Academic literature on the topic 'Enzyme technology'

AbstractThe use of exogenous enzymes to improve the nutritional value of poultry diets is a relatively new concept. The technology is rapidly evolving, with new enzymes, enzyme combinations, and novel applications being developed as rapidly as regulatory restrictions will allow. Most researchers in the field of poultry nutrition would consider phytase to be the last significant leap forward in terms of enzyme use in the animal feed industry. However, there is a great deal of ongoing research into the next generation of enzymes with a focus on ingredient quality, predictability of response via least-square models, improvements in food safety, effect of bird age, effect of various side activities and enzyme dose, maximisation of net income and reduction in environmental pollution. It is the purpose of the present review article to summarise the current research in the area of feed enzymes for poultry and to speculate on future applications of enzymes and new enzyme technologies that may be of value to the industry in the coming years.

Abstract We discuss, from an industrial point of view, the scope and possibilities of recombinant DNA technology for "diagnostic enzyme" production and application. We describe the construction of enzyme-overproducing strains and show how to simplify downstream processing, increase product quality and process profitability, improve diagnostic enzyme properties, and adjust enzymes to harsh assay conditions. We also consider some safety and environmental aspects of enzyme production. Other aspects of diagnostic enzymes that we cover are the facilitation of enzyme purification by attachment of short amino acid tails, the introduction of tails or tags for site-specific conjugation or oriented immobilization, the construction of bi- or multifunctional enzymes, and the production of enzyme-based diagnostic tests as demonstrated by the homogeneous immunoassay system of CEDIA tests. We use as examples of diagnostic enzymes glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.49), glucose oxidase (EC 1.1.3.4), alkaline phosphatase (EC 3.1.3.1), alpha-glucosidase (EC 3.2.1.20), pyruvate oxidase (EC 1.2.3.3), creatinase (EC 3.5.3.3), and beta-galactosidase (EC 3.2.1.23).

Self-immobilisation enzyme technologies, such as SphereZyme™, suffer from the lack of applicability to hydrolyse large substrates. Solid support immobilisation is usually a method of choice, to produce a stable biocatalyst for large substrates hydrolysis in the industry. In order to investigate this limitation, a commercial protease called Alcalase® was chosen as a model enzyme due to its natural activity (hydrolysis of large substrates-proteins). Prior to immobilising through the SphereZyme™ technology, Alcalase® was partially purified through dialysis followed by CM Sepharose™ FF cation exchanger. Sample contaminants, such as salts and stabilisers can inhibit protein crosslinking by reacting with glutaraldehyde. Alcalase® was successfully separated into 3 proteases with the major peak correlating to a positive control run on native PAGE, indicating that it was likely subtilisin Carlsberg. A 16% alkaline protease activity for azo-casein hydrolysis was retained when 5% v/v PEI: 25% v/v glutaraldehyde solution was used as a crosslinking agent in Alcalase® SphereZyme™ production. An increase in activity was also observed for monomeric substrates (PNPA) where the highest was 55%. The highest % activities maintained when 0.33 M EDA: 25% v/v glutaraldehyde solution was initially used as crosslinking agent were 4.5% and 1.6% for monomeric and polymeric substrates, respectively. PEI is a hydrophilic branched polymer with an abundance of amine groups compared to EDA. A comparison study of immobilisation efficiencies of SphereZyme™, Eupergit® and Dendrispheres was also performed for large substrate biocatalysis. The two latter technologies are solid-support immobilisation methods. Dendrispheres reached its maximum loading capacity in the first 5 minute of the one hour binding time. Twenty minutes was chosen as a maximum binding time since there was constant protein maintained on the solid support and no enzyme loss was observed during the 1 hour binding time. PEI at pH 11.5, its native pH, gave the highest immobilisation yield and specific activity over the PEI pH range of 11.5 to 7. SphereZyme™ had the highest ratio for azocasein hydrolysis followed by Dendrispheres and Eupergit®. The SphereZyme™ was also shown to be applicable to biosensors for phenol detection. Different modifications of glassy carbon electrode (GCE) were evaluated as a benchmark for the fabrication of SphereZyme™ modified phenol biosensor. GCE modified with laccase SphereZyme™ entrapped in cellulose membrane was the best modification due to the broad catechol range (<0.950 mM), high correlation coefficient (R2, 0.995) and relative high sensitivity factor (0.305 μA.mM-1). This type of biosensor was also shown to be electroactive at pH 7.0 for which its control, free laccase, lacked electroactivity. From the catalytic constants calculated, GCE modified with laccase SphereZyme™ entrapped in cellulose membrane also gave the highest effectiveness factor (Imax/Km app) of 1.84 μA.mM-1. The modified GCE with Alcalase® SphereZyme™ was relatively more sensitive than GCE modified with free Alcalase®.

Thesis (PhD (Process Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: There is growing interest to utilise xylan as speciality biopolymers in similar ways as high molecular weight polysaccharides such as starch and cellulose. The need to utilise xylan as alternative to cellulose and starch has increased because the cellulose and starch have many other competing uses. Unlike cellulose and starch, xylans are heteropolymers with higher degree of substitution and are of lower molecular mass and therefore, do not readily become insoluble to form hydrogels and biofilms. Consequently, xylans do not suit applications of starch and cellulose as speciality biodegradable additives and coatings in the food, pharmaceutical, pulp and paper and textile and many other industries. This study was conducted to develop an enzyme technology, based on recombinant α-L-arabinofuranosidase and purified α-D-glucuronidase with polymeric xylan substrate specificity, for controlled reduction of the solubility of water soluble polymeric xylan, leading to formation of insoluble nanohydrogels. Although xylan is available in abundance, a large proportion of it is currently wasted in lignocellulose process waste streams with little prospects for recovery and addition of value. Lignocellulosic materials including Eucalyptus grandis, Pinus patula, Bambusa balcooa (bamboo) and sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L) bagasse (bagasse) found in South Africa were investigated as sources of water soluble xylan for enzyme modification. Two mild alkali-low temperature methods (alkali charge of < 14% and temperature of < 80ºC), one with ultrapurification denoted as the Hoije and the other with ethanol precipitation, denoted as Lopez method, were evaluated for their selective extraction of water soluble xylans from the specified lignocellulosic materials. The water soluble xylans were extracted from P. patula, bagasse, E. grandis and bamboo by the Hoije method with extraction efficiencies of 71.0, 66.0, 35.0 and 20.0% respectively. Using the Lopez method, the xylans from bagasse and E. grandis were extracted with extraction efficiencies of 28.0 and 12.0% respectively. The xylans extracted from P. patula, bamboo and bagasse were identified as arabinoglucuronoxylans, which were substituted with arabinose and 4-O-methyl-D- glucuronic acid (MeGlcA) side chains, whereas, the xylan extracted from E. grandis were identified as 4-O-methyl-β-D-glucuronoxylan (glucuronoxylan) substituted with MeGlcA groups on the main xylan chain. In addition, the glucuronoxylans contained some traces of arabinose and rhaminose sugar residues. The extracted xylan fractions had degree of polymerisation (DP) of > 10 and were water soluble, which suited the required properties of xylans for customised enzyme modification. The selective removal of the arabinose, MeGlcA and acetyl groups to create linear regions of xylose units in xylans that causes intra and inter-polymer bonding is considered to be the key process for reducing the solubility of water soluble xylans. The α-L-arabinofuranosidase of Aspergillus niger (AbfB) and α-D-glucuronidase of Schizophyllum commune (AguA) are special enzymes so far identified with the ability to selectively remove arabinose and MeGlcA side chains respectively, from water soluble xylans. Large scale application of the AbfB and AguA for reducing solubility of the water soluble xylans would require their extracellular production in large quantities and free of contamination from the xylan main chain degrading enzymes including the endo-1,4-β -xylanase. Selective production of the AbfB free of xylanase activity was achieved in recombinant A. niger D15 [abfB] strain under the transcriptional control of the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase promoter (gpdP) and glucoamylase terminator (glaAT). The recombinant AbfB was secreted extracellulary in 125 mL shake flasks and 10 L bioreactor fermentation cultures with volumetric activities of up to 10.0 and 8.0 nkat mL-1 respectively, against para-nitrophenol arabinofuranoside (pNPA). The secretion of the recombinant AbfB was growth associated and therefore, increased up to 2.5 times with addition of concentrate corn steep liquor (CCSL) as an additional source of nitrogen in the 2 x minimal standard cultivation media. The biomass specific activity of the recombinant AbfB against the pNPA substrate was approximately 366 nkat g-1 (dry weight basis). The recombinant AbfB displayed a single pure species band on 10% SDS-PAGE stained with Coomassie blue and had an estimated molecular mass of 67 kDa. In addition, the recombinant AbfB showed optimal activity at 40-55ºC and pH 3.0-5.0 and was stable under cultivation, storage and operating conditions at temperatures between 30-60ºC and pH 3.0-6.0. Furthermore, the recombinant AbfB showed broad substrate specificity selectively removing arabinose side groups from low viscosity wheat and oat spelt arabinoxylans, larchwood arabinogalactan, debranched arabinan and arabiglucuronoxylans extracted from bagasse, bamboo and P. patula found in South Africa,. The recombinant AbfB was able to precipitate xylans extracted from bagasse, bamboo and oat spelt but not from P. patula. Over 95% of the activity of the recombinant AbfB against the pNPA was recyclable after selective hydrolysis of the xylan at 40ºC for 16 h. On the other hand, the purified AguA enzyme could only precipitate the birch glucuronoxylan but not the glucuronoxylan extracted from E. grandis and arabinoglucuronoxylans extracted from bagasse, bamboo and P. patula. The synergetic action of the recombinant AbfB and the purified AguA increased the removal of the arabinose side chains from bagasse xylan by 22% and from bamboo xylan by 33%, whereas, the removal of the MeGlcA side chains from bagasse xylan increased by only 5% and that from bamboo xylan decreased by 13%. The selective removal of the arabinose side chains from oat spelt, bagasse and bamboo xylans by the recombinant AbfB had higher apparent viscosity relative the corresponding untreated xylans. However, the apparent viscosity of both the treated and untreated xylans reduced with increased shear rate. The viscosity had an overall negative correlation with arabinose side chain removal reaching a minimum of 2.03 mPa.s for hydrolysis of oat spelt xylan that was performed for 9.0 h at a temperature of 45.8ºC with recombinant AbfB xylan specific dosage of 400.0 nkat g-1substrate . The alteration of the viscosity of the xylans by the selective removal of the side chains is of special interest in the production of speciality emulsifying, thickening and antifoaming agents. The optimal values for hydrolysis time, enzyme dosage and temperature for maximum degree of removal of arabinose side chains from oat spelt xylan by the recombinant AbfB and of the removal of MeGlcA side chains from birch xylan by the purified AguA were determined by the Box-Benhken response surface method (RSM). The experimental region covered the xylan specific dosage for the recombinant AbfB between 18.0 and 540.0 nkatg-1substrate and for the purified AguA xylan between 2.0 and 18.0 μkatg-1substrate at temperatures between 30 and 50ºC and hydrolysis time between 1 and 16 h. The temperature, enzyme xylan specific dosage and hydrolysis time had significant effect (p<0.05) on both the selective removal of arabinose from oat spelt xylan by the recombinant AbfB and the selective removal of MeGlcA from birch xylan by the purified AguA. However, the interaction of these hydrolysis parameters were significant (p<0.05) on only the removal of arabinose side chains from oat spelt xylan by the recombinant AbfB. The optimal values for hydrolysis time, temperature and xylan specific dosage were estimated to be 14-16 h, 38-45ºC and 607.0 nkatg-1substrate respectively, for maximum removal of 43% of the available arabinose in oat spelt xylan by the recombinant AbfB. Whereas, the optimal values for hydrolysis time, temperature and xylan specific dosage for maximum removal of 0.5% of the available MeGlcA side chains from the birch xylan by the purified AguA were estimated to be 11 h, 38ºC and 18.0 μkatg-1substrate respectively. The optimal values of the hydrolysis parameters for both the removal of the arabinose from oat spelt xylan by the recombinant AbfB and of MeGlcA side chains from birch by the purified AguA could be predicted using quadratic models that fitted the response surface plots with regression coefficients of > 0.9. The effects of in situ selective removal of arabinose and MeGlcA side chains by AbfB and AguA respectively, from water soluble xylans, on their precipitation and adsorption onto cotton lint were investigated. The cotton lint was treated with xylans extracted from bagasse, bamboo, P. patula and E. grandis using the Hoije method in the presence of the recombinant AbfB, AguA and the cocktail of the two enzymes. The effects of in situ selective hydrolysis of model xylans including birch, oat spelt and H2O2 bleached bagasse and E. grandis xylan gel by the enzymes on their adsorption onto cotton lint were used for reference purposes. The purified AguA increased the adsorption of arabinoglucuronoxylans extracted from bagasse bamboo and P. Patula using the Hoije method onto cotton lint the most compared to the effect of the recombinant AbfB and the cocktail of the recombinant AbfB and purified AguA. The purified AguA increased the adsorption of the xylans extracted from bagasse and E. grandis xylans by 334 and 29% respectively, but decreased that of E. grandis xylan gel and H2O2 bleached bagasse xylan by 31 and 6% respectively. Similarly, the presence of the recombinant AbfB increased the adsorption of the bamboo, P. Patula and oat spelt xylans by 31, 44 and 900% respectively, but decreased the adsorption of the xylan extracted from bagasse and the H2O2 bleached bagasse xylan by 13 and 30% respectively. Furthermore, different xylan-cellulose interactions and water adsorption capacities of the cotton lint were observed with the in situ modification and adsorption of the xylans extracted from bagasse, bamboo, E. grandis and P. patula in the presence of the recombinant AbfB and purified AguA. Therefore, the enzyme aided adsorption of xylans could be used to alter or improve functional properties of cellulosic materials. The performance of enzymatically formed xylan nanohydrogels as encapsulation matrices for slow delivery of bioactive agents was evaluated. Insoluble xylan nanohydrogels formed by selective removal of arabinose side chains from water soluble oat spelt xylan by the recombinant AbfB were characterized for particle size distribution, surface charge (zeta potential), morphology stability and ability to encapsulate and slowly release the HRP. The enzymatically formed oat spelt xylan hydrogels were spherical in shape with particle sizes ranging from 18 nm to > 10 000 nm. The xylan nanohydrogels exhibited a negative zeta potential of up to -19 mV and displayed self assembling behaviour when formed at xylan concentrations of higher than 1.5% (w/v) and hydrolysis time beyond 17 h. The xylan concentration significantly (P < 0.05) influenced both the particle size and zeta potential of the oat spelt xylan nanohydrogels whereas the recombinant AbfB hydrolysis time was significant (P < 0.05) on the zeta potential. The oat spelt xylan nanohydrogels successfully encapsulated the HRP enzyme both during and after formation of the oat spelt xylan nanohydrogels and the release of the encapsulated HRP in active form, was sustained for a period of 180 min. Therefore, the xylan side chain removing enzymes have a role in preparation of biodegradable nanoencapsulation devices. Overall, the AbfB and AguA have presented a novel tool for functionalising water soluble xylans to be used as speciality additives, coating and implantation or encapsulation matrices, with reduced impact on the environment. This will advance processing and expand the product spectrum of lignocellulosic materials.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Daar is ‘n toenemende belangstelling om spesialiteit biopolimere uit xilaan ontwikkel, en op soortgelyke wyse as hoë molekulêre massa polisakkariede soos stysel en sellulose te benut. Die behoefte om xilaan biodegradeerbare polimere as ‘n alternatief tot sellulose en stysel te gebruik neem toe omdat laasgenoemde baie ander kompeterende gebruike het. Anders as sellulose en stysel is uit xilaan heteropolimere met ‘n hoë graad van substitusie in die hoofketling met sygroepe en lae molekulêre massas, en raak daarom nie geredelik onoplosbaar om hidrojel en biofilms te vorm nie. Gevolglik is xilaan nie geskik vir toepassings van stysel en sellulose as spesialiteit biodegradeerbare bymiddels en bedekkings in die voedsel-, farmaseutiese-, pulp en papier-, tekstiel-, en vele ander industrieë nie. Hierdie studie is uitgevoer om ‘n ensiemtegnologie te ontwikkel gebaseer op rekombinante α-L-arabinofuranosidase en gesuiwerde α-D-glukuronidase met polimeriese xilaan substraat spesifisiteit, vir beheerde vermindering van die oplosbaarheid van wateroplosbare polimeriese xilaan wat lei tot die vorming van onoplosbare nanohidrojels. Alhoewel xilaan volop beskikbaar is, word ‘n groot deel daarvan tans vermors in afvalstrome uit lignosellulose prosessering, primêr verpulping, met min vooruitsigte vir herwinning en toevoeging van waarde. Lignosellulose materiaal wat in Suid-Afrika geproduseer word, insluitend Eucalyptus grandis (E. grandis), Pinus patula (P. patula), Bambusa balcooa (bamboes) en suikerriet (Saccharum officinarum L) (bagasse), is ondersoek as bronne van wateroplosbare xilaan vir ensiem modifikasie. Twee gematigde, lae temperatuur alkali-metodes (‘nalkali lading van < 14% en temperatuur van < 80°C), een met ultrasuiwering aangedui as Hoije en die ander met etanolpresipitasie aangedui as Lopez metode, is evalueer vir selektiewe ekstraksie van wateroplosbare xilaan vanuit die genoemde lignosellulose materiale. Die wateroplosbare xilaan is ge-ekshaheer vanuit P. patula, bagasse, E. grandis en bamboes met die Hoije metode met ekstraksie doeltreffendhede van 71.0, 66.0, 35.0, en 20.0%, onderskeidelik. Met die Lopez metode is xilaan vanuit bagasse en E. grandis geëkstraheer met ekstraksie doeltreffendhede van 28.0% en 12.0%, onderskeidelik. Die xilaan wat vanuit P. patula, bamboes, en bagasse ekstraheer is, is as arabinoglukuronoxilaan geïdentifiseer, wat met arabinose en 4-O-metiel-D glukuronsuur sykettings vervang is, terwyl die xilaan wat vanuit E. grandis ekstraheer is as 4-O-metiel--D-glukuronoxilaan (glukuronoxilaan), met substitusie met MeGlcA en asetiel-groepe op die hoof xilaan-ketting (ruggraat) is. Die glukuronoxilaan het verder spore van arabinose en rhaminose funksionele groepe bevat. Die geëkstraheerde xilaan fraksies het grade van polimerisasie > 10 gehad en was wateroplosbaar, wat die vereiste eienskappe van die xilaan vir doelgemaakte ensiem modifikasies bevredig het. Die selektiewe verwydering van die arabinose, MeGlcA, en asetiel-groepe om xilose eenhede sonder substitusie in polimeriese xilaan te vorm, wat intra- en inter-polimeer binding veroorsaak, word beskou as die belangrikste proses vir die vermindering van die oplosbaarheid van wateroplosbare xilaan. Die α-L-arabinofuranosidase van Aspergillus niger (AbfB) en α-D-glukuronidase van Schizophyllum commune (AguA) is spsialiteutsensieme wat tot dusver is met die vermoë om selektief die arabinose en MeGlcA sykettings, onderskeidelik, vanaf wateroplosbare xilaan te verwyder. Grootskaalse toepassing van die AbfB en AguA ensieme, vir die vermindering van die oplosbaarheid van wateroplosbare xilaan , sal ekstrasellulêre produksie deur mikrobes in groot hoeveelhede en vry van kontaminasie van die xilaan hoofketting degraderende ensieme insluitend die endo-1,4--xilanase vereis. Selektiewe produksie van die AbfB vry van xilanase aktiwiteit is verkry deur kultivering van rekombinante A. niger D15 [abfB], met transkipsie van die abfB-geen beheer deur die gliseraldehied-3-fosfaat dehidrogenase promotor (gpdp) en glukoamilase termineerder (glaAT). Die rekombinante AbfB ensiem is ekstrasellulêr geproduseer in 125 mL skudflesse en ‘n10 L bioreaktor fermentasiekulture met volumetriese aktiwiteite van tot 10.0 en 8.0 nkat mL-1, onderskeidelik, teen para-nitrofenol arabinofuranosied (pNPA). Die uitskeiding van die rekombinante AbfB was groei geassosieerd en het daarom tot 2.5 keer toegeneem met die byvoeging van gekonsentreerde mielieweekvloeistof as ‘n addisionele bron van stikstof in die 2 x minimale standaard kwekingsmedium. Die biomassa spesifieke aktiwiteit van die rekombinante AbfB teen die pNPA substraat was ongeveer 366 nkat g-1 (droë massa basis). Die rekombinante AbfB het ‘n enkele suiwer spesie band getoon op 10% SDS-PAGE gevlek met Coomassie blou en het ‘n beraamde molekulêre massa van 67 kDa gehad. Die rekombinante AbfB het verder optimale aktiwiteit by 40-55°C en pH 3.0-5.0 getoon en was stabiel onder kweking-, storing-, en bedryfstoestande by temperature tussen 30-60°C en pH 3.0-6.0. Die rekombinante AbfB het ook wye substraatspesifisiteit getoon om arabinose sy-groepe selektief te verwyder vanaf lae viskositeit koring-en hawerbiopolimere, lariks arabinogalaktaan, onvertakte arabinaan, en arabinoglukuronoxilaan biopolimere, geëkstraheer vanaf bagasse, bamboes en P.patula wat in Suid-Afrika aangetief word. Die rekombinante AbfB kon xilaan, ge-ekshaheer vanaf bagasse, bamboes en hawer onoplosbaar maak, maar die xilaan geëkstraheer vanaf P. patula nie. Meer as 95% van die aktiwiteit van die rekombinante AbfB teen die pNPA kon hersirkuleer word na selektiewe hidrolise van die xilaan by 40°C vir 16 h. Aan die ander kant kon die gesuiwerde AguA-ensiem slegs berkehout glukuronoxilaan onoplosbaar maak, maar nie glukuronoxilaan wat vanaf E. grandis geëkstraheer is of arabinoglukuronoxilaan wat vanaf bagasse, bamboes en P. patula geëkstraheer is nie. Die sinergistiese aksie van die rekombinante AbfB en die gesuiwerde AguA het die verwydering van die arabinose sykettings vanaf bagassexilaan met 22% vermeerder en met 33% in die geval van bamboesxilaan. Die verwydering van MeGlcA sykettings vanaf bagassexilaan is met slegs 5% vermeerder, terwyl dit met 13% verminder het in die geval van bamboesxilaan. Die selektiewe verwydering van die arabinose sykettings vanaf xilaan van hawer, bagasse, en bamboes deur die rekombinante AbfB het hoër skynbare viskositeit gehad relatief tot die ooreenstemmende onbehandelde xilaan . Die skynbare viskositeit van beide die behandelde en onbehandelde xilaan het egter verminder met toenemende skuiftempo. Die viskositeit het ‘n algehele negatiewe korrelasie met arabinose syketting verwydering gehad en het ‘n minimum van 2.03 mPa.s bereik vir hidrolise van hawerxilaan wat uitgevoer is vir 9.0 h by ‘n temperatuur van 45.8°C met rekombinante AbfB xilaan met ‘n spesifieke dosering van 400.0 nkat g-1substraat. Die wysiging van die viskositeit van die xilaan deur die selektiewe verwydering van die sykettings is van besondere belang in die produksie van spesialiteit emulsifisering, verdikking- en skuimweermiddels. Die optimale waardes vir hidrolisetyd, ensiemdosering en temperatuur vir maksimum graad van arabinose syketting verwydering vanaf hawerxilaan met die rekombinante AbfB, en van MeGlcA syketting verwydering vanaf berkehout xilaan met die gesuiwerde AguA, is vasgestel deur middel van die Box-Benhken responsie oppervlak metode. Die eksperimentele gebied het die xilaanspesifieke dosering met die rekombinante AbfB tussen 18.0 en 540.0 nkat g-1substraat en vir die gesuiwerde AguA xilaan tussen 2.0 en 18.0 μkat g-1substraat by temperature tussen 30 en 50°C en hidrolisetye tussen 1 en 16 h gedek. Die temperatuur, ensiem xilaan spesifieke dosering en hidrolise tyd het elk ‘n beduidende invloed (p<0.05) gehad op beide die selektiewe verwydering van arabinose vanaf hawerxilaan met die rekombinante AbfB en die selektiewe verwydering van MeGlcA vanaf berkehout xilaan met die gesuiwerde AguA. Die interaksie van hierdie hidroliseparameters was egter net beduidend (p<0.05) in die geval van arabinose syketting verwydering vanaf hawer xilaan met die rekombinante AbfB. Die optimale waardes vir die hidrolise tyd, temperatuur, en xilaan spesifieke dosering is beraam om gelyk aan 14-16 h, 38-45°C, en 607.0 nkat g-1substraat, onderskeidelik, te wees vir maksimale verwydering van 43% van die beskikbare arabinose in die hawer xilaan met die rekombinante AbfB. Die optimale waardes vir die hidrolise tyd, temperatuur en xilaan spesifieke dosering vir maksimale verwydering van 0.5% van die beskikbare MeGlcA sykettings vanaf die berkehout xilaan met die gesuiwerde AguA is beraam om gelyk aan 11 h, 38°C, en 18.0 μkat g-1substraat, onderskeidelik, te wees. Die optimale waardes van die hidrolise parameters, vir beide die verwydering van die arabinose vanaf hawer xilaan met die rekombinante AbfB en van MeGlcA sykettings vanaf berkehout met die gesuiwerde AguA, kon voorspel word deur gebruik te maak van kwadratiese modelle wat die responsie-oppervlak grafieke met regressie koeffisiënte > 0.9 gepas het. Die effek van in situ selektiewe verwydering van arabinose en MeGlcA sykettings met rekombinante AbfB en gesuiwerde AguA, onderskeidelik, vanaf wateroplosbare xilaan op hulle presipitasie en adsorpsie op katoen lint is ondersoek. Die katoenlint is behandel met xilaan ge-ekstraheer vanuit bagasse, bamboes, P. patula, en E. grandis deur gebruik te maak van die Hoije metode in die teenwoordigheid van die rekombinante AbfB, AguA, en ‘n mengsel van die twee ensieme. Die effek van in situ selektiewe hidrolise, deur die ensieme van model xilaan insluitende berkehout, hawer en H2O2-gebleikte bagasse en E. grandis xilaan jel, op hulle adsorpsie op katoen lint is gebruik vir verwysingsdoeleindes. Die gesuiwerde AguA het die adsorpsie van arabinoglukuronoxilaan , wat vanuit bagasse, bamboes en P. patula ekstraheer is deur middel van die Hoije metode, op katoenlint die meeste laat toeneem in vergelyking met die effek van die rekombinante AbfB en die mengsel van die rekombinante AbfB en die gesuiwerde AguA. Die gesuiwerde AguA het die adsorpsie van die xilaan wat vanuit bagasse en E. grandis ekstraheer is met 334 en 29%, onderskeidelik, laat toeneem, maar het die adsorpsie van E. grandis xilaanjel en H2O2 gebleikte bagasse xilaan met 31 en 6%, onderskeidelik, laat afneem. Op ‘n soortgelyke wyse het die teenwoordigheid van die rekombinante AbfB die adsorpsie van die bamboes, P. Patula en hawer xilaan met 31, 44, en 900%, onderskeidelik, laat toeneem, maar die adsorpsie van die xilaan ekstraheer vanuit bagasse en die H2O2 gebleikte bagasse xilaan met 13 en 30%, onderskeidelik, laat afneem. Verskillende xilaan-sellulose interaksies en water adsorpsie kapasiteite van die katoen lint is opgemerk met die in situ modifikasie en adsorpsie van die xilaan ekstraheer vanuit die bagasse, bamboes, E. grandis en P. patula in die teenwoordigheid van die rekombinante AbfB en gesuiwerde AguA. Die ensiem bygestaande adsorpsie van xilaan kon daarom gebruik word om die funksionele eienskappe van die sellulose materiaal aan te pas of te verbeter. Die wekverrigting van ensimaties gevormde xilaan nanohidrojels as enkapsuleringmatrikse vir stadige vrystelling van bioaktiewe middels is geevalueer. Onoplosbare xilaan nanohidrojels wat gevorm is deur selektiewe verwydering van arabinose sykettings vanaf wateroplosbare hawer xilaan met die rekombinante AfbA, is gekarakteriseer vir partikelgrootteverspreiding, oppervlaklading (zeta potensiaal), morfologiese stabiliteit, en die vermoë om die ramenas peroksidase te enkapsuleer en stadig vry te stel. Die ensimaties gevormde hawer xilaan hidrojels het ‘n sferiese vorm gehad met partikelgroottes wat gewissel het van 18 nm tot > 10 000 nm. Die xilaan nanohidrojels het ‘n negatiewe zeta potensiaal van tot -19 mV getoon, en het self-vormings gedrag vir partikels ten toon gestel indien dit by xilaankonsentrasies hoër as 1.5% (m/v) en hidrolise tye langer as 17 h gevorm is. Die xilaan konsentrasie het beide die partikelgrootte en die zeta potensiaal van die hawerxilaan nanohidrojels beduidend (P < 0.05) beïnvloed terwyl die rekombinante AbfB hidrolise tyd beduidend (P < 0.05) was op die zeta potensiaal. Die hawer xilaan nanohidrojels, het die ramenasperoksidase ensiem suksesvol enkapsuleer, beide gedurende en na die vorming van die hawer xilaan nanohidrojels en die vrystelling van die geënkapsuleerde ramenas peroksidase in aktiewe vorm is volgehou vir ‘n periode van 180 min. Die ensieme wat die syketting van die xilaan verwyder het, het dus ‘n rol in die voorbereiding van biodegadeerbare nano-enkapsulasie geedskap. In die geheel veskaf die rekombinante AbfB en gesuiwerde AguA ‘n nuwe stel manier voor om wateroplosbare xilaan te funksionaliseer om as spesialiteit bymiddels, bedekking, en inplanting of enkapsulasiematrikse gebruik te word met ‘n verminderde impak op die omgewing. Dit sal prosessering bevorder en die produkspektrum van lignosellulose materiale uitbrei.

This work studied the improvement of stability, physical properties and enzymatic inactivation in fruit beverages by applying the ultrasound technology (US). In the first part, the effect of the US application on peach juice processing was evaluated. The macroscopic changes on pulp sedimentation stability, turbidity, colour and rheological properties were evaluated. As a result, it was demonstrated that the improvement in each of the properties evidenced at the macroscopic level involves interaction of complex mechanisms which depend directly on changes at the microscopic level, such as the structure, size, composition and interaction between the continuous phase (serum) and dispersed phase (pulp) of the juice. These changes were assessed by microscopy and particle size distribution. In the second and third parts, the inactivation of the enzyme peroxidase (POD) was evaluated in coconut water. In the second part, the effect of the application of US was evaluated for first time for coconut water POD, using two types of ultrasonic equipment (US baht and US probe). It was demonstrated that the changes of enzyme activity during the US process depend on the many forms that the enzyme can adopt, mainly depending on the energy applied to the system. Subsequently, in the third part, the US was applied as a pre-treatment of subsequent thermal processing. The evaluation was carried out under non isothermal conditions, being the POD inactivation kinetics modelled using the Weibull distribution function. Finally, it was observed that the pre-treatment using ultrasound slightly decreased the enzyme activity. Furthermore, the ultrasound effects resulted in a more homogeneous population and heat-sensitive enzymes, significantly reducing the needed time of thermal processing. In conclusion, this work studied and demonstrated that the ultrasound technology is an interesting alternative to improve the physical properties and enzymatic stability in fruit beverages, reflecting the importance from both the academic and industrial point of view.
Neste trabalho estudou-se a melhoria na estabilidade, propriedades físicas e inativação enzimática em bebidas de frutas através da aplicação da tecnologia de ultrassom (US). Na primeira parte, foi avaliado o efeito do US no processamento de suco de pêssego. As alterações macroscópicas na estabilidade de sedimentação da polpa, turbidez, cor e propriedades reológicas foram analisadas. Foi demonstrado que a melhoria em cada uma das propriedades evidenciadas macroscopicamente envolve interação de mecanismos complexos que dependem diretamente de alterações microscópicas, tais como estrutura, tamanho, composição e interação entre as fases contínua (soro) e dispersa (polpa) do suco. Estas alterações foram avaliadas por microscopia e análise de distribuição de tamanho de partículas. Na segunda e terceira partes, a inativação da enzima peroxidase (POD) foi avaliada em água de coco. O efeito da aplicação do US na POD de água de coco foi estudado pela primeira vez, utilizando dois tipos de equipamentos (banho e sonda de US). Demonstrou-se que as alterações na atividade enzimática durante o processamento com US estão relacionadas às diferentes conformações que a enzima pode adotar, dependendo principalmente da energia aplicada ao sistema. Na terceira parte, o ultrassom foi então aplicado como pré-tratamento ao processamento térmico. A avaliação foi realizada sob condições não isotérmicas, sendo a cinética de inativação da POD modelada usando a função de distribuição de Weibull. Foi observado que o pré-tratamento com US diminuiu a atividade enzimática. Além disso, o efeito do US resultou em uma população de enzimas mais homogênea e termosensível, reduzindo significativamente o tempo necessário para o processamento térmico. Desta forma, este trabalho estudou e demonstrou que a tecnologia de ultrassom é uma alternativa interessante para melhorar as propriedades físicas e a estabilidade enzimática de bebidas à base de frutas, indicando sua importância tanto acadêmica quanto industrial.

Enzymes are promising stimuli for the development of responsive biomaterials for biomedical applications. Enzymes are inherently present in the biological environment thus cleverly designed materials for biomedical applications may require no external stimuli to ellicit the required material response. They have been targeted as stimuli in self assembly of bulk materials owing to the material changes in chemical composition afforded by the enzyme interaction. The first examples of autonomous self-regulated drug delivery systems have been reported via the development of reversible enzyme responsive materials that undergo a material change regulated by the enzymes in their environment. Although enzyme responsive surfaces have been reported there are no examples of reversible enzyme response surfaces. The surface is the first point of contact between the biological environment and a biomedical device/implant. Improving this interaction will improve the integration of these biomaterials in biological systems and it has been proposed that biomimetic surfaces are a promising method for full biomaterial integration in the biological environment. The body strives towards homeostasis and this is frequently achieved by enzymatic activating and deactivation of proteins in the body. This process is repeatable and reversible. Herein we address the absence of reversible and repeatable synthetic enzyme responsive surfaces towards the improvement of biomaterial integration. We aim to develop a truly autonomous system wherein enzymes present in the environment can interact with the modified surface to mediate a reversible material response. This goal was achieved by modifying surfaces with copolymers that contain the recognition sequence for Casein kinase II and Alkaline phosphatase to undergo enzymatic phosphorylation and dephosphorylation. Co and homo polymers of serine and glutamic acid were synthesised in solution and conformation/composition relationship was determined by analysis with NMR, GPC and FTIR. Polymerisation from the surface with NCA-Glu and NCA-Ser was achieved as characterised by FTIR, ToF SIMS, XPS and WCA. Enzymatic mediated phosphorylation (CKII) and dephosphorylation (AP) was monitored by surface analysis (ToF SIMS), by monitoring ATP to ADP conversion and phosphate cleavage from the surface using luminescence and colorimetric assays. Conformational changes mediated by enzymatic interactions with the surface was monitored indirectly using a FRET system incorporated in the surface modification. The modified surfaces were able to support cell culture and osteogenesis. This project has made advances in several fields, 1) The use of NCA-ROP as a method to modify surfaces with copolymers, in particular for a random/ alternating amino acid sequence. 2) The use of NCA-ROP as a method to develop stimuli responsive surfaces, specifically, this is the first report of an enzyme responsive surface prepared from NCA-amino acid derivatives. 3) The use of enzymes as stimuli, specifically, this is the first report of a reversible enzymatic responsive surface. In this system reversible phosphorlyation and dephosphorylation was monitored via changes in fluorescence output indicative of induced conformational changes.

Thesis (M.B.A.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sloan School of Management, 2000.
Also available online at the DSpace at MIT website.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 47-50).
Undesirable pharmacokinetic properties, such as poor bioavailability and drug-drug interactions, have been one of major reasons for the failure of new pharmaceuticals in clinical trials. These dropout risks can be reduced by early knowledge of human pharmacokinetics in the drug discovery process. Although new drug candidates have been first tested in animal-based systems, the prediction of human pharmacokinetics from animal data has been unsuccessful due to species differences in the enzymes involved in drug metabolism. Recent progress in molecular biology made it possible to develop in vitro drug metabolism systems using human metabolic enzymes, such as purified microsomes or expressed cytochrome P450. These systems are useful in profiling the enzymes involved in the human metabolism and extrapolating the in vitro findings to in vivo situations. The in vitro systems may yield a rapid drug metabolism screening of numerous compounds generated through combinatorial chemistry and high-throughput pharmacological screening. The integration of these technologies into the drug development process will significantly reduce the dropout risks in clinical trials and shorten the period between the drug discovery and market introduction.
by Hiroaki Sato.
M.B.A.

Aberrant expression of short non-coding micro RNAs (miRNA) in many human diseases, along with remarkable stability in physiological media, has made them attractive clinical biomarkers. In particular, miRNA-122 is substantially elevated in plasma of patients with established drug-induced liver injury and can also be used to identify early liver injury when current markers, such as alanine aminotransferase (ALT), still show normal levels. The development of a rapid test for miRNA-122 e.g. in drug poisoning would allow earlier and more sensitive clinical diagnosis of liver injury. Nucleic acids are traditionally analysed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which has a high degree of sensitivity but suffers from high cost and is prone to sample contamination. The aim of this project is to develop a PCR free method to directly detect miRNA- 122 in biological samples using SMART technology. The SMART technology takes advantage of dynamic chemistry for sequence specific recognition of nucleic acids using aldehyde-modified nucleobases (SMART nucleobases), and target-complementary peptide nucleic acid (PNA) probe containing an “abasic” position (so called modified PNA probe). In this study, this unique detection method was used in a fluorescent detection with the use of light up probes, which are probes with an environmental dye as nucleobase; a FRET system was also designed to allow the discrimination between perfect match target and mismatched one. The SMART technology was also transferred onto magnetic beads to develop an ELISA like assay allowing sensitive and rapid detection of single stranded DNA mimic of the miRNA-122. With its potential PCR free approach, this easily adapted platform promises to transform and expand routine clinical diagnostic testing and screening for circulating miRNAs.

A biofuel cell is an electrochemical device in which the energy stored in a fuel, such as ethanol, is converted to electrical energy by the means of the catalytic activity of enzymes. Biofuel cells have traditionally suffered from low power densities and short lifetimes due to the fragility of the enzyme catalyst. Utilizing a novel quaternary ammonium salt treated Nafion membrane for enzyme immobilization in a biofuel cell results in increases in power densities and enzyme lifetimes to commercially viable levels. Additionally, this method provides sufficient protection to develop a membrane electrode assembly style (MEA) biofuel cell, an important step for commercialization. Previously, it has not been possible to create a MEA-style biofuel cell due to the denaturing of the enzyme that would occur at the high temperatures experienced during the heat pressing step of fabrication. Quaternary ammonium salt treated Nafion membranes provide sufficient protection for the enzyme to retain activity after exposure to temperatures of 140°C. Thus, a MEA-style biofuel cell can be created. Preliminary results yield biofuel cell MEAs with power densities ranging from 0.15 to 1.49 mW/cm2 and open circuit potentials of 0.360 to 0.599 V.