Relevant bibliographies by topics / Equality Developing countries

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  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters
  5. Conference papers
  6. Reports

Academic literature on the topic 'Equality Developing countries'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 10 December 2022
Last updated: 28 January 2023

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Journal articles on the topic "Equality Developing countries"

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Pillai, Vijayan K., and Guang-Zhen Wang. "Women’s reproductive rights and social equality in developing countries." Social Science Journal 36, no. 3 (September 1, 1999): 459–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0362-3319(99)00017-8.

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Alieva, Kamola Alieva. "Trends In Ensuring Gender Equality: The Practice And Legal Reforms Of Advanced Foreign Countries." American Journal of Political Science Law and Criminology 03, no. 03 (March 30, 2021): 11–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.37547/tajpslc/volume03issue03-03.

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In the article, the author analyzed the global ranking of gender equality, the legal framework and the national experience of advanced foreign countries. The author notes that the leading positions of these countries in the world in terms of gender equality are associated not only with the national legal and institutional framework, but also with public life, consciousness and worldview of people. Based on this, the author notes the importance of developing proposals for the implementation of the experience of these countries by analyzing constitutions, special laws and strategies to ensure gender equality in Uzbekistan.
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Salahodjaev, Raufhon, and Sardor Azam. "Intelligence and gender (in)equality: Empirical evidence from developing countries." Intelligence 52 (September 2015): 97–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2015.08.002.

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Tan, Hao, and Xin Wang. "Educational Mismatch and Income Inequality in Developing Countries." International Journal of Social Sciences Perspectives 9, no. 2 (December 21, 2021): 9–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.33094/7.2017.2021.92.9.18.

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This study aims to evaluate the influence of educational mismatch on income inequality in developing countries. The research is conducted using secondary data from ten developing countries over a twenty-year period (2001–2020). Statistical analysis is performed on the dataset using Stata, where the main variable representing income inequality is the GINI coefficient, and educational mismatch is assessed using educational attainment, educational attainment of females, and educational expenditure. The fixed effect and robust standard error techniques are applied to address the association among the variables. The study's findings reveal that educational attainment and educational expenditure have a positive influence on the GINI coefficient, indicating that the two factors contribute to an educational mismatch in the developing country. On the other hand, the findings also reveal that the educational attainment of females has a negative effect on the GINI coefficient, indicating that a high level of educational attainment among females can help to improve the income equality of developing countries. The implications of the study are particularly relevant to the policymakers and governments of developing countries. They should take steps to increase the level of education among females to contribute to increased income equality levels in their country.
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Kazandjian, Kolovich, Kochhar, and Newiak. "Gender Equality and Economic Diversification." Social Sciences 8, no. 4 (April 11, 2019): 118. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/socsci8040118.

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We show that gender inequality decreases the variety of goods countries produce and export, in particular in low-income and developing countries. We argue that this happens through at least two channels: first, gender gaps in opportunity, such as lower educational enrollment rates for girls than for boys, harm diversification by constraining the potential pool of human capital available in an economy. Second, gender gaps in the labor market impede the development of new ideas by decreasing the efficiency of the labor force. Our empirical estimates support these hypotheses, providing evidence that gender-friendly policies could help countries diversify their economies.
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Cheong, Tsun Se, Guanghua Wan, and David Kam Hung Chui. "Unveiling the Relationship between Economic Growth and Equality for Developing Countries." China & World Economy 30, no. 5 (September 2022): 1–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cwe.12435.

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ahmadvand, narges, mohammad hasan fotros, and mehdi amini rad. "The Determinants of Gender Equality in Youth Employment in Developing Countries." Social Welfare 18, no. 71 (March 1, 2019): 47–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.29252/refahj.18.71.2.

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Giroud, Axèle, and Jacqueline Salguero Huaman. "Research note: Investment in agriculture and gender equality in developing countries." Transnational Corporations 26, no. 3 (December 27, 2019): 89–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.18356/e7a807e6-en.

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Østby, Gudrun, Henrik Urdal, and Ida Rudolfsen. "What Is Driving Gender Equality in Secondary Education? Evidence from 57 Developing Countries, 1970–2010." Education Research International 2016 (2016): 1–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/4587194.

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Despite global efforts to expand educational opportunities for women, gender inequalities persist in many developing countries. Addressing the root causes of gender inequalities in secondary education we ask whether such disparities persist because of low state capacity or low willingness. Based on gender- and age-specific educational attainment data for 57 developing countries in 1970–2010, our analysis indicates that willingness factors are central to understanding gender equality in education: ethnically heterogeneous countries and countries where Islam is the primary religion experience lower levels of equality. However, key capacity factors like a country’s income level are unrelated to gender differences in education.
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Naeem, Sidra, and Rana Ejaz Ali Khan. "Fiscal Decentralization and Gender Equality in Developing Economies: Dynamics of Income Groups in Economies and Corruption." Asian Economic and Financial Review 11, no. 9 (September 13, 2021): 745–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.18488/journal.aefr.2021.119.745.761.

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A large number of studies on fiscal decentralization have supported the claim that decentralized governments have a greater capacity to approach local preferences and have greater potential for public service delivery, which demonstrates a favorable status of socioeconomic indicators. However, there is no empirical evidence on fiscal decentralization and gender equality. This study empirically examines the effect of fiscal decentralization on gender equality in 29 developing economies from 2006 to 2020 by employing the dynamic panel system generalized method of moments (GMM). The study uses three measures of fiscal decentralization—expenditure, revenue, and composite decentralization—to learn the dynamics of income groups in developing economies, and corruption from the perspective of fiscal decentralization and gender equality. The results demonstrate that fiscal decentralization improves gender equality in the sample of developing economies as well as in the sub-sample of developing economies, i.e., lower-middle income countries and upper-middle income countries subject to the control of corruption, otherwise fiscal decentralization may devastate gender equality in developing economies and upper-middle income economies. Corruption plays a dynamic role in the relationship between fiscal decentralization and gender equality. The desired results of fiscal decentralization may be attained through policy reforms to control corruption. The dynamics of income groups in the sampled economies also have implications for the relationship between fiscal decentralization and gender equality.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Equality Developing countries"

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Schlesinger, Thomas. "North vs. South: Sovereign Equality and the Environment in the Twentieth Century." PDXScholar, 1995. https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/open_access_etds/5048.

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Although Third World states lack military and economic strength, they still are able to exert considerable influence on certain international issues. The proliferation of small states following World War II, coupled with the twentieth century acceptance of the norm of sovereign equality, has enabled the weak states of the international system to challenge the order established by the strong. While Third World nations are weak according to traditional measures of power, sovereign equality and bloc voting by the small states, have accorded a type of "conditional" power to the South. This conditional power is augmented by the advent of a new international issue, the environment. Because of their large populations and natural resource bases, developing countries significantly influence environmental problems and therefore have greater leverage in environmental negotiations. This thesis seeks to demonstrate that because of the military and economic weakness of the South, it has sought to develop alternative sources of international strength. These new sources take advantage of norms and issues particular to twentieth century world politics. While these other sources thus far lack the potency of military or economic power, they do provide the South with a limited, but nonetheless important amount of influence in international politics. This thesis analyzes the nature and scope of the South's power arising out of the acceptance of the norm of sovereign equality. The paper also studies a second source of strength for developing nations, negative power; this power is based on the South's ability to frustrate Northern efforts to deal with serious environmental problems. By examining two major international environmental conferences, the thesis demonstrates both the character and limitations of this negative power. The foregoing study concludes that the new power of the South, though still quite limited today, may be an indication of growing strength as global environmental problems become increasingly central to international relations.
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Andersson, Anette. "The Effect of Increased Gender Equality on Economic Growth in Developing Countries." Thesis, Internationella Handelshögskolan, Högskolan i Jönköping, IHH, Nationalekonomi, 2010. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:hj:diva-14385.

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The purpose of this thesis is to investigate whether an increase in the level of human capital and reduction of gender inequality in the labor market affect developing nation’s growth rate and welfare. The data used in this thesis cover 74 emerging and developing countries for the years of 2001 and 2007. Solow’s augmented growth model has been used to estimate how increased rates of females and males completing primary school effects economic growth in order to see what effect the Millennium Development Goal’s (MDG) target of universal primary education has on the economy. The rates of female and male participation rates in the labor force are also tested for to see if one can determine how reduced gender inequality affects economic growth. The main findings are that increased female and male completion rates in primary school do affect economic growth positively as expected. However, what was not expected was that an increased participation rate of female and male in the labor force affect economic growth negatively. The conclusion is that increased levels of primary education among males and females will increase economic growth. Hence the MDGs of achieving universal primary education and homogenous education between females and males in 2015 are important for economic growth and increase of welfare.
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Tusalem, Rollin F. "Reformulating world-system theory : third world participation in the world polity as an attempt to combat global inequality." Virtual Press, 2003. http://liblink.bsu.edu/uhtbin/catkey/1260631.

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The end of bi-polarity in the world stage ushered in a period of hegemonic power decline and the sudden emergence of peripheral empowerment. This research undertaking attempts to reformulate World System theory, an antiquated theoretical perspective based on the periphery's economic dependence on core nation-states and the resultant exploitative relationship that occurs. Current events indicate that there are multiple demands of redress and restitution made by emancipated peripheral states. Such demands are increasingly addressed and heeded to in world conferences and various international organizations since 1989 and will be measured as absolute gains. A drastic change is also observed in the structure and function of both international governmental organizations (IGOs) and international-non governmental organizations (1NGOs) from being corecentric institutional bodies to supranational, authoritative entities which now have the capacity to promote rational progress through third world advocacy. Such changes are attributed both to the multi-polarity of the world stage and the cultural construction of rational progress. The new reformulation will discover that world- level socialism is not attainable. Rather, the only solution to weaken global stratification is the continued participation of peripheral states in worlBall State UniversityMuncie, IN 47306
Department of Political Science
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Юрко, Ю. В. "The issue of gender equality and women’s empowerment." Thesis, Sumy State University, 2015. http://essuir.sumdu.edu.ua/handle/123456789/43730.

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"The attitude to men and women is completely different in every society”. Such conclusion was made by the development program of the United Nations in 1997. More than 60 years ago in 1948 the UN General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which stated that every person regardless of gender has the same rights and freedoms[1]. However in 1997 the report about human development says that no state is successful in achieving this goal. However the level of "underachievement" varies in each country. But still the Nordic countries such as Sweden, Norway and Iceland are famous as the states in which the level of gender inequality is the smallest. In developing countries however women are often faced with injustice which is sometimes difficult to understand. So we decided to describe and explore 5 the most common examples of gender inequality all around the world.
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Ansong, Alex. "Developing countries and decision-making in the WTO : reconciling the principles of special and differential treatment and sovereign equality of states." Thesis, Middlesex University, 2012. http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/12448/.

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This study explores the issue of decision-making in international organisations with a view to providing a lens on the status of developing countries within the World Trade Organisation (WTO), with particular emphasis on their participation in WTO decisionmaking. The two main principles that form the theoretical lens or framework through which the research is being conducted are, (i) the principle of special and differential treatment of developing countries; and (ii) the principle of sovereign equality of states. The issue of economic development in developing countries and the role that trade could play is one that has taken centre stage in a lot of international fora for some time now. The need to replace economic aid from developed countries with market access opportunities that allow developing countries to be integrated better into international trade is one of the most central issues in international trade. The ‘aid for trade’ debate has culminated in the current Round of multilateral trade negotiations being christened the ‘Development Round’ because of the focus on the development and trading needs of developing and least developed country Members of the WTO. Special and differential treatment of developing countries is one of the main tools that the General Agreement on Tariff and Trade 1947 (GATT)/WTO system has used in the bid to integrate developing countries better into the international trade system. The adequacy and implications of using special and differential treatment as such a tool for integration is a central theme of enquiry in this research. It needs to be stressed at the outset that integration here is not viewed merely as an increase in contribution to international trade, but most importantly, as the ability to influence the policy direction of the WTO in a way that is favourable to the development aspirations of developing countries. Effective participation of developing countries in WTO decision-making thus becomes the foundational line of enquiry. The second theoretical aspect that forms the framework for this research – the principle of sovereign equality of states – is also employed in the enquiry into the participation of developing countries in the WTO because it is one of the fundamental principles of international law which regulates relations among states. The notion that the existence of a state must not be based on, inter alia, the military or economic power it wields to assure its existence and prevent interference from other states, has evolved over the centuries and is enshrined in the United Nations Charter. States are deemed equal just by their status as states under international law. The WTO Agreement makes provisions that ensure the operation of sovereign equality of states. For example, the decision-making bodies of the WTO are open to all Members and each Member, independent of contributions to international trade or population size, has one vote when decisions are being taken. The operation of this principle is thus important to the participation of developing countries in the WTO decision-making process. However, if states are equal, what justifies the special and differential treatment of developing countries, and why should developed countries provide such special treatments exclusively to developing countries? The seeming contradiction between these two principles is explored, and one important concept used in articulating this is the principle of state consent – that is, as sovereign states, developed countries provide special and differential treatment to developing countries by their own volition or consent, and not out of compulsion. Sovereign equality does not prohibit the expression of state consent even if such consent is exercised in a manner that limits state sovereignty. Also, where special and differential treatment provisions become ineffective in integrating developing countries into the international trade system, the principle of sovereign equality can be used to foster effective participation in decision-making so as to influence the direction of WTO policy in a way that is favourable to the trade interests of developing countries. Consequently, with regards to the participation of developing countries in international trade, special and differential treatment and sovereign equality of states can be seen as complimentary principles that can aid developing countries in their aspirations.
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Mokgokong, Madikana Jackinah. "The effects of gender inequality on rural households livelihoods diversification : a case study of Sebayeng village, Polokwane, Limpopo Province." Thesis, University of Limpopo, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/10386/1437.

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Thesis (M.A. (Administration and Development)) --University of Limpopo, 2010
Feminist studies show that gender inequality is an impediment for livelihoods diversification among rural households. Whereas women are understood to be the designers, planners and managers of livelihoods for household survival, their roles in diversification of the means of earning a living are generally undermined through a myriad of social and cultural laws, values, norms and beliefs. Despite the publicity, attempts and efforts in redressing gender inequality in a demographic South Africa, the dissertation argues that gender inequality in rural areas has remained persistent, posing an obstacle to the capacity of households to diversify their livelihoods. The study uses survey results from Sebayeng Village in order to demonstrate that the community’s perceptions of women’s roles perpetuate the status quo wherein women’s capacity to diversify livelihoods are undermined. The survey involved 200 households that were sampled through the simple random design. The respondents consisted of 56.5% females and 43.5% males. The survey results demonstrate that gender inequality remains deep in Sebayeng Village and that such inequality negatively affects the ability of households to diversify their livelihoods. Therefore, this study tends to confirm the general principle that gender inequality renders women as unexplored resources in rural development. To that extent, the study concludes that one of the tests for the success in gender transformation in South Africa is in releasing the energies of women in the sphere of livelihoods diversification.
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Mogomotsi, Goemeone Emmanuel Judah. "Exclusive greenroom meetings of the WTO: an examination of the equality principle in the decision-making process of the multilateral trading system." Thesis, 2013. http://etd.uwc.ac.za/index.php?module=etd&action=viewtitle&id=gen8Srv25Nme4_1427_1380713184.

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Books on the topic "Equality Developing countries"

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The politics of economic inequality in developing countries. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.

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Wagstaff, Adam. Inequalities in health in Developing countries: Swimming against the tide? Washington, D.C: World Bank, Development Research Group, Public Services, and, Human Development Network, Health, Nutrition, and Population Team, 2002.

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Halvorssen, Anita Margrethe. Equality among unequals in international environmental law: Differential treatment for developing countries. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press, 1999.

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Growing income inequalities: Economic analyses. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.

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Faría, Carlos Ramírez. Origins of economic inequality between nations: A critique of western theories on development and underdevelopment. London: Unwin Hyman, 1991.

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The origins of economic inequality between nations: A critique of Western theories of development and underdevelopment. London: Unwin Hyman, 1991.

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service), SourceOECD (Online, ed. Atlas of gender and development: How social norms affect gender equality in non-OECD countries. Paris: OECD, Development Centre, 2010.

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Agency, Canadian International Development. Questions about: Culture, gender equality and development cooperation. Ottawa: Canadian International Development Agency, 2001.

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Reproductive health and gender equality: Method, measurement, and implications. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate, 2010.

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Overcoming the persistence of inequality and poverty. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.

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Book chapters on the topic "Equality Developing countries"

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Titumir, Rashed Al Mahmud. "Equality, welfare and state." In Fiscal and Monetary Policies in Developing Countries, 162–204. London: Routledge, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003201847-5.

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Stotsky, Janet G. "Emerging markets and developing countries." In Using Fiscal Policy and Public Financial Management to Promote Gender Equality, 134–53. 1st Edition. | New York: Routledge, 2020. | Series: Gender economics: Routledge, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429298400-7.

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Grimshaw, David J., Lawrence D. Gudza, and Jack Stilgoe. "How Can Nanotechnologies Fulfill the Needs of Developing Countries?" In Nanotechnology and the Challenges of Equity, Equality and Development, 379–91. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9615-9_22.

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Barker, Todd F., Leili Fatehi, Michael T. Lesnick, Timothy J. Mealey, and Rex R. Raimond. "Nanotechnology and the Poor: Opportunities and Risks for Developing Countries." In Nanotechnology and the Challenges of Equity, Equality and Development, 277–90. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9615-9_17.

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Thakur, Dhanaraj. "Open Access Nanotechnology for Developing Countries: Lessons from Open Source Software." In Nanotechnology and the Challenges of Equity, Equality and Development, 331–47. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9615-9_20.

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Čaušević, Fikret. "Global Financial Openness in the Advanced, Emerging and Developing Countries: A Brief Overview." In A Study into Financial Globalization, Economic Growth and (In)Equality, 75–90. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51403-1_5.

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Melnychuk, Nataliia, Denys Novikov, and Nadiia Reznik. "Provision of Gender Equality by Non-Governmental Human Rights Organizations in Ukraine." In The Importance of New Technologies and Entrepreneurship in Business Development: In The Context of Economic Diversity in Developing Countries, 1073–83. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69221-6_82.

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Ali, Murad. "Monitoring and Evaluation in South-South Cooperation: The Case of CPEC in Pakistan." In The Palgrave Handbook of Development Cooperation for Achieving the 2030 Agenda, 289–308. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57938-8_13.

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AbstractPakistan is a key country in China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) where the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is under implementation. An investment model of financing through loans, grants and private investments, CPEC is an example of South-South cooperation (SSC) having a number of benefits for both countries. Aimed at developing energy, industry, and communication infrastructure, the corridor initially valued at $46 billion but is now worth $62 billion. CPEC is expected to contribute significantly to socio-economic development and regional connectivity and trade. The main research question is, while implementing projects in Pakistan, to what extent China adheres to its avowed principles comprising features such as mutual respect, non-conditionality, equality, building local capacity and addressing actual needs of partner countries. Based mainly on the analysis of primary data collected during fieldwork in Pakistan, this research explores the extent to which the official narrative influences the actual practice of China’s development cooperation on the ground. To critically examine CPEC, this chapter uses a monitoring and evaluation framework developed by the Network of Southern Think Tanks (NeST), which is dedicated to generating systematic and clearly comparable knowledge on SSC (Besharati et al. 2017). The findings illustrate that, as per the five broad dimensions of the SSC framework, the China–Pakistan partnership under CPEC has performed well in the four areas of inclusive national ownership, horizontality, self-reliance and sustainability, and development effectiveness, but it has lagged in accountability and transparency.
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Muñiz, Leticia, and Joan Miquel Verd. "Theoretical-Methodological Elements for Comparative Analysis of Social Inequalities in Life Courses." In Towards a Comparative Analysis of Social Inequalities between Europe and Latin America, 295–329. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48442-2_10.

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AbstractSocial inequalities are one of the structural problem areas of Western capitalist societies, and are of particular relevance both in Europe and in Latin America. Sociological studies on the issue account for the complexity of the phenomenon by presenting their constitution and consolidation based on the analysis of institutional and subjective aspects, which include the particularities, on the one hand, of the socio-economic systems of countries and regions; and, on the other hand, the representations, dispositions and actions deployed by individuals in order to deal with and live in an unequal world.This chapter forms part of these discussions on social inequalities by developing a theoretical-methodological analysis that helps to generate critical views of the phenomenon in a context in which there is a need to design public policies that will foster equality. In particular, social inequalities are studied from the perspective of life courses, which involves multidimensional analyses over time; and a theoretical-methodological model that deepens our current knowledge of the Comparative Biographical Perspective is developed. In order to show how this approach can be used empirically, we then present an analysis of the career paths of workers with different levels of education in Argentina and Spain.
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Nundy, Samiran, Atul Kakar, and Zulfiqar A. Bhutta. "Understanding Medical Biostatistics." In How to Practice Academic Medicine and Publish from Developing Countries?, 95–116. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5248-6_10.

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AbstractVariation is a law of nature that makes this universe beautiful. In healthcare, two human beings, though genetically similar, may not respond equally to the same drug. The same drug may also have a varying response and become ineffective in an individual over a period of time. When we look at a population of individuals, variations are so prominent that no two individuals are ever exactly alike. There may be several factors for these variations among individuals which include those which are due to biological, genetic, environmental, or ecological effects [1]. Variations also occur when we sample these individuals. Moreover, variability in the observers themselves may also contribute to variations in assessment. These variations are bound to occur whatever may be the reasons and consequently lead to uncertainties in clinical practice, identification of risk factors, and policy planning.
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Conference papers on the topic "Equality Developing countries"

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Faiz, Faiz, Tara Boyhan, Wilma Izaak, Indrawati Yuhertiana, and Tri Kartika. "A Literature Review: Women's Equality in the E-Commerce Information Technology Industry in the Digital Age in Developing Countries." In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Economics, Business, and Government Challenges, EBGC 2019, 3 October, UPN " Veteran" East Java, Surabaya, Indonesia. EAI, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.4108/eai.3-10-2019.2291828.

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Islam, Mazharul, A. K. M. Sadrul Islam, and M. Ruhul Amin. "Small-Scale Decentralized Renewable Energy Systems for the Remote Communities of the Developing Countries." In ASME 2005 Power Conference. ASMEDC, 2005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/pwr2005-50068.

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About 2 billion people of the world, mostly in rural areas of the developing countries, do not have access to grid-based electricity. The most critical factor affecting their livelihoods is access to clean, affordable and reliable energy services for household and productive uses. Under this backdrop, renewable and readily available energy from the nature can be incorporated in several proven renewable energy technology (RET) systems and can play a significant role in meeting crucial energy needs in these remote far flung areas. RETs are ideal as distributed energy source and they can be incorporated in packages of energy services and thus offer unique opportunities to provide improved lighting, health care, drinking water, education, communication, and irrigation. Energy is also vital for most of the income-generating activities, both at the household or commercial levels. Access to energy is strongly connected to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which set targets for poverty reduction, improved health, and gender equality as well as environmental sustainability. Environmentally benign renewable energy systems can contribute significantly in the above-mentioned unserved or underserved areas in the developing countries to achieve both local and global environmental benefits. This is important in the context of sustainable development in: (i) poverty alleviation, (ii) education, (iii) gender equity and empowerment, (iv) health including other benefits like improved information access through Information and Communication Technology (ICT) centers, (v) better security, and (vi) increase in social or recreational opportunities. It is evident that proliferation of renewable energy resources through implementing their applications for meeting energy demand will promote all the three dimensions namely, social, economic and environmental of sustainable development in the developing countries. Several small scale enabling RET systems have been suggested in this paper in the light of above-mentioned issues of energy sustainability and they can significantly contribute to the improvement of the livelihood of the remote impoverished rural communities of the developing countries. With the current state of technology development, several RET systems (such as wind, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal, biomass and microhydro) have become successful in different parts of the world. In this paper, an exhaustive literature survey has been conducted and several successful and financially viable small-scale RET systems were analyzed. These systems have relevance to the economies of the developing countries that can be utilized for electrification of domestic houses, micro enterprises, health clinics, educational establishments and rural development centers.
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Janay, Abdullahi Ibrahim, and Bülent Kılıç. "The World Bank and its Roles toward Health: Common Criticisms." In 6th International Students Science Congress. Izmir International Guest Student Association, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.52460/issc.2022.053.

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The World Bank (WB) was established in 1944 for the purpose of issuing long-term loans to governments for reconstruction and economic development following the Second World War (1). Over the time perspectives on development have changed dramatically. In particular, the WB’s focus began to shift to investments in health, energy, telecommunication, transport and infrastructure to earn more profit. In the field of health, the WB has focused on three areas, especially in developing countries: health, nutrition, and population. WB now has a more sophisticated view of well-being, living standards, and poverty and is committing more than 1 billion USD annually for new health projects. (2). The WB’s roles include financing, provision of information, surveillance, technical assistance and training and policy advice (3). The WB has achieved some gains in the fight against poverty. Reducing poverty focuses in part encompassing policies to promote equality but inequalities are still increasing all over the World, especially in the developing countries (4). However, the WB has faced a lot of critiques related to health. Some critiques related to health sector polices and say the bank's conditions on borrowing countries emphasize privatization and public sector contraction. This involved reducing government expenditures (in some cases for health) which have deleterious health effects (2). Other critiques related to the way of raising funds called a user charge for using public sector health services and point to evidence showing that user charges result in a decline in the uptake of services, especially among the people who are most socioeconomically deprived. The bank is also criticized for introducing DALYs to global health assessments. Critics point out that the introduction of DALYs was not based on sound methodology and that the underlying assumptions for their usefulness are weak (2, 5). Finally, the WB is also accused of bribing or conniving top government officials in the developing countries where it projects (6). There is a need for strengthening across the WB in several areas. A critical area is for the WB to strengthen its ability to work on multi-stakeholder solutions through engagement with the public sector, private sector, and citizens, and support primarily the public sector for health services. Similarly, about half of low-income countries are classified as fragile and conflict-affected, posing particular challenges. Furthermore, progress in fighting against poverty and sharing prosperity is accompanied by rising inequality in many countries. So, the WB should increase its efforts to address these issues (4). Introducing evidence into policy making is also a key issue to be strengthened for the future (5). It is also needed to strengthen the monitoring and evaluation methods in the countries.
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Madmarov, Nurbek, and Metin Bayrak. "Determinants of Maternal Mortality Rate in The Kyrgyz Republic Regions." In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c09.02001.

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Population is an important factor in development of a country. As a constraint, not only the size of the population is important but also its quality in the development process. Women’s health is considered all over the world and the data about this aspect is published by the World Health Organization annually. Among others maternal mortality rate is one of the major problems affecting women’s health and population. Everyday 830 women die due to the problems related to pregnancy and childbirth in the world. While this number is relatively lower in the developed countries, it is higher in the underdeveloped and developing countries. In addition, the maternal mortality rate in the Caucasus and Central Asia ranks in the worst third in the world. In the Kyrgyz Republic, this rate is 82.083333 per 10000 live births which is the worst in the region. Therefore, it is among one of the countries where the maternal mortality should be reduced in the framework of the Millennium Development Goals. In this study, the determinants of maternal mortality rate are analyzed in the Kyrgyz Republic regions during 2000-2015 by using static panel data methods fixed effects and random effects. The findings show that there are significant decreasing effects of GDP, number of assistant physicians, births by skilled staff, improved sanitation facilities, and gender wage equality, there are significant increasing effects of health expenditures, medical facilities, and poverty among women on the maternal mortality.
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Carta, Giuseppe. "The challenge of the last few years: planning against poverty, microfinance." In Virtual City and Territory. Barcelona: Centre de Política de Sòl i Valoracions, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.5821/ctv.8152.

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The last ten years have witnessed a heightened interest in infrastructure in both developed and developing countries, with emphasis on the financial crisis in developed countries, and the recurring attention on growth and poverty reduction. An edition of the UN Report underlines the choices available to policymakers across the range of economic, social, cultural and political challenges that are needed to bridge the urban divide. The term “inequality” has many different meanings. Shortly we describe how an indicator of economic well-being is distributed over a particular population. The coefficient or index is commonly used for measuring the grade of difference in size, income, wealth, costs, etc. Gini’s Coefficient (1921). Obviously the index only considers one aspect of difference, that of the distribution of income. The effect of social services which are administered directly, as for example, the Health Service and Education, even though they are extremely important for a substantial equality of rights and opportunities, is not taken into account. As a group of eminent planning experts recognized in the Global Report on Human Settlements 2009: “Among the most significant challenges that urban planning has to address in the next few decades are increasing poverty and inequality, as well as the rapidly expanding urban sector.” Urbanization, therefore, does indeed play a positive role in overall poverty reduction, particularly where supported by well-adapted policies.
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Hendricks, Winston, and Babawande Olawale. "Bridging the Gender-Based Digital Divide: Empowerment of Women Through ICT." In Tenth Pan-Commonwealth Forum on Open Learning. Commonwealth of Learning, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.56059/pcf10.9136.

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This paper explores how digital transformation can bridge the gender-based digital divide and empower women for civic engagement in a digital world. This is because, in recent times, women in developing countries such as South Africa have been marginalized due to the patriarchal sentiment prevalent in society. While gender equality is not only a universal human right, recognizing the importance of gender equality in ensuring the advancement of society will go a long way to reducing the existing gender gaps in digital inclusion. While it has been argued that digital transformation perpetuates gender-related inequality, empowering women has the potential to generate a new source of global economic growth that is more inclusive. In addition, the incorporation of computer-based technologies into an organization's products, processes, and strategies, often referred to as 'digital transformation' is capable of providing an avenue for more equal women participation in labour markets and entrepreneurship. However, despite the advantages of digital transformation for women’s empowerment, women’s marginalisation in digital technologies continues to be evident in South Africa and its education system. The present study, therefore, investigates how digital transformation can bridge the gender-based digital divide and empower women for civic engagement in a digital world by promoting gender equality in the digital communities. Underpinned by an Interpretivist paradigm, the study employs a qualitative research approach and a case study design. Thus, to investigate how digital transformation can bridge the gender-based digital divide and empower women for civic engagement in a digital world, data for the study was collected through interviews from ten female university students in a rural university in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The findings from the study revealed that while there are several opportunities that the digital technologies present in the quest for women empowerment, the lack of skills and expertise, literacy gaps, traditional and social norms, and a lack of confidence in experimenting with technology, among many others are the key factors that widen the digital gender gap. Based on the findings, recommendations were made that universities and higher education institutions partners should promote women's empowerment by supporting women's meaningful and equal participation in decision making where digital technologies are concerned.
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Fırat, Emine, Emre Ürün, and Aytaç Aydın. "The Relationship of Development and Education: An Evaluation of Turkey’s Education Level by Human Development Index." In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c06.01411.

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The unfair distribution of income in underdeveloped countries causes the capital to be gathered in the hands of a certain party and thus preventing it from spreading to the society and although national income in these countries is high, the level of development being low creates problems. Education directly relates to issues related to the concept of development such as developing individuals’ social points of view, obtaining the individual’s skills and abilities, shaping the socio-cultural structure, environment, healthy life and guaranteeing rights and freedom. The fact that frontiers disappeared together with the globalizing world and sharing the incomes in international markets have brought about some problems. The emergence of human-centered approach in development in 1970 and after has been an important opportunity for all societies. Human development has led the way to investigate concepts such as poverty, income equality, health and education and to take action to remove the deficiencies in the aforementioned area. Education is inevitable for development. In this context, Turkey’s education level will be evaluated in terms of the relationship of human development and education for development. In this study the indicators of Human Development Index (HDI) prepared by UDP annually and Education Index (EI), the sub-index of HDI, for Turkey have been taken into consideration and it has been aimed to determine Turkey’s level of development in education. It was determined in the study that Turkey’s level of human development is not satisfactory and that indicators for education were low.
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Jumani, Nabi Bux, Fouzia Ajmal, Samina Malik, and Fatima Maqsood. "Online Education as a Key to Bridge Gender Digital Divide in Pakistan." In Tenth Pan-Commonwealth Forum on Open Learning. Commonwealth of Learning, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.56059/pcf10.9275.

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Educational systems are progressively attempting to provide equitable, comprehensive, and high-quality digital skills education and training. Females lag substantially behind males in digital abilities, paving the need for more learning and skill development, especially in developing countries. Creating equal opportunity in higher education for all individuals including both genders is a social responsibility. Gender equality is a cornerstone of a healthy, modern economy, and women may make a significant contribution to society and the economy as a whole. The current study was taken to analyze the gender digital divide among youth in Pakistan. The relevant policy documents such as Digital Pakistan Policy and reports were analyzed. The main causes identified included barriers to access, affordability, lack of technology literacy, and sociocultural norms. Moreover, the role of online education as an effort to bridge the gender digital divide was analyzed through interviews with key stakeholders in higher education in Pakistan. Women's use of ICT and digital platforms, mobile phones, and digital payments are among the recommendations, as are skills development for the digital era and enabling for better knowledge and meaningful use of digital technology. Individuals, communities, and the commercial sector will all need to work together to bridge the digital gender gap in Pakistan.
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"Factors Influencing Women’s Decision to Study Computer Science: Is It Context Dependent?" In InSITE 2019: Informing Science + IT Education Conferences: Jerusalem. Informing Science Institute, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.28945/4281.

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[This Proceedings paper was revised and published in the 2019 issue of the journal Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology, Volume 16] Aim/Purpose: Our research goal was to examine the factors that motivate women to enroll in Computer Science (CS) courses in order to better understand the small number of women in the field of CS. Background: This work is in line with the growing interest in better understanding the problem of the underrepresentation of women in the field of CS. Methodology: We focused on a college that differs in its high numbers of female CS students. The student population there consists mostly of religious Jews; some of them are Haredi, who, because of their unique lifestyle, are expected to be the breadwinners in their family. Following group interviews with 18 students, a questionnaire was administered to all the female students and 449 of them responded. We analyzed it statistically. We compared the responses of the Haredi and non-Haredi students. Contribution: The main contribution of this work lies in the idea that studying the factors underlying women’s presence in a CS program in unique communities and cultures, where women are equally represented in the field, might shed light on the nature of this phenomenon, especially whether it is universal or confined to the surrounding culture. Findings: There were significant differences between the Haredi and non-Haredi women regarding the importance they attributed to different factors. Haredi women resemble, regarding some social and economic variables, women in developing countries, but differ in others. The non-Haredi women are more akin to Western women, yet they did not completely overlap. Both groups value their family and career as the most important factors in their lives. These factors unify women in the West and in developing countries, though with different outcomes. In the West, it deters women from studying CS, whereas in Israel and in Malaysia, other factors can overcome this barrier. Both groups attributed low importance to the masculine image of CS, found important in the West. Hence, our findings support the hypothesis that women’s participation in the field of CS is culturally dependent. Recommendations for Practitioners: It is important to learn about the culture within which women operate in order to attract more women to CS. Recommendations for Researchers: Future work is required to examine other loci where women are underrepre-sented in CS, as well as how the insights obtained in this study can be utilized to decrease women’s underrepresentation in other loci. Impact on Society: Women's underrepresentation in CS is an important topic for both economic and social justice reasons. It raises questions regarding fairness and equality. In the CS field the gender pay gaps are smaller than in other professional areas. Thus, resolving the underrepresentation of women in CS will serve as a means to decrease the social gender gap in other areas.
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Erdoğan, Savaş, Ahmet Ay, and Mustafa Gerçeker. "An Analysis of 2008 Global Crisis through Comparative Economic Performance on CIS and Baltic States." In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c01.00175.

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With the collapse of USSR in 1991 all countries declared their independence and started to integrated to the World Economy. Since then these countries have made so many effort to developing their economies. This effort exist through economic growth performance and significant improvement of growth dynamics. For these reason, it will be analysis comparatively countries performance through growth rates and growth dynamics. In this paper CIS and Baltic States, which is leaved from USSR, economic performance will be evaluate on economic growth, unemployment rate, inflation rate, foreign trade volume and FDI indicators etc. with TOPSIS method. This paper especially search on 2007 and 2008 crisis whether or not equally effect these countries economic performance.
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Reports on the topic "Equality Developing countries"

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Akmal, Maryam, and Lant Pritchett. Learning Equity Requires More than Equality: Learning Goals and Achievement Gaps between the Rich and the Poor in Five Developing Countries. Research on Improving Systems of Education (RISE), February 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.35489/bsg-rise-wp_2019/028.

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Price, Roz. Access to Climate Finance by Women and Marginalised Groups in the Global South. Institute of Development Studies (IDS), May 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.19088/k4d.2021.083.

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This paper examines the issue of management of climate finance in the Global South. It acknowledges the efforts made by the various stakeholders so far but seeks to advance a clarion call for a more inclusive and targeted approach in dealing with climate change. The authors highlight the limited role played by least developed countries and small island developing states in contributing to the conversation on climate change. The authors emphasize the need for enhancing the role of the most vulnerable countries, marginalized groups, and indigenous peoples in the management of climate change. This rapid review focusses on the access to the Green Climate Fund by local civil society organisations (CSOs), indigenous peoples, and women organizations within the Global South. The authors observe that there still exist barriers to climate finance by local actors in the Global South. The authors note the need for more significant engagement of all local actors and the need to devolve climate finance to the lowest level possible to the most vulnerable groups. Particularly, climate finance should take into consideration gender equality in any mitigation measures. The paper also highlights the benefits of engaging CSOs in the engagement of climate finance. The paper argues that local actors have the potential to deliver more targeted, context-relevant, and appropriate climate adaptation outcomes. This can be attributed to the growing movement for locally-led adaptation, a new paradigm where decisions over how, when, and where to adapt are led by communities and local actors. There is also a need to build capacities and strengthen institutions and organisations. Further, it is important to ensure transparency and equitable use and allocation of climate finance by all players.
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Hayes, Anne M., and Jennae Bulat. Disabilities Inclusive Education Systems and Policies Guide for Low- and Middle-Income Countries. RTI Press, July 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2017.op.0043.1707.

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Having a disability can be one of the most marginalizing factors in a child’s life. In education, finding ways to meet the learning needs of students with disabilities can be challenging, especially in schools, districts, regions, and countries with severely limited resources. Inclusive education—which fully engages all students, including students with disabilities or other learning challenges, in quality education—has proven particularly effective in helping all students learn, even while challenges to implementing inclusive education systems remain. This guide provides suggestions for developing inclusive education systems and policies, especially for low- and middle-income countries that are moving from a segregated system toward an inclusive system of education. We specifically address the needs of countries with limited resources for implementing inclusive education. However, our strategies and recommendations can be equally useful in other contexts where inclusive education practices have not yet been adopted.
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Carrillo, Paul, Ivette Contreras, and Carlos Scartascini. Turn Off the Faucet: Solving Excess Water Consumption with Individual Meters. Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo, October 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.18235/0003719.

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When consumption of water and other utilities is measured collectively and payment for such services is equally shared among members of the group, individuals may use more than what is socially optimal. In this paper, we evaluate how installation of individual meters affects water consumption. Using rich administrative data from the public water utility company in Quito, Ecuador, it is estimated that water consumption decreases by about 8% as a result of the introduction of individual metering. The effect is large and economically significant: in order to obtain the same effect prices would have to double. Individual water metering could be a useful tool to curve down consumption in both developing and developed countries.
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Bano, Masooda. In Need of Fresh Thinking: What Pratham’s Experience of Mobilising Communities Says about Current Development Thinking about Community Participation in Education. Research on Improving Systems of Education (RISE), July 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.35489/bsg-rise-wp_2022/100.

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For more than two decades, the international development community has advocated that establishing school-based management committees to involve communities to monitor and hold teachers, principals, and district government officials accountable would improve state schooling in developing countries; yet the evidence to sustain this claim to date remains questionable. Considering the case of Pratham, the largest education NGO in India, which is widely recognised as having developed a successful model to improve learning outcomes among children in state schools and is known for doing it through active community engagement, this paper questions whether the current development thinking on best modes of engaging communities to improve learning outcomes in state schools needs fresh thinking. The paper questions the validity of the two central assumptions underpinning the school-based management model: that better-informed communities will become involved in education activities with some mobilisation and training; and that engaged communities will be able to hold to account front-line state officials, starting with teachers and principals and moving on to the district government officials. Pratham’s experience shows that dissemination of information about benefits of education does not automatically result in community engagement; instead, people are motivated to become involved on the basis of individual-based incentives. Equally, it shows that for a community to influence the actions of front-line staff, it is important to develop a co-operative and supportive relationship, instead of focusing on accountability. Pratham’s experience thus shows that there is much scope for fresh thinking within the international development community on how to engage communities in developing countries in improving learning outcomes in state schools.
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Bano, Masooda. The Missing Link: Low-Fee Private Tuition and Education Options for the Poor – The Demand-Side Dynamics in Pakistan. Research on Improving Systems of Education (RISE), September 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.35489/bsg-risewp_2022/113.

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Low-fee private schools are today recognised as important players in the education market in developing countries, as they are argued to provide at least marginally better education than is on offer in the state schools. Leading international development agencies have begun encouraging governments in developing countries to include them within the policy-planning process. Based on fieldwork in two urban neighbourhoods in Pakistan, this paper shows that low-income parents are keen to secure good-quality education for their children, but they have to choose not only between state schools and low-fee private schools but also from among an array of low-fee tuition providers in their immediate neighbourhood to ensure that the child can cope in class, complete daily homework assignments, and pass exams in order to transition to the next grade. The evidence presented in this paper suggests that whether their child is enrolled in a state school or in a low-fee private school, the parents’ dependence on low-fee tuition providers is absolute: without their services, the child will not progress through the primary grades. Yet the sector remains entirely under-researched. The paper argues for the need to map the scale of this sector, document the household spending on it, and bring it within policy debates, placing it alongside low-fee private schools and state schools in order to provide access to primary education to all and improve the quality of education. At the same time it complicates the existing debates on low-fee private schools, by showing that parents on very low incomes — in this case households where mothers are employed as domestic workers and fathers are in casual employment — find them inaccessible; it also shows that household spending on education needs to take into account not just the charges imposed by low-fee schools, but also the cost of securing religious education, which is equally valued by the parents and is not free, and also the cost of paying the low-fee tuition provider. When all these costs are taken into account, the concerns that low-fee private schools are not truly accessible to the poor gain further traction. The paper also shows that mothers end up bearing the primary burden, having to work to cover the costs of their children’s education, because the core income provided by the father can barely cover the household costs.
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Bano, Masooda. Narratives of Success against the Odds: Why Some Children in State Schools Go Far in Life—Evidence from Pakistan. Research on Improving Systems of Education (RISE), August 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.35489/bsg-rise-wp_2022/104.

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What makes some children succeed despite studying in failing education systems? Are these children exceptionally gifted, or do other psychological or sociological factors and family circumstances contribute to success? To address the learning crisis in state schools in developing countries, development agencies have primarily focused on identifying inputs that can improve state education provision. Yet, even from low-performing state schools, some children do manage to successfully complete primary and secondary education cycles, pursue higher education, and record upward social mobility, but we know very little about the factors that facilitate this success. This paper addresses this gap in the literature. Tracing life histories of successful alumni of state schools supported by CARE, an education foundation in Pakistan, this paper identifies children’s motivation to succeed as having a major impact on educational performance. However, for most this motivation is not a product of an innate desire to excel, it is a product of contextual factors: parental encouragement; an acute desire to make parents happy and to alleviate their sufferings; the company of friends, cousins, and peers who are keen on education and thus help to create an aspiring, competitive spirit; encouragement given by good teachers; and exposure to new possibilities and role models that raise aspirations by showing that what might appear to the child unachievable is in fact attainable. High motivation in turn builds commitment to work hard. Equally important, however, is the provision of financial support at critical points, especially when transitioning from secondary school to college and university. Without financial support, which could be in the form of scholarships, loans, or income from part-time work, at critical junctures, even highly motivated children in state schools cannot succeed. The paper thus argues that rather than being focused solely on education inputs, development agencies should also seek to explore and understand the factors that can motivate children in state schools to aim high and work hard to succeed.
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Bano, Masooda. Narratives of Success against the Odds: Why Some Children in State Schools Go Far in Life—Evidence from Pakistan. Research on Improving Systems of Education (RISE), August 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.35489/bsg-rise-wp_2022/104.

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What makes some children succeed despite studying in failing education systems? Are these children exceptionally gifted, or do other psychological or sociological factors and family circumstances contribute to success? To address the learning crisis in state schools in developing countries, development agencies have primarily focused on identifying inputs that can improve state education provision. Yet, even from low-performing state schools, some children do manage to successfully complete primary and secondary education cycles, pursue higher education, and record upward social mobility, but we know very little about the factors that facilitate this success. This paper addresses this gap in the literature. Tracing life histories of successful alumni of state schools supported by CARE, an education foundation in Pakistan, this paper identifies children’s motivation to succeed as having a major impact on educational performance. However, for most this motivation is not a product of an innate desire to excel, it is a product of contextual factors: parental encouragement; an acute desire to make parents happy and to alleviate their sufferings; the company of friends, cousins, and peers who are keen on education and thus help to create an aspiring, competitive spirit; encouragement given by good teachers; and exposure to new possibilities and role models that raise aspirations by showing that what might appear to the child unachievable is in fact attainable. High motivation in turn builds commitment to work hard. Equally important, however, is the provision of financial support at critical points, especially when transitioning from secondary school to college and university. Without financial support, which could be in the form of scholarships, loans, or income from part-time work, at critical junctures, even highly motivated children in state schools cannot succeed. The paper thus argues that rather than being focused solely on education inputs, development agencies should also seek to explore and understand the factors that can motivate children in state schools to aim high and work hard to succeed.
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Citywide Inclusive Sanitation Guidance Note: Addressing Gender Equality and Social Inclusion in Urban Sanitation Projects. Asian Development Bank, November 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/tim210393-2.

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This guidance note underscores why addressing gender equality and social inclusion (GESI) is fundamental to the success of citywide inclusive sanitation (CWIS) project success. Equity and inclusion is one of the four elements of CWIS. As such, CWIS projects need activities to target specific unserved and underserved groups, including women and children, ethnic minorities, the urban poor, and persons with disabilities. This guidance note is part of a series that aims to share essential knowledge to embed CWIS principles in planning and delivering sanitation services to ADB developing member countries. These learning materials were prepared by ADB’s Water Sector Group and structured along the ADB project processing cycle.
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Pacific Transport Sector Assessment, Strategy, and Road Map 2021–2025. Asian Development Bank, July 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/sgp210255-2.

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This publication highlights key transport issues in the Pacific developing member countries of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and sets out ADB’s planned 2021–2025 transport sector operations in the region. These operations, based on domestic and regional sector priorities and ADB’s Strategy 2030, aim to help countries prepare for and respond to shocks, deliver sustainable services, and promote inclusive growth. The publication covers maritime, land, and urban transport; aviation; and intermodal connectivity. It discusses climate change adaptation and disaster risk management, regional cooperation and integration, institutional capacity, gender equality, land ownership, and procurement. It is linked to ADB’s Pacific Approach strategy document.
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