, the county of Sălaj lies in the north-western part of Romania, as a passage between the Western and Eastern Carpathians. The main settlement of Sălaj is the city of Zalău, lying at the heart of the county, along Zalău valley, near the Northern Meseş Mountains. Evidence of the Dacian culture and civilization can be found all over the county. The stronghold was well known in antiquity as Dacidava, a central place for the gatherings of Dacian tribes living in the region, known today as Sălaj. Here 14 treasures of Dacian silver coins and jewels were found, which may explain the fact that Sălaj was one of the towns that laid on the ancient road of salt whereon salt used to be traded from Transylvania to Central Europe. Another important Dacian settlement would be Moigrad (Porolissum), on the heights of Măgura Moigradului, mentioned by Ptolemeu in his „Geographia”. After the Roman conquest and the colonization of Dacia as a Roman province, Roman experts in military strategy transfomed the Meseş Mountains into the north-eastern border of the Roman Empire. This „limes” separated the territories of the Roman province Dacia from the unoccupied area which belonged to the free Dacians. The military structure of Porolissum, the capital of the province „Dacia Porolissensis”, acquired the rank of „municipium”, by an order of the Emperor Septimius Severus. Ruins of the Porolissum town, together with Roman fortifications near the passage Poarta Meseşului stretch to an area of about 200 hectares. In Porolissum, archaeological discoveries brought to light two large stone-built Roman „castrum”, one amphitheatre, several temples, civilian constructions and Roman roads. Within the study there were both open-response questionnaires, when the subject was free to answer as he saw fit, and closed-response questionnaires, in which the subject had several possible answers from which he could choose the response considered convenient. The Roman Festival Zalău Porolissum recovers a part of the shared historical past within a geographical space where the European community now functions. Through impeccable organization and administration, this part made possibile the development of the greatest empire in ancient times. Through The Roman Festival Zalău Porolissum, the Zalău City Hall proposes to its inhabitants and tourists a vast event with an educative-cultural dimension. We believe that this sort of manifestation may counteract the promotion tendencies of the underground culture. We wish for The Roman Festival Zalău Porolissum to pleasantly provide to the public history moments, traditions, culture and specific costumes. The Roman Festival Zalău Porolissum is an event of our identity that reconfirms our values and space in Europe. At the European Union’s construction a few fundamental facts contributed: shared geography and history, the Greek culture, the Christianity and the Roman legacy. The Roman culture and civilization are marks of the European identity, which define the present European citizen’s consciousness. Keywords: The Roman Festival Zalău Porolissum, Cultural tourism, Global values, European Heritage."
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Kazantsev, Yuriy. "State-political and people's collaborationism in Europe in the Second World War period." E3S Web of Conferences 210 (2020): 16006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202021016006.
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Impedance coatings of cylindrical bodies’ synthesis in order to The authors of the article made an attempt to reveal the main causes and motives of mass collaboration in European countries during the Second World War. Mentally, European man has recognized himself as part of a single space for centuries, under one-man rule: the Roman Empire, the Empire of Charlemagne, and the Holy Roman Empire. The imperial idea initially suggested the European peoples’ unification under the auspices of a strong center. The second component of the European mentality was built on the idea of Eurocentrism, proclaiming the superiority of European nations over others, and Western European civilization over the rest of the world. The ruling elite of the German Empire made plans to create "Middle Europe", proclaimed in 1871, which incorporated the economic union of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Poland and trimmed France. In 1923, a new idea was published in the manifesto of an Austrian political scientist, Kudenhove-Kalergi - "pan-Europe." The author meant a new, political, single space, spoke about pan-Europe. At the beginning of 1925 the United States of Europe appeared as a more recent idea. These were concrete steps towards creating a united Europe. On the eve of the war years and during that period, leaders and population of European countries were increasingly inclined to take joint actions with Hitler to create a new European device to be able to oppose communist expansion. Mentally, Europe was ready to create a strong core that organized the European space.
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Moroz-Grzelak, Lilla. "Bałkańskie kompleksy „gorszej Europy” w prozie Ermisa Lafazanovskiego." Slavia Meridionalis 12 (August 31, 2015): 45–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.11649/sm.2012.004.
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Balkan complexes of “worse Europe” in works of Ermis LafazanovskiOver the centuries, the European continent was divided into different spaces according to different axes: both geopolitical and economic history of East and West and the historical and geocultural division into North and South. Differentiation was present in Europe in various ways, either by the use of geographical terms, which became the indicators of difference, or how the politicians wanted to see it – split into Western Europe, Eastern Europe or Central and Eastern Europe. They represent the heterogeneity and diverse influences of civilization, that are reflected in its culture.The division into different cultural spaces is mirrored in the literature. Here, from a broad selection of south Slavic literature, for the basis of analysis two works of contemporary Macedonian writer Ermis Lafazanovski were selected: novel Hrapeshko and short story Exotic cantata. They reveal the existence of cultural differences and traditions, represented in the antinomies friend–foe, top–down which show spatial differences in Europe burdened by her stereotypes.
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Johnston, David. "Contours of an Islamo-Christian Civilization." American Journal of Islam and Society 23, no. 4 (October 1, 2006): 104–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.35632/ajis.v23i4.1584.
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Books Reviewed: Jack Goody, Islam in Europe. Cambridge: Polity Press,2004; Richard W. Bulliet, The Case for Islamo-Christian Civilization. NewYork: Columbia University Press, 2004; James A. Bill and John Alden Williams,Roman Catholics and Shi’i Muslims: Prayer, Passion, and Politics.Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 2002.There can be no doubt that the twenty-first century has begun – and continues– under the ominous cloud of enmity between Muslim groups or nationsand western ones, from the attacks on American soil on 11 September 2001to those in Madrid and London, to the invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq, andnow in the growing tension with Iran. Unsurprisingly, this has spurred amushrooming of publications on the troubled relations between “Islam andthe West,” with almost every book pointing out the bold Christian rhetoricemanating from a militarily aggressive White House.Kenneth Cragg, the veteran Christian expositor of the Qur’an, more prolificthan ever in his nineties (seven titles since 2002), astutely named one ofhis latest books The Qur’an and the West (Georgetown University Press:2006). Not only is “Islam” misleading in terms of the wide diversity of cultures,sects, and spiritualities inspired by the Qur’an and the Hadith literature,but for Cragg, Muslims in today’s globalized world, whether living as“exiles” in the West or within Muslim-majority states, will have to choosebetween the vulnerable faith proclaimed in the early years in Makkah andthe religion cum political rule exemplified by the Prophet in Madinah. Asusual, Cragg also challenges the Christian side, which, in its American incarnation,largely rationalizes the use of power to extend its hegemony fromIsrael-Palestine to Central Asia in the name of democracy.Though all three books under review here share Cragg’s motivation toreduce tension and foster greater understanding between Muslims andChristians, only the third (on Shi`ites and Catholics) represents the kind oftheological dialogue that Cragg and others have nourished over the years ...
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Garcia Portilla, Jason. "“Ye Shall Know Them by Their Fruits”: Prosperity and Institutional Religion in Europe and the Americas." Religions 10, no. 6 (June 1, 2019): 362. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rel10060362.
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Low competitiveness is a common denominator of historically Roman Catholic countries. In contrast, historically Protestant countries generally perform better in education, social progress, and competitiveness. Jesus Christ described the true and false prophets coming on his behalf, as follows: “Ye shall know them by their fruits”. Inspired by this parable, this paper explores the relations between religious systems (‘prophets’) and social prosperity (‘fruits’). It asks how Protestantism influences prosperity as compared to Roman Catholicism in Europe and the Americas. Most empirical studies have hitherto disregarded the institutional influence of religion. Taking the work of Max Weber as their starting point, they have instead emphasised the cultural linkage between religious adherents and prosperity. This paper tests various correlational models and draws on a comprehensive conceptual framework to understand the institutional influence of religion on prosperity in Europe and the Americas. It argues that the uneven contributions of Roman Catholicism and Protestantism to prosperity are grounded in their different historical and institutional foundations and in the theologies that are pervasive in their countries of influence.
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Saliba, George. "Islamic reception of Greek astronomy." Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 5, S260 (January 2009): 149–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1743921311002237.
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AbstractResearch in Islamic science over the last half century or so has clearly established that such old myths as Islamic science being a preservation of Greek science, or that science was always in conflict with religion in Islamic civilization as it was in Europe, or that the European scientific Renaissance was independent of outside influences –a European phenomenon par excellence– are now all subjects of great dispute if not altogether dead. In what follows I will illustrate the evidence that has put such myths into question with only few examples, since time and space do not allow me to elaborate more.
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Perger, Nina. "Anti-gender campaigns in Europe: Mobilizing against equality." Andragoška spoznanja 24, no. 3 (October 26, 2018): 95–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.4312/as.24.3.95-96.
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Anti-gender campaigns in Europe: Mobilizing against equality, edited by Roman Kuhar and David Patternote, consists of various subchapters with a common theme – the analysis of anti-gender movements that are appearing and consolidating across Europe. According to the authors, the movements’ common background is an opposition to the so called ‘gender ideology’ or ‘gender theory’. In these anti-gender movements and campaigns, ‘gender ideology’ is perceived as an ideology that aims to destabilize and even destroy social values that are seen as cornerstones of Western civilization, namely, the notion of ‘biological sex’, heterosexuality, family, and freedom. To formulate it differently, ‘gender ideology’ is perceived to be socially dangerous because of the effect sexual and reproductive rights, women’s rights, and LGBTIQ+ rights have on the taken-for-granted and privileged status of heterosexuality and of a specific family form, that is, family with a ‘male’ and ‘female’ parent (‘heterosexual family’). Namely, with feminist and LGBTIQ+ movements (where LGBTIQ+ stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer people) and their accomplishments throughout history, heteronormativity cannot simply be taken for granted anymore; moreover, it is destabilized to such a degree that its explicit and direct defence is made necessary: its common sense status needs to be rebuilt and stabilized by ‘unmasking’ what ‘gender ideology’ supposedly stands for and by revealing its ‘threatening’ consequences.
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Doerfler, Maria E. "Forum on Elizabeth A. Clark's The Fathers Refounded: Protestant Liberalism, Roman Catholic Modernism, and the Teaching of Ancient Christianity in Early Twentieth-Century America: Introductory Remarks." Church History 89, no. 2 (June 2020): 390–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0009640720001213.
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The turn of the twentieth century represents an incisive moment in religious thought and theological education. Scholars across Europe and North America were wrestling with the twin influences of Protestant Liberalism and Roman Catholic Modernism, the questions they raised for how to conceive of the origins of Christianity, and how to make them palatable to a rapidly changing world. In her most recent monograph, The Fathers Refounded: Protestant Liberalism, Roman Catholic Modernism, and the Teaching of Ancient Christianity in Early Twentieth-Century America, Elizabeth A. Clark explores these questions in the lives and work of three of the era's most influential figures. Her work stands at the center of this forum, with four distinguished scholars considering its implications.
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Sahay, Vijoy S. "An Anthropologist Looks at History: An Enquiry into the Anomalies of Ancient Indian History and Culture." Oriental Anthropologist: A Bi-annual International Journal of the Science of Man 15, no. 1 (January 2015): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0972558x1501500101.
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There are altogether nine ancient civilizations in the world, viz. the Babylonian or Mesopotamian, the Indian and the Chinese (in Asia), the Egyptian (in Africa), the Greek, the Roman, and the Cretan (in Europe), the Mayan (in Mexico, North America), and the Inca (In Peru, South America). Of all the above, it's only the Indian and the Chinese civilizations are such that the elements of their ancient cultures and traditions could be found still perpetuating among the contemporary populations. And among the rest; it could to be found in their ruins only. The dimensions of ancient Indian civilization have been interpreted mostly by the historians; and primarily by the British ones. Such interpretations are found necessarily loaded with all sorts of biases. In the present paper, the author has attempted to point out some of the anomalies of ancient Indian history and culture generated by the biased interpretation of some eminent historians and Indologists. Such interpretations have done great injustice with the pre-eminence of Indian civilization on the one hand; and on the other, they have also given rise to the divisive forces in the society that still plagues the country.
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Osuchowska, Marta, and Aleksandra Syryt. "Konstytucyjne podstawy wolności religijnej w wybranych państwach Europy i Ameryki Łacińskiej." Polski Przegląd Stosunków Miedzynarodowych, no. 5 (May 3, 2018): 89. http://dx.doi.org/10.21697/ppsm.2015.05.04.
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The constitutional basis for religious freedom in selected countries in Europe and Latin AmericaReligion helps man keep his own identity. It enables him to participate in a common heritage. The study provides the constitutional basis for religious freedom in the individual dimension in selected countries in Europe and Latin America. The authors discuss the provisions on religious freedom enshrined in the constitutions of Italy, Spain and Portugal, as well as Argentina, Chile and Colombia.The analysis leads to the conclusion that religious freedom is a human right protected both in the constitutions of European countries as well as in the constitutions of Latin American countries.The inclusion of the provisions on religious freedom in the individual dimension in the constitutions is due to certain similarities of the system of European and Latin American. Common features of both systems is that Europe and Latin America belong to the so-called Western civilization. The legal systems of Latin American countries formed primarily on the basis of Roman law.Although the wording of the provisions on religious freedom in the individual dimension in the constitutions of Latin American countries is similar to the editorial rules of the constitution states of Europe, in practice there are other ways to implement this freedom and guarantees its protection.
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Poliarush, S. "EVOLUTION OF VESTIMENTARY LEGISLATION IN EUROPE." Scientific Notes Series Law 1, no. 11 (November 2021): 14–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.36550/2522-9230-2021-11-14-20.
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The article characterizes the changes in the field of state regulation of the costume in different epochs of European history, including the history of Ukraine. The concept of "vestment legislation", which regulates the issue of wearing a suit, is revealed. Some fragments of normative acts are cited, which confirm the fact of wide use of vestment legislation in the early epochs of the state history of European civilization. It is emphasized that the vestment legislation in the Greek and Roman periods played the role of sumptuous legislation, ie legislation against luxury, against demonstrative consumption. The dominant functions of vestment legislation in the feudal period and in the period of transition to bourgeois relations are highlighted. The author joins the opinion of a number of scholars who emphasize the caste nature of the legislation on costume in the era of feudalism. With the transition to bourgeois relations, this legislation plays the role of economic lever in stimulating the development of its own production of fabrics and clothing and the domestic market. It is emphasized that in the first half of the XVIII century Vestment legislation acquires more features of court etiquette, and from the second half of the XVIII century and to this day it minimizes its impact on civil society. Civil society is already creating fashion trends. This feature is preserved to this day. Attention is paid to some features of vestment legislation in the XX-XXI centuries. It is noted that during this period it could become discriminatory. Today, the vestment legislation reflects the concerns of European countries about certain terrorist acts and the introduction of quarantine restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Giaro, Tomasz. "Medieval Canon Lawyers and European Legal Tradition. A Brief Overview." Review of European and Comparative Law 47, no. 4 (December 7, 2021): 157–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.31743/recl.12727.
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The Roman Church was a leading public institution of the Middle Ages and its law, canon law, belonged to most powerful factors of European legal history. Today’s lawyers have hardly any awareness of the canonist origins of several current legal institutions. Together with Roman law, canon law constituted the system of “both laws” (utrumque ius) which were the only laws acknowledged as “learned” and, consequently, taught at medieval universities. The dualism of secular (imperium) and spiritual power (sacerdotium), symbolized by so-called two swords doctrine, conferred to the Western legal tradition its balance and stability. We analyze the most important institutional achievements of the medieval canon lawyers: acquisitive prescription, the Roman-canonical procedure, the theory of just war, marriage and family law, freedom of contract, the inheritance under will, juristic personality, some institutions of constitutional law, in particular those based on the concept of representation, and finally commercial law. Last not least, the applicability of canon law defined the territorial extension of medieval and early modern Christian civilization which exceeded by far the borders of the Holy Roman Empire, where Roman law was effective as the law of the ruler. Hence, the first scholar to associate Roman law with (continental) Europe as a relatively homogeneous legal area, Paul Koschaker, committed in his monograph Europa und das römische Recht, published in 1947, the error of taking a part for the whole. In fact, Western legal tradition was based, in its entirety, not on Roman, but rather on canon law; embracing the common law of England, it represented – to cite Harold Joseph Berman – the first great “transnational legal culture”. At the end, some structural features of canon law are discussed, such as the frequent use of soft-law instruments and the respect for tradition, clearly visible in the approach to the problem of codification.
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Zamojski, Adam. "Contemporary Homo Europeicus. Transformation of European Identity." Respectus Philologicus 28, no. 33 (October 25, 2015): 69–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.15388/respectus.2015.28.33.7.
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This article explains the origins of European identity, contemporary Homo Europeicus and transformation of European identity. It describes, in a synthetic form, the symbolic sources of European identity like ancient Greek philosophy, Roman law, Christian religion, Barbarian aspects of civilisation and the Age of Enlightenment. It as well describes the circumstances and causes of the crisis of Latin civilization and traditional European Identity in relation to the population boom of Muslims in the Western Europe. Further on, it concludes with an outlook on the role of Postmodernism, Islam, Christian evolutionism, Neo-pagan religion, New Age Movement and Consumptionism in the transformation process of the traditional EuropeanIdentity. Conclusion is an attempt to exemplify the style of Andrzej Wierciński’s scientific approach. This part presents his concept of the peculiarity of the specific human nature which is polarized into the animal side versus the human potential.
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Milosevic, Predrag. "Foundations of Byzantine late middle ages architecture thoughtfulness." Facta universitatis - series: Architecture and Civil Engineering 2, no. 5 (2003): 395–404. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/fuace0305395m.
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Only in the recent few years have a number of facsimile publications on architecture offered a possibility of studying the original texts from different time periods. Those, already rare studies on the theory of architecture in the western civilization, almost regularly completely omit the Byzantine achievements in the so-called entirety of thoughtfulness (enkyklios paideia), that was a main characteristic of Byzantine learning. This learning, based on the ancient Greek and Hellenistic foundations, in many ways concern architecture, especially the architectural theory. That is why writing a good account of the architectural theory of this, historically such an important country as Byzantium, in such a long historical period (since 312 till 1453), has been a difficult task (this contribution is just the initial part of the study). One should not be disregarded that the architectural theories are never completely independent of historical geographical or even personal prejudices of their authors. In this sense, a subject matter of this treatise is just one 1141 year long part of the architectural theory of the West (West - in civilizational terms, not a political West), the part that rests on Christian foundations that is the Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Protestant ones, mainly. It is all treated in order, from ancient pagan Greece and Rome, ancient and Middle Ages Orthodox Byzantium, until Middle Ages and New Age Europe, altogether, Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Protestant Europe, and then those parts of the world in which the said civilizational circle managed to take root in: parts of Asia, North and South America, parts of Africa and Australia.
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Worringer, Renée. "“SICK MAN OF EUROPE” OR “JAPAN OF THE NEAR EAST”?: CONSTRUCTING OTTOMAN MODERNITY IN THE HAMIDIAN AND YOUNG TURK ERAS." International Journal of Middle East Studies 36, no. 2 (May 2004): 207–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020743804362033.
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The [Japanese] government, adorned with great intelligence and ideological firmness in progress, has implemented and promoted European [methods] of commerce and industry in its own country, and has turned the whole of Japan into a factory of progress, thanks to many [educational institutions]; it has attempted to secure and develop Japan's capacity for advancement by using means to serve the needs of the society such as benevolent institutions, railways, and in short, innumerable modes of civilization.—Malumat, mouthpiece for Yıldız Palace, 1897We should take note of Japan, this nation which has become rivals with the Great Powers in thirty to forty years. One should pay attention to that—that a nation not separating patriotic public spirit and the good of the homeland from its life is surely such that [though] sustaining wounds, setting out against any type of danger that threatens its existence, it certainly preserves its national independence. The Japanese successes of Port Arthur…are a product of this patriotic zeal.—Şura-yı Ümmet, Ottoman newspaper, Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), 1904While the despot of Turkey and the despot of Russia tremble and hide…it has come to pass in the Far East among this admirable people that, like the Turks, have been treated…as barbarians…[that] the Japanese tended to develop in all the Far East their material and moral influences, “to make themselves the guardians, otherwise the masters, of the yellow world.”…And that is how one has to see this vast intellectual and moral organization…. They whose civilization, achieved in half a century, has become superior to European civilization which has fallen into decay; they who do not have to reproach massacres, who do not have to gag any mouths out of which a liberal word came, who do not have to exile or suppress patriots…. Indeed, for our part, it is this “yellow” civilization that we wish to see universalized because it is the fruit of a principled, faithful and highly intelligent organization, because it is based on a conception of human destinies that excludes holy icons and false sentimentalities, because, above all, it is the daughter of a constitutional government which Ottoman patriots—all their efforts striving for this goal—will conclude by understanding the absolute necessity for the poor Turkish people that Hamidian terrorism be plunged into the mire.—Mechveret Supplément Français, French organ of the CUP, 1905
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Csüllög, Gábor. "Birodalmi térszerkezetek a Kárpát-medencében." Jelenkori Társadalmi és Gazdasági Folyamatok 5, no. 1-2 (January 1, 2010): 181–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.14232/jtgf.2010.1-2.181-186.
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In Europe's history can be found local states and empires, but their proportion and their political role were changing in the thousand years. The historical geographical research of the state spaces of the empires concentrates on the spatiality (flow lines, flow junctions, conquest of sate spaces, turning conquered state spaces into a province). The Carpathian Basin is the great area of Europe, and has been a contact and mixing region of ethnic, cultural and economic influences for thousands of years and where serious state spaces came into existence already in the first century in the flow zone along Danube. But not only the Roman one, the Ottoman one and Habsburg state can be considered for an empire but tak-ing the spatial structure into consideration the medieval Hungarian state, so the imperial structures cover the area's history because of this from the Roman Empire until the 20th century.
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Madona Mikeladze. "TEACHING THE HISTORY OF BYZANTIUM AT GEORGIAN SCHOOLS ACCORDING TO THE ANALYSIS OF CURRICULA AND TEXTBOOKS." World Science 1, no. 7(35) (July 12, 2018): 4–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.31435/rsglobal_ws/12072018/5997.
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The Byzantine Empire, which existed for more than 1000 years, holds a special place in the history of civilization. It was the largest medieval Christian state on the crossroad of Europe and Asia. The Byzantine culture belongs to the medieval Christian culture, but it has specific peculiarities in comparison to the Western Christian culture.The phenomenon of Byzantium, as the successor of the Roman state tradition and as the source of Christian culture, is of particular importance in the development of Georgia's historical processes.Understanding the historical processes of the V-XV centuries in Georgia is quite difficult without knowing the history of Byzantium. We cannot analyze even the later period without knowing Byzantium, because this country has left an indelible mark on Georgia, especially on its culture. The purpose of the present article is to show what the position of the Byzantine history is in the national curriculum and school books.
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Mathes, W. Michael. "The Mythological Geography of California: Origins, Development, Confirmation and Disappearance." Americas 45, no. 3 (January 1989): 315–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1007225.
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Heir to Greek and Roman culture, the revelations of Holy Scripture and the great commentaries upon it written by Saint Augustine, Saint Thomas Aquinas, John Duns Scotus, and lesser theologians and philosophers of the Middle Ages, the cultured European of the fifteenth century was content that the corpus of his knowledge was complete, and that within it was all that was necessary for a full understanding of the universe. Nevertheless, this satisfaction was greatly upset by the explorations of Christopher Columbus and his followers during the final decade of the century. The European discovery of extensive lands populated with theretofore unknown peoples, with a flora and fauna totally distinct from that of Europe, was, in all senses, a New World. In that this New World had not been incorporated into the extensive and well-defined knowledge of Western civilization, it was, therefore, open to any and all concepts conceivable to the imagination; everything was possible, even the very improbable.
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Pantelimon, Varzari. "The idea of european unity and its intellectual roots." Review of Philosophy, Sociology and Political Sciences, no. 1(188) (October 2022): 5–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.53783/18572294.22.188.01.
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The article examines the intellectual roots of the idea of European unity through the prism of the genesis and evolution of political thought. It shows that during the history of political thought, European idea conveyed different forms: projects of rapprochement between European states, and the development of a European „consciousness” etc., promoting even federative ideas in the European world. However, the real possibility of the European organization (as a political project) was possible to materialized only in the second half of the 20th century. In this respect, the analysis of the evolution of the idea of European unity is structured in reliance with the different stages of social progress and consequently in different phases of human civilization development, starting with Ancient Greco-Roman period, medieval stage and continuing with the modern and up to the contemporary phases. The present analysis concludes that the idea of a single Europe is present in the universal history of political thought through various theses, concepts and approaches.
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Kazakevich, Gennadiy. "Celtic Military Equipment from the Territory of Ukraine: Towards a New Warrior Identity in the Pre-Roman Eastern Europe." Studia Celto-Slavica 6 (2012): 177–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.54586/lydv9158.
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The lands of present day Ukraine are stretched across the distinct periphery of the ‘Celtic world’. From the midfirst millennium BC the cultural background of this part of Eastern Europe was defined mainly by the Scythian culture of North Pontic steppes as well as by Hellenistic influences from the Greek colonies of the Black sea littoral zone and the kingdom of Bospor in the Crimea. However, starting from the early third century BC, the influence of the Central European La Tène culture extended to a much degree. This process was traditionally viewed as a result of either Celtic invasion (Machinskij 1974) or indirect trade contacts with the La Tène zone of Central Europe (Maksymov 1999).Currently both ‘migration-focused’ and ‘autochthon-based’ approaches seem to be out of date. In recent studies, the Latènisation of Southern and Eastern Europe is interpreted as a culture-restructuring process affecting indigenous communities similar in many aspects to the Hellenisation of the Mediterranean region (see Džino 2007). The adaptation of La Tène cultural aesthetics and technical achievements, as well as Celtic linguistic elements caused the emergence of new ways of expressing identity. However, in some cases the traditional colonization paradigm still cannot be totally rejected. The aim of this paper is to show the finds of Celtic and related military equipment from the territory of Ukraine in the broad context of ‘Latènisation’ of Eastern Europe in the third–first centuries BC period.
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Conte, Emanuele. "Framing the feudal bond: a chapter in the history of the ius commune in Medieval Europe." TIJDSCHRIFT VOOR RECHTSGESCHIEDENIS 80, no. 3-4 (2012): 481–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718190-000a1217.
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In this article I wish to show how history of legal doctrines can assist in a better understanding of the legal reasoning over a long historical period. First I will describe the nineteenth century discussion on the definition of law as a ‘science’, and some influences of the medieval idea of science on the modern definition. Then, I’ll try to delve deeper into a particular doctrinal problem of the Middle Ages: how to fit the feudal relationship between lord and vassal into the categories of Roman law. The scholastic interpretation of these categories is very original, to the point of framing a purely personal relationship among property rights. The effort made by medieval legal culture to frame the reality into the abstract concepts of law can be seen as the birth of legal dogmatics.
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Garito, Maria Amata. "The Internationalization of the XXI Century Universities: Uninettuno Model." EDEN Conference Proceedings, no. 1 (June 16, 2019): 418–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.38069/edenconf-2019-ac-0046.
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Universities were born as supranational institutions. Earlier, the first cultural centres, named universities by the scholars of the Arab World, such as the al-Qarawiyyin University, or the al-Karaouine University, based in Fes, Morocco, founded in 859 by a woman, Fatima Al-Fihriya, and followed, in a chronological order, by the al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt, founded in 975, played an important role in the cultural relationships between the Islamic World and Europe. The texts of the ancient Greeks, from Aristotle to Hippocrates, from Galenus to Euclydes up to Ptolemy, were translated in Arabic, and studied and commented by the Arabic intellectuals. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, Europe received from Arab culture more than it would be able to give. From the 12th century on, the path was traversed backwards. Latin intellectuals moved to Barcelona, Toledo, Sevilla, and in Sicily, where they found the aforementioned texts and translated them into Latin, allowing Arab culture ideas and knowledge, elaborated on the basis of Greco-Roman civilization ideas, to penetrate the European intellectual circuit. Along with those texts, there came also the works by the Arab commentators to Aristotle, like Avicenna, which were commented and studied at the new-born Universities. In Europe, universities were born as corporations of teachers and students (Prodi, 2013); the first one in 1088 was the University of Bologna and soon after, there were the Sorbonne University in Paris, the University of Salamanca in Spain and the Oxford University in England.
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Bemis, Michael F. "Book Review: Conflict in Ancient Greece and Rome: The Definitive Political, Social, and Military Encyclopedia." Reference & User Services Quarterly 56, no. 3 (April 3, 2017): 215. http://dx.doi.org/10.5860/rusq.56n3.215c.
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Classical civilization represents the foundation upon which rests all of modern-day Western society. The English language, in particular, is larded with allusions to the Greeks and Romans of yesteryear, from “Achilles’s heel” to “deus ex machina” to “Trojan Horse,” which make reference to the many influences that these cultures have had on our art, literature, theater, and, unfortunately, war and military (mis)adventures. For all these reasons, it behooves the modern reader to have at least a passing familiarity with what transpired all those thousands of years ago. The editors would appear to agree with this assessment, as they state in the “Preface” that this three-volume work “is intended to fill a gap in current reference works. It meets the need for a standard reference work on Greek and Roman military history and related institutions that is accessible to nonspecialists” (xxiii). Just what criteria the editors used in framing this statement is unknown; however, a literature search reveals many well-regarded titles covering this subject matter. From the topic-specific, such as John Warry’s Warfare in the Classical World: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Weapons, Warriors, and Warfare in the Ancient Civilizations of Greece and Rome (University of Oklahoma Press 1995) to the more general, such as the venerable Oxford Classical Dictionary (Oxford University Press 2012), now in its fourth edition, there is certainly no shortage of print reference materials concerning warfare during the time of the Greek and Roman empires.
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Khorosheva, A. V. "Historiosophy by N. Ya. Danilevsky: the Union of Theory and Practice." Orthodoxia, no. 3 (September 17, 2022): 174–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.53822/2712-9276-2021-3-174-195.
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The subject of this article’s research is the system of the notionalist’s ideas about the contemporary reality correlated with his theoretical vision of the worldwide historical process. The novelty of the work relies on the fact that the creative heritage of N.Ya. Danilevsky had been mainly studied by philosophers, whose major interest was his newly developed methodology of history. Without a comprehensive consideration of Danilevsky’s views, it is, however, impossible to grasp his theory and to liberate it from the stereotypes that had stuck to it at the end of the 19th — beginning of the 20th century. His theory cannot be understood without analyzing his interpretation of Russia’s historical path and its connection with the fate of the Slavs as a whole. The research performs a consistent analysis of the theory of cultural and historical types, Danilevsky’s interpretation of the history of Russia and the Eastern Question, and his project to create an All-Slavic Union. Based on the results of the study, the author of the article came to the following conclusions. Despite Danilevsky’s criticism of positivism, he could not overcome its infl uence in his theoretical constructions. Denying the existence of a single line of historical progress, he introduced the concept of a civilization “basis”, which tends to grow to become ever more complex over time. It is easy to imagine this complexity in the form of an ever upward vector. Danilevsky idealized the socio-political development of Russia, believing all problems to have been solved by the 1861 Peasant Reform. Fearing that the Germanic-Roman civilization would not allow the Slavic cultural and historical type to develop, the notionalist threaded the motive of the struggle throughout his work “Russia and Europe”. The struggle, however, would appeared to be defensive rather than aggressive and would ultimately be aimed at the creation of the Slavic federation — the All-Slavic Union, which was envisioned by Danilevsky as a union of equal members. Danilevsky’s work is still of interest to the reading public. The author of “Russia and Europe” tried to challenge the Eurocentric approach to the worldwide historical process, thereby declaring the value of each civilization. This idea is more than relevant in our time, when the problem of originality and uniqueness of diff erent cultures and civilizations is of utmost importance.
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Strechie, Mădălina. "The Dacians, The Wolf Warriors." International conference KNOWLEDGE-BASED ORGANIZATION 23, no. 2 (June 25, 2017): 367–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/kbo-2017-0144.
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Abstract The Dacians, a very important Indo-European people of the ancient world, were, like all Indo-European peoples, highly trained in the art of war. The legends of the ancient world placed the worship of Ares/Mars, the god of war, in the world of the Thracians, the Dacians being the most important of the Thracians, by the creation of a state and by their remarkable civilization, where war generated rank. The Dacian leaders, military aristocrats, Tarabostes are similar to the Bharathi of the Aryans, therefore the accounts of Herodotus, the father of history, who called the Thracians (including the Dacians, the northern Thracians), “the most important of the Indo-Europeans, after the race of the Indians” (i.e. the Persians and the Aryans, their relatives), also have a military meaning. The totemic symbol of the wolf was much present in Europe, especially with Indo-European peoples, like the Spartans, the aristocrats of war, but mostly with the Romans, the gendarmes of the ancient world. But the Dacians honoured this majestic animal above all, not only as a symbol of the state, but also, apparently, as their eponym. As warriors, the Dacians lay under the sign of the wolf, their battle flag, and acted like real wolves against their enemies, whether they were Celts, during the reign of Burebista, or Romans, during the reign of Decebalus. The Dacians made history in the military art, being perfectly integrated, after the Roman conquest, in the largest and best trained army of the ancient world, the Roman army. Moreover, the wolf warriors, mastering the equestrian art, were a success in the special, though auxiliary troops of the famous equites singulares in the Roman army. If the Romans were the eagles of war, the Dacians were its wolves, these two symbols best illustrating the military art of all times.
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Pruett, Lilian P. "Central Europe in the Sixteenth Century: A Musical Melting Pot." Musicological Annual 40, no. 1-2 (December 17, 2021): 97–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.4312/mz.40.1-2.97-102.
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After briefly reviewing the problems arising from attempts to dentify precise geographical outlines of Central Europe in the course of time, the author opts to use the limitations existing in the sixteenth century, the time frame of the presentation. This means, essentially, the borders of the Habsburg homelands, i.e., the southeastern part of the Holy Roman Empire. The paper argues that the roots of Central European musical practices were established through the foundation of regulated institutional entities such as the imperial chapels of Maximilian I (1496) and other rulers (Albrecht V of Bavaria, 1550), their successors and imitators, as well as the transalpine Renaissance church centers. As these institutions were staffed by musicians coming from virtually every corner of Europe – each practitioner bringing his own territorial contribution with him – the emerging musical consciousness of the Central European region had as cosmopolitan a foundation as that of Europe at large. Still, the proximity of the Central European art music scene to the variety of local ethnic traditions may be interpreted as lending a flavor to the musical expression of the area, endowing it with a character of its own. While in its beginnings the recipient of many influences from multinational contributors, in a later, equally cosmopolitan period (the Classicism of the eighteenth century), Central Europe reciprocates in equal measure, its contributions exerting impact upon European music in general.
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Ostrowska-Tryzno, Anna, and Anna Pawlikowska-Piechotka. "Historic Sports Architecture in the COVID-19 Pandemic Time (UNESCO World Heritage Sites)." Sport i Turystyka. Środkowoeuropejskie Czasopismo Naukowe 4, no. 3 (2021): 11–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.16926/sit.2021.04.16.
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In Europe, for more than three millennia, the development of individual disciplines has been accompanied by the evolution of sports facilities. It covers the period from the Ancient Olympic Games to modern sports architecture. The sports architecture heritage, as a magnet for cultural tourism, is evident. Millions of tourists visiting the famous sites are the proof how important these places are for our identity and tradition of European civilization. The most important historic sports facilities are inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List: ancient Greek and Roman amphithe-atres, thermal baths, antique arenas. The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has hit the tourism sector hard. It is essential to reformulate present rules of the historic sports facilities visits and to consider the future directions of cultural tourism re-development at the UNESCO Heritage Sites. Recently there has been a revival of interests in sports heritage and many tourists want to explore famous landmarks of the past. Despite the pandemic time restrictions, it is also possible at present. However, new actions and policies are required to meet sanitary requirements and recommenda-tions, and rebuild consumer confidence.
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Горобець, Ігор, and Андрій Мартинов. "BALKAN INTEGRATION PROCESSES: HISTORY AND MODERNITY." КОНСЕНСУС, no. 2 (2022): 77–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.31110/consensus/2022-02/077-090.
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The aim of the article is to highlight the attempts of Balkan regional integration in the twentieth century and early XXI century. The Balkan region occupies a special place in European history. Various civilization influences intersect in the Balkans, and trade routes from Europe to the Middle East have traditionally passed. The uneven historical development of the Balkan peoples has led to the severity of the formation of nation-states and the dominance of conflicting internal regional and external interests in the Balkans. The conflict potential of Balkan history was due to the clash of ideas of "great" state formations in the form of "Greater Serbia", "Greater Albania", "Greater Serbia", "Greater Macedonia". An attempt to resolve these contradictions on an international basis was an attempt to implement the Yugoslav project. This project had two different implementation attempts. After the First World War, Yugoslavism was embodied in the format of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. After the Second World War, a more successful attempt at international integration was made in the form of Yugoslav federalism. However, exogenous processes have overturned the achievements of endogenous regional integration. The implementation of the European integration project of the Balkan countries depends on the readiness of the European Union to accept them and on the readiness of the Balkan countries to become part of the European Union. The European integration of the Balkan countries raises the question of the borders of the European Union. Turkey remains on the verge of civilization influences. Turkey's accession to the European Union is of strategic global importance. The qualitative characteristics of the European Union depend on the solution of this issue. The EU does not synchronize the accession process of the Balkan countries with the negotiation process with Turkey. It is impossible to do that, because Turkey is more than all the six Balkan countries that emerged after the breakup of Yugoslavia.
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Valentinova, Dorothea. "Iustitia and Corruptio in Liber Constitutionum sive Lex Gundobada." Studia Ceranea. Journal of the Waldemar Ceran Research Centre for the History and Culture of the Mediterranean Area and South-East Europe 12 (December 30, 2022): 215–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/2084-140x.12.35.
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After 476, Flavius Gundobadus, King of the Burgundians (473–516), sought ways and means to consolidate and strengthen his power, including through legal regulation of the relations between the Burgundians themselves, on the one hand, and between the Burgundians and the Gallo-Romans, on the other. Thus, Liber Constitutionum sive Lex Gundobada was issued, the main purpose of which is the legal regulation of the complex relations in the kingdom, through a codification of the preserved customary law – an embodiment of tribal traditions, practices, and customs, with reasonable use of Roman legal ideas, notions, and norms.
The translation and analysis of selected provisions from Lex Gundobada in this paper show the extent to which the Burgundians perceived, received, adopted, and adapted some of the most valuable Roman legal and moral rules and principles, especially the Roman concepts of iustitia and corruptio, and how the rights of both the Burgundians and the Romans were regulated and protected through them.
Lex Burgundionum is part of a series of legal Barbarian codes, compiled, adapted, published, and applied in the Barbarian regna between the 5th and 9th centuries. These codes are one of the significant and true sources for the historical reconstruction of the socio-political, socio-cultural, and legal-administrative transition from the late Roman Empire to the German kingdoms and early medieval Europe. They manifest how historically the arena of clashes, confrontations, and wars between Romanitas and Barbaritas gradually became a contact zone of legal reception, of cultural, legal, and socio-political influences, from which a new world will be born, a successor to the old ones, and a new legal system – the Romano-Germanic one.
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Cecchini, Leonardo. "Dantes kristne universalisme og islam: Dante og den europæiske identitet." K&K - Kultur og Klasse 37, no. 108 (August 22, 2009): 40–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.7146/kok.v37i108.21995.
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Dante’s Christian Universalism and Islam:During the years 2001-2004, when the establishment of a Constitution for Europe was on the EU’s agenda, the suggestion to include a reference to the ‘Christian roots’ of Europe in the Constitution’s Preamble lead to an animated debate. Some Italian Catholic intellectuals (Anna Maria Chiavacci, Giuseppe Reale) took part in the debate and used Dante to illustrate the essential significance of Christianity in the European culture, thereby involving themselves in this debate. Referring to T.S. Eliot’s famous quote (»the culture of Dante was not of one European country but of Europe«), they claimed that Dante’s work was one of the greatest expressions of a Christian European cultural identity which took form in the Middle Ages and drew impulse from a synthesis of the two great Mediterranean cultural traditions: the Greek-Roman and the Jewish-Christian; a cultural identity they identified tout court with our present ‘European’ or ‘Western’ culture. It is worth observing that Chiavacci and Reale did not mention in their narrative the third great Mediterranean cultural tradition (especially in the Middle Ages) of Islam and its own likely contribution to the ‘European’ civilization. In my paper, I wish to contribute to the understanding of how Dante represents ‘Europe’ and ‘Islam’ in his work. My suggestion is that in Dante’s work we can neither find an idea of a Europe (or ‘West’) as separated or superior to other continents nor an orientalized image of the Orient as claimed by Edward Said. On the contrary, Dante considers ‘Europe’ as a metaphor for an ideal universal Christian community (with strong eschatological features), that is a community that potentially includes the whole of humanity.As few other intellectuals in the Middle Ages, Dante’s attitude to Islamic culture is primarily assimilative; he does not include but assimilates Arabian culture and philosophy to the extent that they have contributed to Christian thinking. As a good medieval Christian, Dante is hostile to Islam just because he looks at it as a heretical or schismatic version of Christianity (and therefore assimilated to his own faith), not as ‘another’ religion.