Relevant bibliographies by topics / Equal Employment Opportunities

Contents

  1. Journal articles
  2. Dissertations / Theses
  3. Books
  4. Book chapters
  5. Conference papers
  6. Reports

Academic literature on the topic 'Equal Employment Opportunities'

Author: Grafiati
Published: 4 June 2021
Last updated: 11 February 2022

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Journal articles on the topic "Equal Employment Opportunities"

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Perrons, D. "Measuring Equal Opportunities in European Employment." Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space 26, no. 8 (August 1994): 1195–220. http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/a261195.

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The European Community has developed various social policies to compensate for the uneven effects of economic integration, and to bring about greater equality between women and men. In addition, the member states have their own policy traditions and institutional frameworks which likewise affect general employment conditions. In order to bring about greater economic and social cohesion in the European Community there have been moves to harmonise social policy. Clearly, if greater equality between women and men is a desired goal then it is important that the harmonisation should take place around those policies that are more progressive in this respect. Two ways of measuring gender inequality in paid work are proposed and applied to EC data. The results of this preliminary study indicate that those countries with more formal regulatory frameworks are more conducive to greater gender equality than those where market-based policies prevail.
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Buswell, Carol, and Sarah Jenkins. "Equal Opportunities Policies, Employment and Patriarchy." Gender, Work & Organization 1, no. 2 (April 1994): 83–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0432.1994.tb00008.x.

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Brković, Radoje, and Dejan Vučinić. "Equal opportunities and treatment in employment and occupation." Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta Nis 59, no. 87 (2020): 165–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/zrpfn0-23397.

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Turner, Royce, and Jawad Syed. "A Neo-institutional Perspective on Equal Employment Opportunities." Academy of Management Proceedings 2018, no. 1 (August 2018): 15442. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2018.15442abstract.

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Hartin, Penny, and Phillip C. Wright. "Equal Opportunities International Canadian Perspectives on Employment Equity." Equal Opportunities International 13, no. 6/7 (June 1994): 12–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/eb010630.

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Bruegel, Irene, and Jane Humphries. "Symposium: Equal Opportunities and Employment Change in West European Economies." Feminist Economics 4, no. 1 (January 1998): 51–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/135457098338554.

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DOYLE, BRIAN. "Employment Rights, Equal Opportunities and Disabled Persons: The Ingredients of Reform." Industrial Law Journal 22, no. 2 (1993): 89–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ilj/22.2.89.

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Roberts, A. "Employment: Equal opportunities for women in the United Kingdom museum profession." Museum Management and Curatorship 11, no. 4 (December 1992): 432–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0964-7775(92)90089-n.

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Leonard, Jonathan S. "The Impact of Affirmative Action Regulation and Equal Employment Law on Black Employment." Journal of Economic Perspectives 4, no. 4 (November 1, 1990): 47–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jep.4.4.47.

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Was affirmative action successful in increasing employment opportunities for blacks? In this paper, affirmative action will refer to the provisions of Lyndon Johnson's Executive Order 11246 in 1965, as amended by Richard Nixon's Executive Order 11375 [3 C.F.R. 169 (1974)]. Under Executive Order 11246, federal contractors agree “not to discriminate against any employee or applicant for employment because of race, color, religion, sex, nor national origin, and to take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed and employees are treated during employment without regard to their race, color, religion, sex or national origin” [3 C.F.R. 169 202(1) (1974)].
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Deb, Surajit. "Employment Opportunities Across Social Classes in Rural India." Social Change 49, no. 1 (March 2019): 132–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0049085718821784.

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In the second part of the Social Change Indicator series, we provide information from government survey data on the work opportunities for Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST) and non-SC-ST class in the rural India. 1 Our data refers to 18 states which covers more than 95 per cent of the SC or ST population in the country. The generation of employment continues to remain one of the key political economic challenges in India despite the achievements of its high economic growth rates in the past two decades. The problem remains complicated due to the nature of the country’s labour market that is characterised by skill shortages, dominance of low-paid jobs in the informal and unorganised sectors and vulnerable employments. The government has recently set up a task force to address deficiencies in the existing data on employment and plans to outline a National Employment Policy (NEP) for the creation of quality jobs through economic, social and labour policy interventions. The NEP claims that it will also provide a much-needed focus on equal access to employment opportunities for marginalised sections like the SCs and STs by identifying skill shortages, training needs and available employment opportunities. Given social class differences in India, it is sometimes hypothesised that social exclusion and discrimination remain a common phenomenon in the labour market of different states in India.
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Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Equal Employment Opportunities"

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Lam, Alice. "Equal employment opportunities for Japanese women : changing company practice." Thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science (University of London), 1990. http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/126/.

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The central aim of this thesis is to examine the extent to which the growing pressures for equal opportunity between the sexes has forced Japanese companies to adapt and modify their employment and personnel management practices in recent years. It analyses the major social and economic factors prompting Japanese companies to adopt more open employment policies towards women since the mid-1970s and the change programmes introduced by management. The thesis especially looks at how companies have reacted to the 1985 Equal Employment Opportunity Law and in the light of this considers how far the present legislation will bring about fundamental changes in the Japanese employment system towards more egalitarian treatment of women workers. A detailed case study was conducted at Seibu Department Stores Ltd., both before and after the introduction of the EEO Law, as a critical test of the possibility of introducing equal opportunities for women in a large Japanese company. Seibu was chosen because it is a big employer of women and is a company operating in an industry which has strong economic and- commercial incentives to offer women better career opportunities. All the more important, Seibu is regarded as a 'leading edge' company in personnel management reforms. The study reveals that despite many economic and social reasons that were in favour of change towards greater sexual equality in Seibu, and especially after the introduction of the EEO Law, change towards more egalitarian treatment of women has been very limited. This study illustrates the depth of the resistance to change in the core employment practices in large Japanese companies. The present EEO Law has little potential for undermining the structural mechanisms which perpetúate sexual job segregation in the employment system. The final part of the thesis speculates on the future prospects of introducing equal opportunities for women in Japanese companies. In the light of the present socio-legal constraints, the author puts forward a number of practical policy suggestions for engendering more pervasive long-term changes towards equal employment for Japanese women.
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Woodhams, Carol Anne Cruttenden. "Disability, equality and employment - on whose terms?" Thesis, Manchester Metropolitan University, 1999. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.284865.

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Gregory, Jeanne. "Discrimination, employment and the law : a study of judicial and administrative procedures with special reference to the 1975 Sex Discrimination Act." Thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science (University of London), 1985. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.294282.

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Duckworth, Stephen Charles. "Disability and equality in employment : the imperative for a new approach." Thesis, University of Southampton, 1995. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.295608.

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You, Winnie. "Does Patriarchy Still Exist? An Examination of Equal Employment Opportunities in the United States." Scholarship @ Claremont, 2015. http://scholarship.claremont.edu/scripps_theses/643.

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Since the 1970s, major changes in reproductive freedom, education, and the passage of equal employment laws have impacted women’s experience in the workplace. My thesis is a US-based study that examines the progress of women’s equal employment opportunities from the 1970s to today. Chapter 1 provides the context of discrimination in the 1970s. Chapter 2 provides detailed literature reviews on reproductive freedom and education separately. Section 2.1 shows the relationship between reproductive freedom and increased labor force participation. Section 2.2 finds that higher levels of education encourage women to seek employment in traditionally male-dominant positions. Section 2.3 adds alternative explanations to women’s increased labor force participation rate, such as the aftermath of WWII and changing social attitudes. Chapter 3 gives an overview of women in management in the United States. Section 3.1 examines the history of equal employment laws and how they are subsequently enforced. Chapter 3.2 explains why women in the United States today are still victims of the glass ceiling. Chapter 3.3 compares the status of women in higher management as well as policy trends (maternity leave, childcare subsidization) between the United States and other countries. Chapter 3 draws models from other countries and shows how female management in developed Asian countries successfully included women in top management over time. Chapter 4 is the conclusion of my thesis. Section 4.1 concludes that the United States has a long way to go to achieve truly equal employment opportunities. Section 4.2 provides suggestions and directions for future research.
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McVittie, Christopher D. "The 'age' of diversity and equal opportunities in employment : new discrimination against older workers?" Thesis, University of Edinburgh, 2001. http://hdl.handle.net/1842/23116.

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There exists a considerable body of evidence to suggest that older workers are increasingly being excluded from the workplace in the UK and elsewhere. Commonly, such exclusions are viewed as being due, at least in part, to the use of discriminatory practices by employers towards older workers and jobseekers. Many previous writers have sought to explain age discrimination in employment as the result of the cognitive biases of individual employers (e.g. Warr & Pennington, 1993) or as the outcome of inequitable social structures which favour younger workers over older workers (e.g. Phillipson, 1982). Recent measures promoted by the UK Government to address age discrimination in the workplace (DfEE, 1999) have accordingly rested on the promotion to employers of the principles of diversity and equal opportunities in employment. Drawing on work which has examined the explanatory power of age itself (Bodily, 1991; 1994) and on recent work within discursive psychology, I argue in this Thesis that age diversity and equal opportunities in employment can be usefully understood as discursive resources available to and used by participants within everyday social interaction. Adopting such a perspective allows discrimination against older workers to be viewed as ongoing social practice. Here, I analyse data obtained from written equal opportunities policies of employers, from focus groups and from interviews conducted with employers and older jobseekers. Employers, while making claims which appear to be inclusive of workers in general and older workers in particular, describe their workforce and recruitment practices within reference to the numbers of older workers employed. When challenged, they account for the apparent marginalisation of older workers within their organisations in terms of factors outwith their control and in ways which make such practices less visible and less open to public scrutiny.
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Guillory, Tierra. "Determining the Influence of Business Ethics on Hiring Practices, Compensation Packages, and Equal Employment Opportunities." Thesis, California Southern University, 2017. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=10284348.

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In Nevada, 300 Big-box store employees had distinct opinions regarding hiring practices, compensation, and equal employment opportunities. This study focused on the examination of the role of business ethics, an integral part of the business environment, as it pertains to hiring practices, compensation, and equal employment opportunities. The study examined how people within an organization use and practice business ethics in hiring and promotion decisions through the use of a mixed methods study. The study was conducted using a survey defined through a 7 point Likert scale to understand the respondent’s perceptions and experiences on ethical practices of the organization in hiring, compensation, and equal employment opportunities. Statistical analysis was used to analyze the data. The results demonstrate that there are distinct relationships between business ethics and business operations, suggesting that organizations should develop ethical practices and monitor ethical behavior to assure ethical practices, compensation, and equal employment opportunities. Furthermore, the results suggest that employee satisfaction is increased with improved business ethic practices. Therefore, it can be deduced that increased employee satisfaction can increase productivity, which can increase profit due to lower expenses incurred by the organization. This study may contribute to social change by demonstrating that business ethics is crucial and beneficial to the success of all organizations in a variety of ways, including employee morale.

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Iganski, Paul. "Implementing equal employment-opportunities policies in the British National Health Service : racism and patriarchy at work." Thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science (University of London), 1993. http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/1295/.

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An analysis is presented of the implementation of equal employment-opportunities policies in the British National Health Service (NHS). It focuses on policy development at national level for the NHS as a whole, and also at local level in a case-study of two District Health Authorities. The material was collected from interviews with over sixty respondents. At national level they included key actors in the policy process. Data from a mail survey of all Health Authorities and Boards in the NHS - undertaken for the thesis - is used to additionally evaluate policy progress at national level. The analysis focuses on the organisation and stimulae behind policy implementation at national level. At local level, interviews were held with personnel specialists responsible for the formulation of policy, and line-managers responsible for policy implementation. The analysis focuses particularly on equal opportunities monitoring, formalisation of the selection process for employment, and positive action measures. The analysis uses concepts of racism and patriarchy to theoretically structure a variety of disparate processes which deny equality of opportunity at work. It also suggests targets and strategies for policy implementation.
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Lisk, D. R. "Equal opportunities for women in construction trades : issues of education, training and employment in Northern Ireland." Thesis, Queen's University Belfast, 2014. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.679039.

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This study seeks to identify the factors that influence young women to take up a career in the construction trades in Northern Ireland and to gain a better understanding of the perceptions that lead them to decide on a career in construction. The study focuses on the views, perceptions, understandings and experiences of young people and utilises a mixed methods approach, consisting of a large scale quantitative study of 14-16 year olds along with follow up qualitative interviews with young women and other key stakeholders in the construction industry. Within the context of this study, Roberts' notion of opportunity structures is used, and extended with Bourdieu's concepts of 'habitus' and 'field', as a way of exploring how young women have come to internalise taken-for-granted ways of thinking about occupations that reflect their wider experiences and relationships at home, school and in the world of work. The study found that the young women's attitudes and perspectives were influenced by the family and their peers. The study also identifies entrenched attitudes, where girls are discouraged, prevented and inhibited from accessing opportunities to explore particular career choices by careers officers and teachers. The study highlights how women on construction sites might be undermined but also highlights that young women are confident in their own abilities. This study is one of the first to consider a range of construction craft career choices for women to contemplate. The implications of this study include the need for schools and colleges to provide equality of opportunity for girls to participate in careers talks and vocational sampling programmes. It is suggested that sector bodies must also seek to promote and support women in construction apprenticeship programmes and that construction sector employers must implement improved monitoring and support mechanisms for female workers.
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Hinton, Susan E., and Susan Mayson@BusEco monash edu au. "Organisational contestation over the discursive construction of equal employment opportunities for women in three Victorian public authorities." Swinburne University of Technology, 1999. http://adt.lib.swin.edu.au./public/adt-VSWT20051102.140031.

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The central arguments in this thesis rest on two premises. Firstly language and context are intimately bound up in the social construction of workplace gender inequalities. Secondly, organisational understandings and management of women�s access to employment opportunities and rewards in modern bureaucratic organisations are constituted through discourses or systems of organisational knowledges, practices and rules of organising. This study uses the concept of discourse to account for the productive and powerful role of knowledge and language practices in constituting the organisational contexts and meanings through which people make sense of and experience complex organisations.
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Books on the topic "Equal Employment Opportunities"

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Birmingham (England). Personnel and Equal Opportunities Department. Equal opportunities in employment policy. Birmingham: Department of Personnel and Equal Opportunities, 1987.

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West Midlands Regional Health Authority. Equal opportunities in employment policy. Birmingham: West MidlandsRegional Health Authority, 1991.

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Macdonald, Fiona. Equal opportunities. [England]: Thameside Press, 2002.

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Great Britain. Cabinet Office. Equal Opportunities Division. Equal opportunities learning programme. London: H.M.S.O., 1992.

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Mathews, Sue. Equal opportunities. London: FT Pitman, 1997.

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Teachers, Association of University. Equal opportunities, employment and domestic responsibilities. London: Association of University Teachers, 1997.

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Conference, SDLP. Equal and just opportunities for employment. Belfast: SDLP, 1986.

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Kingdom, Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals of the Universities of the United. Equal opportunities in employment in universities. London: CVCP, 1991.

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Bartlett, Judy. Equal opportunities: Good employment practice pack. London: Voluntary Action Lewisham Employment Development Unit, 1985.

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Noel, Carla. What are equal opportunities anyway? Oxford: Templeton College, 1994.

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Book chapters on the topic "Equal Employment Opportunities"

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Badger, Helen. "Equal Opportunities." In Employment Policy in the European Union, 66–92. London: Macmillan Education UK, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-10650-6_4.

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Richards, Wendy. "Evaluating Equal Opportunities Initiatives: The Case for a ‘Transformative’ Agenda." In Equality, Diversity and Disadvantage in Employment, 15–31. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780333977880_2.

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"From equal opportunities to diversity management." In Women, Employment and Organizations, 106–26. Routledge, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203366936-12.

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Kothari, Jayna. "Equal Opportunities in Public Employment for Persons with Disability." In The Future of Disability Law in India, 93–126. Oxford University Press, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198077626.003.0012.

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"Equal employment opportunities for Japanese women: changing company practice." In Japanese Women Working, 207–32. Routledge, 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203433935-17.

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"Employee Relations: The Legal Framework of Employment and Equal Opportunities." In Managing Human Resources, 111. Elsevier, 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-340-69253-0.50016-8.

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Briar, Celia. "Equal Employment Opportunities, or Women as a Flexible Reserve Labour Force?" In Working for Women?, 115–48. Routledge, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003015109-7.

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Fenrich, Eric. "The Gates of Opportunity." In NASA and the Long Civil Rights Movement, 206–18. University Press of Florida, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.5744/florida/9780813066202.003.0011.

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Eric Fenrich studies the efforts of Black activists and NASA to increase minority educational access that would lead to greater participation in the space program. According to Fenrich, the concurrence of the civil rights movement and the American space program reveal the two primary methods by which the advocates in the modern era have sought to advance the interests of African Americans. First, a negative project: the removal of formal barriers to the exercise of rights, more specifically, ending discriminatory practices in Equal Employment Opportunity and education. Second, more positive efforts, such as equal employment opportunities or affirmative action, that place opportunities within the reach of historically disadvantaged people. Fenrich also examines the fallout over James C. Fletcher’s firing of Ruth Bates Harris.
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Bekker, Sonja, and Dalila Ghailani. "European Union regulations and governance of part-time work." In Dualisation of Part-Time Work, 35–54. Policy Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781447348603.003.0002.

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This chapter focuses on the European Union (EU) dimension of part-time work. It gives a broad overview of EU norms and instrument and sets the issue of part-time work in the wider context of gender equality. Connecting part-time work with gender equality facilitates the analysis in two ways. Firstly, it enables linking the EU's employment policies to fundamental rights such as equal labour market opportunities for men and women. Via this fundamental rights approach the EU's view on part-time work may be tied to concerns of labour market dualisation. Secondly, it helps to analyse the degree of conflict between the aims of the different EU instruments. For instance, do the part-time work directive and the European Employment Strategy (EES) both aim for equal employment opportunities, or do other goals prevail? By answering such questions, the chapter not only reveals the different ways in which the EU deals with part-time employment, but also uncovers whether or not there is coherence between the different EU-level instruments
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Panayotopoulos-Cassiotou, Marie. "European Family-Friendly Policies Equal opportunities in employment Conciliation between work and family life." In Social Rights, Active Citizenship and Governance in the European Union, 91–97. Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co KG, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.5771/9783845230290-91.

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Conference papers on the topic "Equal Employment Opportunities"

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Dzhumalieva, Ana. "OPPORTUNITIES FOR APPLICATION OF MEDIATION IN DISCRIMINATION PROCEEDINGS." In THE MEDIATION IN THE DIFFERENT PUBLIC SPHERES 2021. University publishing house "Science and Economics", University of Economics - Varna, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.36997/mdps2021.11.

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The report examines the potential applications of mediation in anti-discrimination proceedings. In order to achieve an objective assessment, on one hand is considered the Bulgarian Protection against Discrimination Act and the Commission for Protection against Discrimination, as an independent specialized body, and on the other hand, the experience of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission in the USA and the UK.
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Dzhumalieva, Ana. "OPPORTUNITIES FOR APPLICATION OF MEDIATION IN DISCRIMINATION PROCEEDINGS." In THE MEDIATION IN THE DIFFERENT PUBLIC SPHERES 2021. University publishing house "Science and Economics", University of Economics - Varna, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.36997/mdps2021.1.

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The report examines the potential applications of mediation in anti-discrimination proceedings. In order to achieve an objective assessment, on one hand is considered the Bulgarian Protection against Discrimination Act and the Commission for Protection against Discrimination, as an independent specialized body, and on the other hand, the experience of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission in the USA and the UK.
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Dahs, Aleksandrs, Atis Berzins, and Juris Krumins. "Challenges of Depopulation in Latvia’s Rural Areas." In 22nd International Scientific Conference. “Economic Science for Rural Development 2021”. Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies. Faculty of Economics and Social Development, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.22616/esrd.2021.55.055.

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The administrative territorial reform of 2021 in Latvia has changed the shape and structure of local municipalities. Previous studies have shown that disparities and challenges in terms of demographic development will be even more evident between the newly formed municipalities than they were prior to the reform, creating greater demographic risks for the rural areas. By using the available statistical information and geographically weighted regression models, this study aims to evaluate the demographic challenges in Latvia’s rural areas and to determine main socio economic factors linked to the rural depopulation processes. Key indicators linked to the depopulation process are evaluated and discussed by the authors in the context of gender balance, development centre accessibility and other socio economic factors. Authors conclude that supporting and developing local industries, public services and infrastructure facilitating diverse employment options and equal opportunities for working age females is a paramount condition for slowing or reversing rural depopulation in in the long term. Regional development centres in general and particularly those located in remote areas show little or no immediate effect on the population dynamics. However, these centres offer more diverse employment opportunities and essential social services, making them more attractive to working age females and households with children. Digitalization and focus on location-independent employment and services is another important route to explore in the new rural development setting.
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Şen, Asım. "Some Major Causes of Current Economic Crises and Leadership Strategies." In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c01.00167.

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This paper argues that economic inequality is one of the major causes of the current economic crises and provides some appropriate leadership strategies for solving them. Inequality is defined as unequal opportunities for economical activities among the people of a nation and among the nations of the world. The major cause of most current economic crises is the income and wealth inequality which are generated mainly by the economic growth. Leaders in the past and currently could not utilize appropriate strategies to solve the inequality problems and consequently the economic crisis grew and reached the current levels. In order to solve the current economic crises it is necessary to eliminate the economic inequality problems and establish fair and sustainable economic growth. The leadership strategies play crucial role for this process. These strategies included in this paper are establishing the local and global shared vision for all; balancing the income and wealth distribution; providing the equal opportunities for education and employment; sharing the production and consumption; and maintaining the fair and sustainable globalization and economic growth.
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İrmiş, Ayşe, Mehtap Sarıkaya, and Hatice Çoban. "People's Sector as an Alternative Economic Model and the Example of Denizli." In International Conference on Eurasian Economies. Eurasian Economists Association, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.36880/c04.00662.

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People’s sector is an establishment of an enterprise result of bringing together production tools take decisions related to the management of this property and create self-employment opportunities with people’s own savings. This is the most distinctive feature from the private sector and the public sector. As well as the public sector and the private sector, labor is a part of the production, but in people’s sector, employees participate in management, capital and profit. In private sector and public sector there is an up to down organization but in People’s Sector, organization settles from down to top. People’s Sector resemble to publicly held companies and worker companies in Western Europe and United States but differ from them in the form of establishment and statue of partnership. Because in these companies in the West, government or private sector open shares to public or make workers partner to the shares. In these companies, managerial decisions belong to the person or group that holds most of the shares. Whereas in public sector enterprises, people come together and have equal rights in establishment and management of the enterprise, without any person or group keeping the majority of shares in the hand. Without a precedent in the world, this sector is formed in 1970’s with the savings of the workers went from Turkey to Germany and other European countries. In this study, a literature rewiev in the people’s sector has been made, then exemplary research was carried out by the founders of the two People’s sector companies.
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Reports on the topic "Equal Employment Opportunities"

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Lazonick, William, Philip Moss, and Joshua Weitz. The Unmaking of the Black Blue-Collar Middle Class. Institute for New Economic Thinking Working Paper Series, May 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.36687/inetwp159.

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In the decade after the Civil Rights Act of 1964, African Americans made historic gains in accessing employment opportunities in racially integrated workplaces in U.S. business firms and government agencies. In the previous working papers in this series, we have shown that in the 1960s and 1970s, Blacks without college degrees were gaining access to the American middle class by moving into well-paid unionized jobs in capital-intensive mass production industries. At that time, major U.S. companies paid these blue-collar workers middle-class wages, offered stable employment, and provided employees with health and retirement benefits. Of particular importance to Blacks was the opening up to them of unionized semiskilled operative and skilled craft jobs, for which in a number of industries, and particularly those in the automobile and electronic manufacturing sectors, there was strong demand. In addition, by the end of the 1970s, buoyed by affirmative action and the growth of public-service employment, Blacks were experiencing upward mobility through employment in government agencies at local, state, and federal levels as well as in civil-society organizations, largely funded by government, to operate social and community development programs aimed at urban areas where Blacks lived. By the end of the 1970s, there was an emergent blue-collar Black middle class in the United States. Most of these workers had no more than high-school educations but had sufficient earnings and benefits to provide their families with economic security, including realistic expectations that their children would have the opportunity to move up the economic ladder to join the ranks of the college-educated white-collar middle class. That is what had happened for whites in the post-World War II decades, and given the momentum provided by the dominant position of the United States in global manufacturing and the nation’s equal employment opportunity legislation, there was every reason to believe that Blacks would experience intergenerational upward mobility along a similar education-and-employment career path. That did not happen. Overall, the 1980s and 1990s were decades of economic growth in the United States. For the emerging blue-collar Black middle class, however, the experience was of job loss, economic insecurity, and downward mobility. As the twentieth century ended and the twenty-first century began, moreover, it became apparent that this downward spiral was not confined to Blacks. Whites with only high-school educations also saw their blue-collar employment opportunities disappear, accompanied by lower wages, fewer benefits, and less security for those who continued to find employment in these jobs. The distress experienced by white Americans with the decline of the blue-collar middle class follows the downward trajectory that has adversely affected the socioeconomic positions of the much more vulnerable blue-collar Black middle class from the early 1980s. In this paper, we document when, how, and why the unmaking of the blue-collar Black middle class occurred and intergenerational upward mobility of Blacks to the college-educated middle class was stifled. We focus on blue-collar layoffs and manufacturing-plant closings in an important sector for Black employment, the automobile industry from the early 1980s. We then document the adverse impact on Blacks that has occurred in government-sector employment in a financialized economy in which the dominant ideology is that concentration of income among the richest households promotes productive investment, with government spending only impeding that objective. Reduction of taxes primarily on the wealthy and the corporate sector, the ascendancy of political and economic beliefs that celebrate the efficiency and dynamism of “free market” business enterprise, and the denigration of the idea that government can solve social problems all combined to shrink government budgets, diminish regulatory enforcement, and scuttle initiatives that previously provided greater opportunity for African Americans in the government and civil-society sectors.
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