Journal articles on the topic 'English language Study and teaching (Higher) Foreign speakers Australia'

This paper presents a study on the development of Indonesian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers’ intercultural capability in an overseas study program and its impacts on classroom English Language teaching practices. By using narrative inquiry as a research methodology, this study draws on the stories of two Indonesian EFL teachers’ experiences of intercultural learning during the master's degree program overseas. Data were gathered through semi-structured individual interviews with Indonesian EFL teachers who have completed Master of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) studies in Australia. Findings show that communication and cultural disequilibrium in an overseas study program plays a crucial role in the development of EFL teachers’ intercultural capability to enable them to develop their attributes from ethnocentrism to ethnorelativism. The findings also reveal that although the teachers become interculturally capable, the overseas study program does not necessarily contribute to their oral English skill development. As a further result, this study reveals that the development of the teachers’ intercultural capability affects their subsequent classroom English teaching practices in a way that they begin to employ dialogical communication and interaction by reflecting on their past experiences.

This research attempted to identify the psychological factors that affect the speaking performance of students enrolled in Postgraduate English Language Teaching programs in Pakistan. A quantitative approach was used to address the main aim of this study. The participants of the research were 100 postgraduate students enrolled in English Language Teaching (ELT) and Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) programs of public sector higher education institutions and universities in Pakistan. The findings revealed that many students in this study reported finding it difficult to speak in English in foreign language classrooms due to psychological factors like lack of selfconfidence, lack of self-esteem, fear of making mistakes, shyness, anxiety and motivation mainly. The findings also revealed that almost all the psychological factors are interlinked with each other and have a direct effect on the speaking performance of the students in this study.

Abstract Previous research on speech perception has found an effect of ethnicity, such that the same audio clip may be rated more accented when presented with an Asian face (Rubin, Donald L. 1992. Nonlanguage factors affecting undergraduates’ judgments of nonnative English-speaking teaching assistants. Research in Higher Education 33(4). 511–531. doi: 10.1007/bf00973770). However, most previous work has concentrated on Asian non-native English speakers, and Caucasian speakers remain under-explored. In this study, listeners carried out an accentedness rating task using stimuli from first language Korean, German, and English speakers in 3 conditions: audio only, video only, and audiovisual. Korean speakers received similar accentedness ratings regardless of condition, but German speakers were rated significantly less accented in the video condition and more accented in the audiovisual condition than the audio one. This result is explained as an expectation mismatch effect, whereby, when the listeners saw a Caucasian speaker they did not expect to hear a foreign accent, but if they actually heard one it was made more salient by their expectation to the contrary.

The article is devoted to the method of digital storytelling in teaching English language to higher education applicants, the use of which increases the effectiveness of formating their communicative competence, as well as the skills of cooperation, communication, creativity, digital literacy, motivates to study and promotes greater confidence as users of foreign languages. The authors conduct an analysis of scientific sources and consider digital storytelling as an innovative pedagogical method, emphasizing its compliance within digital transformation of education and science, declared by the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine in 2021, and also note its advantages among other teaching methods. In particular, it is a significant facilitation of the process of information perception by young people with clip thinking, because the visualization of information attracts their attention and forms an interest in topics or discipline, which teachers should take advantage of both when working in the classroom and during distance or blended learning. It is noted that digital storytelling should be used to explain complex educational information, for example, some grammatical phenomena specific to the English language, which makes it easier for non-native speakers to understand them. When implementing digital storytelling in the educational process, the authors recommend using a variety of tools, such as infographics, scribing, mind maps, comics and various types of videos (explainers, animations), interactive presentations, etc. The choice of the tool depends on the topic and goals of the lesson, content, creativity and technical skills of the teacher or the student during active learning. The article also presents two examples of using the digital storytelling method, with the help of infographics and an animation for the formation of grammatical competence of students when studying the Third Conditional. Key words: method, digital storytelling, higher education, communicative competence.

The article substantiates the relevance of improving the quality of foreign language education of graduates of higher education institutions of non-special faculties as a means of their professional mobility in the domestic and world labor market and intercultural communication in modern globalized world. It is focused on ensuring the innovative development of its teaching methods, the introduction of modern technologies, bringing the learning process in line with world and European requirements.The classification of teaching methods in pedagogical science is considered, among which the classification of A. Beliaev, based on the active interaction of subjects of the educational process, is determined as the most appropriate for mastering a foreign language.The most effective didactic methods (project method, method of “brainstorming”, method of business and didactic games) are described. They are applied in learning English at non-special faculties and specific examples of their use in classes both in the classroom and outside it, in real professional and life situations.The peculiarities of using modern information and multimedia technologies in teaching English and innovative approaches in the formation of skills and abilities in reading, writing, communicative competencies are highlighted. The didactic possibilities of electronic platforms MOODLE and Pearson in proficiency in English are revealed.It was found that the expansion of interstate ties, integration into Europe, adherence to world values and the process of globalization has increased the opportunities for contacts with native speakers. Therefore, the study of a foreign language in higher school acquires practical significance, and the communicative function of the language plays a major role in the process of expressing feelings, judgments and assimilation of information and knowledge presented in any form. Keywords: English language, innovative principles, teaching methods, information technologies, multimedia technologies, non-special faculties, educational applicants, communicative competences, institutions of higher education, educational process.

Foreign languages are becoming an essential prerequisite for a successful carrier among all professions including public health professionals in many countries. The expanding role of English as a mode of communication allows for university graduates to project and to seek their career in English-speaking countries. The present study was carried out in the framework of EU Leonardo da Vinci project “Specialist English as a foreign language for European public health.” The study aimed to get a deeper insight how the English language is perceived as a foreign language, by Polish and Lithuanian public health students, what is level of their language competence, which level of English proficiency they expect to use in future.Material and methods. A total of 246 respondents completed the special questionnaires in autumn semester in 2005. A questionnaire form was developed by the international project team. For evaluation of English competences, the Language Passport (Common European Framework of Reference for Languages of Council of Europe) was applied. Results. Current self-rated proficiency of the English language was at the same level for Lithuanian (3.47±1.14) and Polish (3.31±0.83) respondents (P>0.05). Majority of respondents (88.6% of Lithuanian and 87.8% of Polish) reported using the English language for their current studies. Respondents reported a significant increase in necessity for higher level of English proficiency in future: mean scores provided by respondents changed from B1 level to B2 level. Respondents gave priority to less formal and practice-based interactive English teaching methods (going abroad, contacts with native speakers) in comparison with theory-oriented methods of learning (self-studying, Internet courses). Conclusions. Similar levels of English language in all five areas of language skills were established in Polish and Lithuanian university students. Respondents gave more priorities to less formal and practice-based interactive English teaching methods (going abroad, contacts with native speakers) in comparison with theory-oriented or classroom-based methods of learning (self-studying, Internet courses). Survey showed a growing interest of students in improving English language in the future in Poland and Lithuania.

With the advent of distance learning in educational institutions, teachers are trying to adapt existing methods to the distance learning format. The Federal State educational standard in the field of training 45.03.02 Linguistics states that “when implementing a bachelor's degree program, an organization has the right to use e-learning, distance learning technologies”. Teaching foreign languages at higher educational institutions, regardless of the format of training, focuses on the development of communicative competence, on the use of professionally-oriented teaching aids, on the creation of a professionally-communicative educational environment. The Internet provides a unique opportunity to use professionally-oriented video resources for learning foreign languages, which meets modern learning requirements. The use of video resources brings diversity to the learning process, which leads to increased motivation of students; gives an opportunity to visually study the geography of the country of the language being studied; get acquainted with the pronunciation features of native speakers, demonstrate all the specifics of the language. Nowadays there is a huge amount of video content for general and business English (British Council Learn English, TED lessons, TED talks, ISLCollective, BBC Learning English, etc.), to prepare for Cambridge exams (Oxford Online English, Cambridge Assessment English). Universities are starting to use elements of virtual and augmented reality. All this contributes to the digitalization of education. The purpose of this work is to check the effectiveness of the use of video resources in foreign language lessons in higher education. During the research, we used the following methods: testing, survey, questionnaire, interview, observation. The author considers the stages of working with video resources; requirements for video resources.

Language education has traditionally been based on native-speakerism, which is defined in the present article, by simplifying Hollidays original definition, as a belief in the authority or superiority of native speakers. With the prevalence of native-speakerism, it tends to be taken for granted that non-native speakers should strive to accommodate themselves to native speaker models. However, in todays globalized world, such a conventional attitude is quickly becoming outdated. Above all, a most serious problem with native-speakerism is that it suppresses the freedom of thought and expression as fundamental human rights. Drawing on the case of English as an international language, this study aims to analyze the need for post-native-speakerism (a term attributed to Houghton and Hashimoto) in language teaching, or the need for relativizing native speaker norms for language learners. After illustrating major issues of native-speakerism, three theoretical paradigms for post-native-speakerism in global Englishes are presented, namely EIL (English as an International Language), WE (World Englishes), and ELF (English as a Lingua Franca), along with a prospect for integrating those different frameworks especially for pedagogical purposes. Then, educational objectives are summarized in terms of language skills, followed by the authors own examples of teaching methodologies and actual classroom practices in higher education. Several key concepts for EIL education emerge from these pedagogical efforts, including authenticity and critical literacy. In view of the urge to embrace diversity in the world today, this paper argues that post-native-speakerism is of vital importance as it allows language users to express their true selves in global communication. While many of the discussions in the present article stem from linguacultural and educational situations in Japan, it is assumed that the insights should often be applicable also to other Expanding Circle, or EFL (English as a Foreign Language), countries such as Russia and China.

Many English language instructors are reluctant to incorporate pronunciation instruction into their teaching curriculum (Thomson 2014). One reason for such reluctance is that L2 pronunciation errors are numerous, and there is not enough time for teachers to address all of them (Munro and Derwing 2006; Thomson 2014). The current study aims to help language teachers set priorities for their instruction by identifying the segmental and structural aspects of pronunciation that are most foreign-accented to native speakers of American English. The current study employed a perception experiment. 100 speech samples selected from the Speech Accent Archive (Weinberger 2016) were presented to 110 native American English listeners who listened to and rated the foreign accentedness of each sample on a 9-point rating scale. 20 of these samples portray no segmental or syllable structure L2 errors. The other 80 samples contain a single consonant, vowel, or syllable structure L2 error. The backgrounds of the speakers of these samples came from 52 different native languages. Global prosody of each sample was controlled for by comparing its F0 contour and duration to a native English sample using the Dynamic Time Warping method (Giorgino 2009). The results show that 1) L2 consonant errors in general are judged to be more accented than vowel or syllable structure errors; 2) phonological environment affects accent perception, 3) occurrences of non-English consonants always lead to higher accentedness ratings; 4) among L2 syllable errors, vowel epenthesis is judged to be as accented as consonant substitutions, while deletion is judged to be less accented or not accented at all. The current study, therefore, recommends that language instructors attend to consonant errors in L2 speech while taking into consideration their respective phonological environments.

“Language is a purely human non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”--Edward Sapir (1921) At the outset English language plays a vital role in every walk of life either in home town or in abroad. How a language is created? In the primitive era the monolithic man communicated his matter or message through gestures. Later on, he used sounds. The sounds become words of his-own would be understood by the opponents and the opponents too responded to the voiced words. There by, the process of communication went on. Gradually, it developed in terms of letters, signs, words, sentences etc. These tools paved way to speak or to write anything and to anybody. But it seemed only to be particular language speakers were able to communicate with themselves. The linguists analyze that the one language which should be unique and universal that is only with the English language. The leaning and teaching of English language prospered as it is treated as universal one. The universality leads to aspire for learning the language amongst almost all the nations of the world. Fortunately, more number of countries was colonized by the British people consequently, the English language was influenced in the minds of the people inherently who were colonized, hence the language becomes a second language and the learners are called second language learners. Automatically, it is considered as English as a Second Language (ESL). In turn, most of the western countries treat English Language as a Foreign Language. Whatever it be it is the need of the hour that all should i.e. each and every nation has bounden duty to teach and learn the English language as it is interconnected to all the remains of world especially to the technologists who are otherwise called higher learners and they should have the effective communication skills as the scenario is the whole world is in a small silicon chip.

We live in a modern and technological society run by intelligent and human-like machines and systems. This is due to the advancements in the field of artificial intelligence. The machines are directly or indirectly used in different sectors like healthcare, automatic vehicles, and complex decision-making and at the same used in educational institutes. The usage of AI-based systems and the Internet has brought numerous educational innovations for both teachers and students. With the online learning platforms grounded on AI techniques, 5G has revolutionized the teaching and learning methods by smooth and faster access to educational content. Students of foreign languages, especially English learners, can now use chatbots and intelligent tutoring systems to learn and practice their speaking and listening skills offline and online. With Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL), the English learning process can now be interactive and productive. The students can now improve their language skills by conversing with AI-based agents instead of native speakers to avoid any fear and anxiety. The intelligent platforms can understand the consuming power of the student and hence can create and give content according to their level to create an individualized learning environment. With the help of digital assistants, people can also find it very easy and productive to improve English proficiency. To accomplish the goal of English teaching very easily and ideally, the teachers should use AI-based techniques in the classrooms. With the help of intelligent assistants for the daily workload of a teacher, we will be able to concentrate fully on the language learning and skills of the students. The current study has presented a detailed overview of 5G and AI’s role in research and transformation of English situational teaching in higher studies. The search results are compiled and presented with different details of the area.

This study investigates and compares the use of discourse markers (DMs) by native speakers and learners of English based on a corpus of adolescent intercultural exchange students. Thestudy employs a discourse analytical approach, in whichFung and Carter’s (2007)multi-category framework is appliedwith a view to examiningDMs used bya group of Taiwanese and British adolescentsin an intercultural setting.The analytical frameworkcontains four main functional categories: Interpersonal, referential, structural and cognitive DMs. Each DM was analysed qualitatively and quantitatively in order to identifythe functions it serves in its original contextandtofurther reveal the different uses of DMs between Taiwanese and British participants. The findings demonstrate that the DMs used by both groups of participants serve the fourcentral functions,andin particularTaiwanese participants display a significant use of interpersonal (e.g., yeah, oh) and structural DMs (e.g., so, okay), while British participants have a significantly higher usage of referential (e.g., coz/because, and) and cognitive DMs (e.g., like, well). The results of this study have direct pedagogical implications that can enhance the teaching of English as a Foreign Language (EFL)to better prepare learners for real life communication scenarios.

The lack of intercultural communication skills will likely cause disharmony, misunderstanding, and even conflict in communication. To be successful in communication with native speakers depends on language skills, customs, and cultural knowledge. In the age of global communication, English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching goals should be reoriented to cultivate intercultural communication competence (ICC). EFL learners should have this intercultural competence and be sensitive in order to avoid disharmony, misunderstandings, and even conflicts in communication. The main objective of this preliminary study is to reveal the levels of intercultural communicative competence among EFL students at a state university in Indonesia. A survey questionnaire was performed employing a quantitative analysis in this study. Eighty-nine students filled out the ICC questionnaire, which consisted of 20 questions. Findings indicated that most of the students had a low ICC level because they are lack of experience and knowledge in interacting and socializing with people from various cultural backgrounds. In terms of gender differences, the results showed that male students had higher levels of ICC than that female students. This research implied that intercultural topics should be included in the university’s curriculum.

At STAIN Curup, Arabic development is not as fast as English development. This can be seen from the holding of international seminars by presenting speakers from Middle Eastern countries but the language used in the seminar is English. Students' interest in admission to the English Tadris Study Program is higher than that of the Arabic Education Studies Program. They consider English easier than Arabic. This research focuses more on the implementation of teaching Arabic and English in STAIN Curup covering objectives, materials, methods, media and evaluation. The research method used is descriptive qualitative. Data collection uses observation, interviews, and documentation. Data analysis techniques are data reduction, data display, data analysis, and narrative analysis results. The research result is Muhadatsah teaching and Speaking teaching equally train the students ability in using those languages in communication and interaction with the other person. In teaching not only using the book as a reference but also gives freedom to students in practicing foreign languages by finding new ideas outside reference books that are used as a reference. The learning of Muhadatsah and Speaking in STAIN Curup is Student Centris, by presenting various methods. In learning Muhadatsah only utilize audio media, while in learning Speaking in addition to audio media also use audio-visual media. Overall it can be seen that the teaching of Muhadatsah and Speaking as the teaching of Arabic and English speaking skills is emphasized by the learning process that is learning rather than emphasizing the evaluation.

Sentence comprehension in EFL (English as a Foreign Language) contexts is influenced by many factors. One of the most important ones is the processing mechanism of relative clauses which can be analyzed in different frameworks by researchers. So far, a wide range of research has been conducted on the processing mechanism of relative clauses in a number of languages. The results have shown a tendency toward two major categories which have been proven to be of significance, namely subject preference and object preference. Studies conducted on native speakers of English, for instance, have demonstrated subject preference by the participants. Consequently, in this study, the researchers conducted a self-paced reading experiment employing Linger software, and the data were analyzed by using the SPSS Statistics version 25. It aims to investigate the processing mechanism of English relative clauses by Iranian EFL learners. The participants were nine males and 21 females of advanced English learners majoring in the English literature, all being native speakers of Farsi. The results indicate that that the correctness percentage of subject relative clauses, and also subject modifying ones, are significantly higher than that of object ones. The results also indicated that subject relatives were processed swifter than object relatives. Finally, the researchers discussed the reasons behind such a tendency among the participants of the experiment in terms of a number of theories and principles. The findings of this study are expected to be employed in language syllabus designing as well as in grading or sequencing of materials by educators and teaching material developers.

Experts in English Language Teaching often consider culture as the fifth skill in foreign language learning as cultural literacy is a must in 21st-century learning. Thus, this study is to investigate students’ interest in the insertion of Big ‘C’ and little ‘c’ themes from different countries into the English classroom. In this study, the researcher distributed a questionnaire to 58 students in a senior high school in Yogyakarta. The study indicated that the respondents’ preferences were mostly about local culture (Yogyakarta and Indonesian culture), followed by target culture (culture of English-speaking countries) and international culture. In accordance with the cultural themes, they showed a relatively higher preference toward Big ‘C’ over the little ‘c’ culture. Concerning Indonesian culture, the students were excited in learning about art/literature, history, and food while for Yogyakarta culture includes history, foods, and lifestyles. Meanwhile, for target culture (Britain, America, and Australia), the students were eager to learn about lifestyles and foods. The last, for international culture, the cultural themes of lifestyles and music/sports were preferred by the students.

Abstract Through the lens of raciolinguistics, this nascent study examines the mobility/immobility of two African American Muslim TESOL teachers (AAMTT) working in the Saudi Arabian higher education (HE) context. The data were collected through interviews and autobiographies in order to examine the participants' lived experiences and their stories. It also explores the paradoxes, tensions and duplicities in treatment experienced by these two TESOL teachers while teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) in Saudi Arabia. These teachers moved to the Gulf region with diverse forms of cultural, symbolic, linguistic, economic and social capital, including being 'native speakers' with excellent command of the English language, identifying (and being identified) with the culture of hip hop and Hollywood (which is replete with famous African Americans), and representing American ideals of individualism, freedom of expression, open mindedness and upward mobility. Conversely, navigating through Saudi Arabia, these AAMTT have also experienced marginalization by consistent questioning of their national origins, failure to secure employment or being flatly rejected due to colour, and scepticism by students and administrators about the level of linguistic competence, accent, rhetoric and accuracy in delivering English lessons. Likewise, subscribers to the Islamic faith, their lofty expectations of what life would be like in the Gulf have been further complicated by experiences of direct and indirect racism (a direct contradiction of Islamic teachings of universal inclusion), and they have also striven to learn the Arabic language to gain religious and social capital while simultaneously fending off perceptions that Arabic speakers cannot be 'native speakers' of English. Therapeutically, the researcher reflects on his own experiences with transnationalism as well as the experiences of these two TESOL teachers and their struggles with constantly re-conceptualizing identity and self as new challenges present themselves in the Saudi Arabia. The paradox of possessing the cultural tools for mobility while also having features that hinder mobility is explored and the researcher discusses the strategies ultimately adopted and employed to navigate living in the Gulf.

Learning a new language is permeated by several cognitive processes which are believed to demand a high load of attentional resources during oral performance (SKEHAN, 2014). Strategic (ELLIS, 2005) and collaborative planning (SWAIN, 2000) appear as an alternative to lower these demands. In the light of Task Based Language Teaching (TBLT) (COOK, 2011; EAST, 2017) and aiming at contributing to this background, in this study, an oral task was elaborated with the purpose to analyze the performance of basic speakers of English as a Foreign Language from a language course in an oral task under two different conditions: after individual and collaborative strategic planning. Fourteen students were divided into two groups: four pairs planned collaboratively, and six students planned individually. Both groups had ten minutes to plan, followed by a few minutes to record their messages. Participants also answered a perception questionnaire concerning the activity. Statistical results indicated that students performing under the peer-planning condition had higher scores in all three measures of adequacy: organization, convincingness, and clarity than students performing under the individual-planning condition, which was confirmed by the results of the independent t-test. Furthermore, qualitative results showed that most students appeared to enjoy the task, especially the ones who performed under the peer-planning condition. These contributions bring important implications for classroom, allowing teachers to acknowledge collaborative strategic planning as a valuable tool.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore four Korean teacher learners’ academic experiences in an Australian Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) master’s programme. By investigating the ways they encounter the overseas teacher education programme and how to interact with different meanings, this study reveals Korean teacher learners’ multiple selves and several meaning systems embedded in them. The understandings from the case provide some implications for curriculum internationalisation in higher education as well as TESOL. Design/methodology/approach Interviews, a focus group discussion and metaphors were used as data, and from these narratives, the participants’ experience was categorised into the programme’s aspects of the methods, contents and applicability, materials and usefulness, assessment criteria and feedback and communication and support. Each interview was undertaken in a library for around one and a half hours. At the end of the interviews, participants were required to produce a metaphor of desirable teacher/lecturer roles. For triangulation, a focus group discussion was conducted for approximately two hours, in which three participants could represent social worlds, evaluate them and establish themselves as members of particular groups. All the questions were semi-structured and about teaching and learning experiences in Korea and Australia and ideas of lecturers’ roles, practices and desirable pedagogy. Findings From the analysis of the participants’ experiences in these, it was revealed that their identity was tangled with that of the (English) teacher, consumer, (international) student and non-native speaker. The meaning systems of these identities were based on the mixture of the Korean traditional and Western or modern educational values: positive attitude towards communicative language teaching and its contexutalisation, pursuit of practical knowledge and pragmatic ideas, favour for discussions and getting confirmation from authorities and being positioned in the weak and using different communication rules, etc. Research limitations/implications From the insights from this case, the lecturers and programme coordinators in intercultural TESOL courses will gain some ideas for a curriculum responsive to international needs. While it cannot be denied that the small scale of the study has limitations for generalisation, this research will be one of the required literatures which examines East Asians or Koreans in Western academic institutions, given that this qualitative study complements the findings of the quantitative studies by specifically disclosing the ways Korean teacher learners’ identity and the meaning systems of desirable pedagogies. Practical implications For the curriculum internationalisation in TESOL and several higher education (HE) courses, the lecturers’ and the institutions’ awareness of cultural differences and reducing stereotyping, language support and being explicit about new rules in the new game and communication for support and respectful and professional encounters are essential, alongside the learners’ voluntary endeavour for academic adaptation in their overseas learning. Social implications The effort to understand each other in education is a good start for intercultural communication, that is, curriculum internationalisation in TESOL as well as higher education. Originality/value Different from other studies in similar areas, this study discloses the multiple selves/identities and meaning systems of the teacher learners in TESOL, by maximising the benefits of a qualitative study. The understandings from this approach help the researcher draw out practical implications for curriculum internationalisation in TESOL and HE.

This study focuses on a corpus assembled from commercial recordings of 1929 and 1932 featuring the two British linguists J. R. Firth (1890–1960) and Daniel Jones (1881–1967). The aim is to analyse and quantify differences in the Received Pronunciation (RP) used by the two men, in relation to sociolinguistic and stylistic variation within RP of the period. A systematic acoustic analysis reveals that whereas the vowel systems of the two speakers are closely similar in most respects, there are significant differences in the realizations of the trap, price and dress qualities. We show that each of these has a well-documented history of variation in RP, and find that in each case Firth is employing the higher-class or more prestigious variant, which is a reversal of expectations based on what is known about the social and regional origins of the two. We consider the possible roles of social background, avoidance of regional features and hypercorrection. The outcomes of our work are (i) an illustration of RP used in the interwar period for the purposes of teaching English as a foreign language, (ii) empirical evidence for internal variation within the accent, (iii) additional insights into the stylistic and social correlates of this variation, and (iv) a demonstration that satisfactory formant analyses can be conducted with recordings from as early as the 1920s. Overall, it is hoped that this case-study will both throw light on the ‘standard’ accent of the era and inspire further sociophonetic investigations with legacy recordings.

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Abstract Pennington and Richards (2016) argue that if the medium of instruction (MOI) is not the native language of the instructor, lack of proficiency in the MOI could bring about a lack of confidence. This study inquired how native Japanese as a Foreign Language (JFL) teachers at tertiary institutions in New Zealand and Australia perceive their English proficiency, how it influences their linguistic identity, and how the fact that they are native speakers of the target language influences their linguistic identity. Based on responses from an online questionnaire with more than 50 respondents as well as 12 follow-up individual interviews, this study argues that their linguistic identity is not narrowly conceived around their non-nativeness in English and nativeness in Japanese, but constructed from more multi-faceted aspects of language teacher identity formation, especially by factors pertinent to the very nature of the tertiary teaching environment in these countries.

Abstract. The article deals with the issue of internationalization of higher education, in particular, in the sphere of language pedagogy. The study is based on the materials of the research conducted within the framework of the academic mobility project exercised 2018-2019 in Saint Petersburg State University and in Harbin Institute of Technology (visited November, 2018). The process of internationalization is viewed through the prism of such intercultural communication concepts as multilingualism and multiculturalism and their influence on teaching and learning practices. In real life English as lingua franca is used by representatives of different linguistic and cultural identities to communicate with representatives of professional and academic communities for whom English is also a foreign language, thus teaching English as lingua franca requires professionals who are not native speakers possessing the experience of professional and intercultural communication in the English language rather than just native speakers’ language experience. The peculiarities of teaching in the above-mentioned universities were revealed with the help of questionnaires for both university teachers and students concerning learners’ practices in the digital environment. The authors set up the hypothesis that the results serve as an authentic manifestation of intercultural communication in students’ virtual activities in social networks and in browsing the Internet for relevant information both in Russia and China.Key words: internationalization of higher education, intercultural communication, multilingualism, multiculturalism, learners’ digital environment

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04–255 Belcher, Diane D. Trends in teaching English for Specific Purposes. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (New York, USA), 24 (2004), 165–186.04–257 Burden, P. (Okayama Shoka U., Japan; Email: burden-p@po.osu.ac.jp). An examination of attitude change towards the use of Japanese in a University English ‘conversation’ class. RELC Journal (Singapore),35,1 (2004), 21–36.04–258 Burns, Anne (Macquarie U., Australia; Email: anne.burns@mq.edu.au). ESL curriculum development in Australia: recent trends and debates. RELC Journal (Singapore), 34, 3 (2003), 261–283.04–259 Bush, Michael D. and Browne, Jeremy M. (Brigham Young U., USA; Email: Michael_Bush@byu.edu). Teaching Arabic with technology at BYU: learning from the past to bridge to the future. Calico Journal (Texas, USA), 21, 3 (2004), 497–522.04–260 Carlo, María S. (U. of Miami, USA; Email: carlo@miami.edu), August, Diane, McLaughlin, Barry, Snow, Catherine E., Dressler, Cheryl, Lippman, David N., Lively, Teresa J. and White, Claire E. Closing the gap: addressing the vocabulary needs of English-language learners in bilingual and mainstream classrooms. Reading Research Quarterly (Newark, USA), 39, 2 (2004), 188–215.04–261 Chambers, Gary N. and Pearson, Sue (School of Education, U. of Leeds, UK). Supported access to modern foreign language lessons. Language Learning Journal (Oxford, UK), 29 (2004), 32–41.04–262 Chesterton, Paul, Steigler-Peters, Susi, Moran, Wendy and Piccioli, Maria Teresa (Australian Catholic U., Australia; Email: P.Chesterton@mary.acu.edu.au). Developing sustainable language learning pathway: an Australian initiative. Language, Culture and Curriculum (Clevedon, UK), 17, 1 (2004), 48–57.04–263 Chin, Cheongsook (Inje U., South Korea; Email: langjin@inje.ac.kr). EFL learners' vocabulary development in the real world: interests and preferences. English Teaching (Anseongunn, South Korea), 59, 2 (2004), 43–58.04–264 Corda, Alessandra and van den Stel, Mieke (Leiden U., The Netherlands; Email: a.corda@let.leidenuniv.nl). Web-based CALL for Arabic: constraints and challenges. Calico Journal (Texas, USA), 21, 3 (2004), 485–495.04–265 Crawford, J. (Queensland U. of Technology, Australia; Email: j.crawford@qut.edu.au). Language choices in the foreign language classroom: target language or the learners' first language?RELC Journal (Singapore), 35, 1 (2004), 5–20.04–266 Derewianka, Beverly (Email: bevder@uow.edu.au). Trends and issues in genre-based approaches. RELC Journal (Singapore), 34, 2 (2003), 133–154.04–267 Esteban, Ana A. and Pérez Cañado, Maria L. (U. de Jaén, Spain). Making the case method work in teaching Business English: a case study. English for Specific Purposes (Oxford, UK), 23, 2 (2004), 137–161.04–268 Fang, Xu and Warschauer, Mark (Soochow University, China). Technology and curricular reform in China: a case study. TESOL Quarterly (Alexandria, VA, USA), 38, 2 (2004), 301–323.04–269 Foster, James Q., Harrell, Lane Foster, and Raizen, Esther (U. of Texas, Austin, USA; Email: jqf@hpmm.com). The Hebrewer: a web-based inflection generator. Calico Journal (Texas, USA), 21, 3 (2004), 523–540.04–270 Grabe, William (Northern Arizona University, USA). Research on teaching reading. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (New York, USA), 24 (2004), 44–69.04–271 Grünewald, Andreas (University of Bremen, Germany). Neue Medien im Unterricht: Status quo und Perspektiven. [New media in the classroom: status quo and perspectives.] Der fremdsprachliche Unterricht Spanisch (Seelze, Germany), 6 (2004), 4–11.04–272 Hahn, Laura D. (U. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA). 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This descriptive non-experimental quantitative study investigated if the pronunciation of the –ed morphemeim proves as the English proficiency level develops. A random sampling design was used to recruit research participants. A target sample of 48 Nicaraguan English as a foreign language students were chosen from an accessible population (N= 91) to participate in this research. The participants’ age ranged from 18 to 24, with a mean age of 21 years. They belonged to three English proficiency levels: high beginners, intermediate, and high intermediate. Findings showed that more advanced English as a Foreign Language learners had a significantly higher pronunciation accuracy on the production of the allomorphs, /t/ and /d/. Their error rate on these two allomorphs was as low as 9% and 8%, respectively. Concerning the /əd, ɪd/ allomorph, no significant differences were found among proficiency levels. These results were interpreted in view of the Markedness Differential Hypothesis (Eckman, 1977) and the Similarity Differential Rate Hypothesis (Major & Kim, 1996). The trends in the data definitely suggested support for the Similarity Differential Rate Hypothesis which postulates that markedness by itself cannot explain the development of L2 learners as they improve their L2 proficiency level. This study offers implications for the teaching of the three phonological realizations of the -ed past tense inflection.

The article is devoted to the conceptual development of the Ukrainian language training for foreigners who get the higher medical education in Ukraine. The tasks of Ukrainian language training of the non-native speakers who study in English have features determined by the specific communicative needs of this contingent. In order to identify such needs, the methodological approaches of the educational paradigm, which are relevant for the training of students who get higher medical education, are analyzed. At the methodological level of paradigm axiological (value), acmeological (professionally oriented), educational, strategic and problem-based approaches are outlined. Intercultural, communicative-cognitive, effective educational space approaches are distinguished at the socio-cultural level taking into account the level of proficiency in a foreign language. The task of the approaches of linguo-didactic level of the paradigm is the implementation of the above mentioned approaches in the application of methods and the creation of teaching resources, taking into account the metalinguistic, semiotic, polygraphic aspects of educational materials. The methods, the application of which in the process of language preparation ensures the realization of the communicative needs of non-native speakers, the main of which is the conscious-practical method, have been defined. To determine the communicative needs on the basis of the principle of frequency, the cataloging of communicative situations in the educational and professional sphere of communication relevant for educational migrants who receive medical education in English in the Ukrainian-speaking world is carried out. The current status of the methodological support of the educational process is described. The recommendations for optimizing the educational process organization based on the results of the study are summarized.

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Influences of experiential knowledge of learning Japanese on classroom teaching of English. The Language Teacher (Tokyo, Japan), 28, 10 (2004), 3–9.04–426Coria-Sánchez, Carlos M. (U. North Carolina-Charlotte, USA). Learning cultural awareness in Spanish for business and international business courses: the presence of negative stereotypes in some trade books used as textbooks. Journal of Language for International Business (Glendale, Arizona, USA), 15, 2 (2004), 49–65.04–427Cortes, Viviana (Iowa State U., USA). Lexical bundles in published and student disciplinary writing: Examples from history and biology. English for Specific Purposes (Oxford, UK), 23, 4 (2004), 397–423.04–428Cowley, Peter (U. of Sydney, Australia; Email: peter.cowley@arts.usyd.edu.au) and Hanna, Barbara E. Cross-cultural skills – crossing the disciplinary divide. Language and Communication (Oxford, UK), 25, 1 (2005), 1–17.04–429Curado Fuentes, Alejandro (U. of Extremadura, Spain; Email: acurado@unex.es). 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Confidence and competition online: ESL student perspectives on web-based discussions in the classroom. Computers and Composition (Amsterdam, The Netherlands), 21, 2 (2004), 451–468.04–471Yang, Nae-Dong (National Taiwan U., Taiwan; Email: naedong@ccms.ntu.edu.tw). Integrating portfolios into learning strategy-based instruction for EFL college students. International Review of Applied Linguistics for Language Teaching (Berlin, Germany), 41 (2003), 293–317.04–472Zapata, Gabriela C. and Oliveras Heras, Montserrat (Tulane U., USA). CALL and task-based instruction in Spanish for business classes. Journal of Language for International Business (Glendale, Arizona, USA), 15, 1 (2004), 62–74.

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Affective factors are crucial to acquire ESL (English as a second language) or EFL (English as a foreign language) learning. This study aims to investigate factors affecting to Korean university freshmen’s English learning motivation and their general characteristics such as gender, major and exposure to English. 379 freshmen at a regional university in Korea participated in the survey. They registered in a mandatory communicative English class managing by team-teaching with native speakers and Korean professors. The survey format was a descriptive and direct method, and composed with two parts, one is a check list asking for general characteristics and exposure to English, and the other is a 5Likert scale asking for participant’s interest, expectation, confidence, motivation, and anxiety. Motivation was used as a dependent variable, and the others were used as affective factors for motivation. Collected data was analyzed with SPSS statistics. There was not statistical significance depending on gender in all affective factors. As for major, there showed statistical significance in confidence and anxiety factors (p<.05). Natural Science & Engineering (NSE) majoring students’ confidence was highest, and that of Human and Social Sciences (HSS) and Art, Music & Physical education (AMP) majoring students was followed. As for anxiety, NSE students were lowest, HSS students and AMP students were followed. As for exposure to English, there showed statistical significance in interest, confidence, motivation, and anxiety factors (p<.05, p<.01). Students with learning experience with native speakers (NS) were higher interest, confidence, and motivation, and lower anxiety than students with none of exposure in English. Meanwhile, NS students showed lower interest and anxiety, and higher confidence than students with abroad experience. In relationship between affective factors, the most influential factor for learning motivation was confidence, expectation, and interest in order (p<.05).The results are expected to provide basic data necessary for establishing and developing an efficient and systematic communicative English education program

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03–438 Appel, Christine (Dublin City U., Ireland; Email: christine.appel@dcu.ie) and Mullen, Tony (U. of Groningen, The Netherlands). A new tool for teachers and researchers involved in e-mail tandem language learning. ReCALL (Cambridge, UK), 14, 2 (2002), 195–208.03–439 Atlan, Janet (IUT – Université Nancy 2, France; Email: janet.atlan@univ-nancy2.fr). La recherche sur les stratégies d'apprentissage appliquée à l'apprentissage des langues. [Learning strategies research applied to language learning.] Stratégies d'apprentissage (Toulouse, France), 12 (2003), 1–32.03–440 Aviezer, Ora (Oranim Teachers College & U. of Haifa, Israel; Email: aviezer@research.haifa.ac.il). Bedtime talk of three-year-olds: collaborative repair of miscommunication. First Language (Bucks., UK), 23, 1 (2003), 117–139.03–441 Block, David (Institute of Education, University of London). Destabilized identities and cosmopolitanism across language and cultural borders: two case studies. Hong Kong Journal of Applied Linguistics. (Hong Kong, China), 7, 2 (2002), 1–19.03–442 Brantmeier, Cindy (Washington U., USA). Does gender make a difference? Passage content and comprehension in second language reading. Reading in a Foreign Language (Hawaii, USA), 15, 1 (2003), 1–27.03–443 Cameron, L. (University of Leeds, UK; Email: L.J.Cameron@education.leeds.ac.uk). Challenges for ELT from the expansion in teaching children. ELT Journal, 57, 2 (2003), 105–112.03–444 Carter, Beverley-Anne (University of the West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago). Helping learners come of age: learner autonomy in a Caribbean context. Hong Kong Journal of Applied Linguistics (Hong Kong, China), 7, 2 (2002), 20–38.03–445 Cenos, Jasone (U. del País Vasco, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain; Email: fipceirj@vc.ehu.es). Facteurs déterminant l'acquisition d'une L3: âge, développement cognitive et milieu. 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Foreign Language Annals (New York, USA), 36, 1 (2003), 66–75.03–450 Giguère, Jacinthe, Giasson, Jocelyne and Simard, Claude (Université Laval, Canada; Email: jacinthegiguere@hotmail.com). Les relations entre la lecture et l'écriture: Représentations d'élèves de différents niveaux scolaires et de différents niveaux d'habilité. [Relationships between reading and writing: The perceptions of students of different grade levels and different ability levels.] The Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics (Canada), 5, 1–2 (2003), 23–50.03–451 Gregersen, Tammy S. (Northern Iowa U., USA). To Err is Human: A Reminder to Teachers of Language-Anxious Students. Foreign Language Annals (New York, USA), 36, 1 (2003), 25–32.03–452 Haznedar, Belma (Bounaziçi U., Turkey; Email: haznedab@boun.edu.tr). 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Images, myths, and realities across cultures. The French Review (Carbondale, IL, USA), 76, 3 (2003), 492–505.03–457 Kobayashi, Masaki (U. of British Columbia, Canada). The role of peer support in ESL students' accomplishment of oral academic tasks. The Canadian Modern Language Review/La Revue Canadienne des Langues Vivantes, 59, 3 (2003), 337–368.03–458 Lam, Agnes (University of Hong Kong). Language policy and learning experience in China: Six case histories. Hong Kong Journal of Applied Linguistics (Hong Kong, China), 7, 2 (2002), 57–72.03–459 Laufer, Batia (U. of Haifa, Israel; Email: batialau@research.haifa.ac.il). Vocabulary acquisition in a second language: do learners really acquire most vocabulary by reading? Some empirical evidence. The Canadian Modern Language Review/La Revue Ccanadienne des Langues Vivantes, 59, 4 (2003), 567–587.03–460 Lavoie, Natalie (Université du Québec à Rimouski, Email: natalie_lavoie@uqar.qc.ca). Les conceptions des parents de scripteurs débutants relativement à l'apprentissage de l'écriture. [The perceptions of beginner writers' parents relating to the process of learning to write.] The Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics (Canada), 5, 1–2 (2003), 51–64.03–461 Leeman, Jennifer (George Mason U., Fairfax, USA; Email: jleeman@gmu.edu). Recasts and second language development: beyond negative evidence. Studies in Second Language Acquisition (Cambridge, UK), 25 (2003), 37–63.03–462 Loucky, John Paul (Seinan Women's U., Japan) Improving access to target vocabulary using computerized bilingual dictionaries. ReCALL (Cambridge, UK), 14, 2 (2002), 293–312.03–463 MacIntyre, Peter D. (U. College of Cape Breton, Sydney, Canada; Email: petermacintyre@uccb.ca), Baker, Susan C., Clément, Richard and Donovan, Leslie A. Talking in order to learn: willingness to communicate and intensive language programs. 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“Human beings are not born once and for all on the day their mothers give birth to them [...] life obliges them over and over again to give birth to themselves.” (Garcia Marquez 165) Introduction The refugee experience is, at heart, one of rebirth. Just as becoming a new, distinctive being—biological birth—necessarily involves the physical separation of mother and infant, so becoming a refugee entails separation from a "mother country." This mother country may or may not be a recognised nation state; the point is that the refugee transitions from physical connectedness to separation, from insider to outsider, from endemic to alien. Like babies, refugees may have little control over the timing and conditions of their expulsion. Successful resettlement requires not one rebirth but multiple rebirths—resettlement is a lifelong process (Layton)—which in turn require hope, imagination, and energy. In rebirthing themselves over and over again, people who have fled or been forced from their homelands become both mother and child. They do not go through this rebirthing alone. A range of agencies and individuals may be there to assist, including immigration officials, settlement services, schools and teachers, employment agencies and employers, English as a Second Language (ESL) resources and instructors, health-care providers, counsellors, diasporic networks, neighbours, church groups, and other community organisations. The nature, intensity, and duration of these “midwives’” interventions—and when they occur and in what combinations—vary hugely from place to place and from person to person, but there is clear evidence that post-migration experiences have a significant impact on settlement outcomes (Fozdar and Hartley). This paper draws on qualitative research I did in 2012 in a regional town in New South Wales to illuminate some of the ways in which settlement aides ease, or impede, refugees’ rebirth as fully recognised and participating Australians. I begin by considering what it means to be resilient before tracing some of the dimensions of the resettlement process. In doing so, I draw on data from interviews and focus groups with former refugees, service providers, and other residents of the town I shall call Easthaven. First, though, a word about Easthaven. As is the case in many rural and regional parts of Australia, Easthaven’s population is strongly dominated by Anglo Celtic and Saxon ancestries: 2011 Census data show that more than 80 per cent of residents were born in Australia (compared with a national figure of 69.8 per cent) and about 90 per cent speak only English at home (76.8 per cent). Almost twice as many people identify as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander as the national figure of 2.5 per cent (Australian Bureau of Statistics). For several years Easthaven has been an official “Refugee Welcome Zone”, welcoming hundreds of refugees from diverse countries in Africa and the Middle East as well as from Myanmar. This reflects the Department of Immigration and Citizenship’s drive to settle a fifth of Australia’s 13,750 humanitarian entrants a year directly in regional areas. In Easthaven’s schools—which is where I focused my research—almost all of the ESL students are from refugee backgrounds. Defining Resilience Much of the research on human resilience is grounded in psychology, with a capacity to “bounce back” from adverse experiences cited in many definitions of resilience (e.g. American Psychological Association). Bouncing back implies a relatively quick process, and a return to a state or form similar to that which existed before the encounter with adversity. Yet resilience often requires sustained effort and significant changes in identity. As Jerome Rugaruza, a former UNHCR refugee, says of his journey from the Democratic Republic of Congo to Australia: All the steps begin in the burning village: you run with nothing to eat, no clothes. You just go. Then you get to the refugee camp […] You have a little bread and you thank god you are safe. Then after a few years in the camp, you think about a future for your children. You arrive in Australia and then you learn a new language, you learn to drive. There are so many steps and not everyone can do it. (Milsom) Not everyone can do it, but a large majority do. Research by Graeme Hugo, for example, shows that although humanitarian settlers in Australia face substantial barriers to employment and initially have much higher unemployment rates than other immigrants, for most nationality groups this difference has disappeared by the second generation: “This is consistent with the sacrifice (or investment) of the first generation and the efforts extended to attain higher levels of education and English proficiency, thereby reducing the barriers over time.” (Hugo 35). Ingrid Poulson writes that “resilience is not just about bouncing. Bouncing […] is only a reaction. Resilience is about rising—you rise above it, you rise to the occasion, you rise to the challenge. Rising is an active choice” (47; my emphasis) I see resilience as involving mental and physical grit, coupled with creativity, aspiration and, crucially, agency. Dimensions of Resettlement To return to the story of 41-year-old Jerome Rugaruza, as related in a recent newspaper article: He [Mr Rugaruza] describes the experience of being a newly arrived refugee as being like that of a newborn baby. “You need special care; you have to learn to speak [English], eat the different food, create relationships, connections”. (Milsom) This is a key dimension of resettlement: the adult becomes like an infant again, shifting from someone who knows how things work and how to get by to someone who is likely to be, for a while, dependent on others for even the most basic things—communication, food, shelter, clothing, and social contact. The “special care” that most refugee arrivals need initially (and sometimes for a long time) often results in their being seen as deficient—in knowledge, skills, dispositions, and capacities as well as material goods (Keddie; Uptin, Wright and Harwood). As Fozdar and Hartley note: “The tendency to use a deficit model in refugee resettlement devalues people and reinforces the view of the mainstream population that refugees are a liability” (27). Yet unlike newborns, humanitarian settlers come to their new countries with rich social networks and extensive histories of experience and learning—resources that are in fact vital to their rebirth. Sisay (all names are pseudonyms), a year 11 student of Ethiopian heritage who was born in Kenya, told me with feeling: I had a life back in Africa [her emphasis]. It was good. Well, I would go back there if there’s no problems, which—is a fact. And I came here for a better life—yeah, I have a better life, there’s good health care, free school, and good environment and all that. But what’s that without friends? A fellow student, Celine, who came to Australia five years ago from Burundi via Uganda, told me in a focus group: Some teachers are really good but I think some other teachers could be a little bit more encouraging and understanding of what we’ve gone through, because [they] just look at you like “You’re year 11 now, you should know this” […] It’s really discouraging when [the teachers say] in front of the class, “Oh, you shouldn’t do this subject because you haven’t done this this this this” […] It’s like they’re on purpose to tell you “you don’t have what it takes; just give up and do something else.” As Uptin, Wright and Harwood note, “schools not only have the power to position who is included in schooling (in culture and pedagogy) but also have the power to determine whether there is room and appreciation for diversity” (126). Both Sisay and Celine were disheartened by the fact they felt some of their teachers, and many of their peers, had little interest in or understanding of their lives before they came to Australia. The teachers’ low expectations of refugee-background students (Keddie, Uptin, Wright and Harwood) contrasted with the students’ and their families’ high expectations of themselves (Brown, Miller and Mitchell; Harris and Marlowe). When I asked Sisay about her post-school ambitions, she said: “I have a good idea of my future […] write a documentary. And I’m working on it.” Celine’s response was: “I know I’m gonna do medicine, be a doctor.” A third girl, Lily, who came to Australia from Myanmar three years ago, told me she wanted to be an accountant and had studied accounting at the local TAFE last year. Joseph, a father of three who resettled from South Sudan seven years ago, stressed how important getting a job was to successful settlement: [But] you have to get a certificate first to get a job. Even the job of cleaning—when I came here I was told that somebody has to go to have training in cleaning, to use the different chemicals to clean the ground and all that. But that is just sweeping and cleaning with water—you don’t need the [higher-level] skills. Simple jobs like this, we are not able to get them. In regional Australia, employment opportunities tend to be limited (Fozdar and Hartley); the unemployment rate in Easthaven is twice the national average. Opportunities to study are also more limited than in urban centres, and would-be students are not always eligible for financial assistance to gain or upgrade qualifications. Even when people do have appropriate qualifications, work experience, and language proficiency, the colour of their skin may still mean they miss out on a job. Tilbury and Colic-Peisker have documented the various ways in which employers deflect responsibility for racial discrimination, including the “common” strategy (658) of arguing that while the employer or organisation is not prejudiced, they have to discriminate because of their clients’ needs or expectations. I heard this strategy deployed in an interview with a local businesswoman, Catriona: We were advertising for a new technician. And one of the African refugees came to us and he’d had a lot of IT experience. And this is awful, but we felt we couldn't give him the job, because we send our technicians into people's houses, and we knew that if a black African guy rocked up at someone’s house to try and fix their computer, they would not always be welcomed in all—look, it would not be something that [Easthaven] was ready for yet. Colic-Peisker and Tilbury (Refugees and Employment) note that while Australia has strict anti-discrimination legislation, this legislation may be of little use to the people who, because of the way they look and sound (skin colour, dress, accent), are most likely to face prejudice and discrimination. The researchers found that perceived discrimination in the labour market affected humanitarian settlers’ sense of satisfaction with their new lives far more than, for example, racist remarks, which were generally shrugged off; the students I interviewed spoke of racism as “expected,” but “quite rare.” Most of the people Colic-Peisker and Tilbury surveyed reported finding Australians “friendly and accepting” (33). Even if there is no active discrimination on the basis of skin colour in employment, education, or housing, or overt racism in social situations, visible difference can still affect a person’s sense of belonging, as Joseph recounts: I think of myself as Australian, but my colour doesn’t [laughs] […] Unfortunately many, many Australians are expecting that Australia is a country of Europeans … There is no need for somebody to ask “Where do you come from?” and “Do you find Australia here safe?” and “Do you enjoy it?” Those kind of questions doesn’t encourage that we are together. This highlights another dimension of resettlement: the journey from feeling “at home” to feeling “foreign” to, eventually, feeling at home again in the host country (Colic-Peisker and Tilbury, Refugees and Employment). In the case of visibly different settlers, however, this last stage may never be completed. Whether the questions asked of Joseph are well intentioned or not, their effect may be the same: they position him as a “forever foreigner” (Park). A further dimension of resettlement—one already touched on—is the degree to which humanitarian settlers actively manage their “rebirth,” and are allowed and encouraged to do so. A key factor will be their mastery of English, and Easthaven’s ESL teachers are thus pivotal in the resettlement process. There is little doubt that many of these teachers have gone to great lengths to help this cohort of students, not only in terms of language acquisition but also social inclusion. However, in some cases what is initially supportive can, with time, begin to undermine refugees’ maturity into independent citizens. Sharon, an ESL teacher at one of the schools, told me how she and her colleagues would give their refugee-background students lifts to social events: But then maybe three years down the track they have a car and their dad can drive, but they still won’t take them […] We arrive to pick them up and they’re not ready, or there’s five fantastic cars in the driveway, and you pick up the student and they say “My dad’s car’s much bigger and better than yours” [laughs]. So there’s an expectation that we’ll do stuff for them, but we’ve created that [my emphasis]. Other support services may have more complex interests in keeping refugee settlers dependent. The more clients an agency has, the more services it provides, and the longer clients stay on its books, the more lucrative the contract for the agency. Thus financial and employment imperatives promote competition rather than collaboration between service providers (Fozdar and Hartley; Sidhu and Taylor) and may encourage assumptions about what sorts of services different individuals and groups want and need. Colic-Peisker and Tilbury (“‘Active’ and ‘Passive’ Resettlement”) have developed a typology of resettlement styles—“achievers,” “consumers,” “endurers,” and “victims”—but stress that a person’s style, while influenced by personality and pre-migration factors, is also shaped by the institutions and individuals they come into contact with: “The structure of settlement and welfare services may produce a victim mentality, leaving members of refugee communities inert and unable to see themselves as agents of change” (76). The prevailing narrative of “the traumatised refugee” is a key aspect of this dynamic (Colic-Peisker and Tilbury, “‘Active’ and ‘Passive’ Resettlement”; Fozdar and Hartley; Keddie). Service providers may make assumptions about what humanitarian settlers have gone through before arriving in Australia, how they have been affected by their experiences, and what must be done to “fix” them. Norah, a long-time caseworker, told me: I think you get some [providers] who go, “How could you have gone through something like that and not suffered? There must be—you must have to talk about this stuff” […] Where some [refugees] just come with the [attitude] “We’re all born into a situation; that was my situation, but I’m here now and now my focus is this.” She cited failure to consider cultural sensitivities around mental illness and to recognise that stress and anxiety during early resettlement are normal (Tilbury) as other problems in the sector: [Newly arrived refugees] go through the “happy to be here” [phase] and now “hang on, I’ve thumped to the bottom and I’m missing my own foods and smells and cultures and experiences”. I think sometimes we’re just too quick to try and slot people into a box. One factor that appears to be vital in fostering and sustaining resilience is social connection. Norah said her clients were “very good on the mobile phone” and had links “everywhere,” including to family and friends in their countries of birth, transition countries, and other parts of Australia. A 2011 report for DIAC, Settlement Outcomes of New Arrivals, found that humanitarian entrants to Australia were significantly more likely to be members of cultural and/or religious groups than other categories of immigrants (Australian Survey Research). I found many examples of efforts to build both bonding and bridging capital (Putnam) in Easthaven, and I offer two examples below. Several people told me about a dinner-dance that had been held a few weeks before one of my visits. The event was organised by an African women’s group, which had been formed—with funding assistance—several years before. The dinner-dance was advertised in the local newspaper and attracted strong interest from a broad cross-section of Easthaveners. To Debbie, a counsellor, the response signified a “real turnaround” in community relations and was a big boon to the women’s sense of belonging. Erica, a teacher, told me about a cultural exchange day she had organised between her bush school—where almost all of the children are Anglo Australian—and ESL students from one of the town schools: At the start of the day, my kids were looking at [the refugee-background students] and they were scared, they were saying to me, "I feel scared." And we shoved them all into this tiny little room […] and they had no choice but to sit practically on top of each other. And by the end of the day, they were hugging each other and braiding their hair and jumping and playing together. Like Uptin, Wright and Harwood, I found that the refugee-background students placed great importance on the social aspects of school. Sisay, the girl I introduced earlier in this paper, said: “It’s just all about friendship and someone to be there for you […] We try to be friends with them [the non-refugee students] sometimes but sometimes it just seems they don’t want it.” Conclusion A 2012 report on refugee settlement services in NSW concludes that the state “is not meeting its responsibility to humanitarian entrants as well as it could” (Audit Office of New South Wales 2); moreover, humanitarian settlers in NSW are doing less well on indicators such as housing and health than humanitarian settlers in other states (3). Evaluating the effectiveness of formal refugee-centred programs was not part of my research and is beyond the scope of this paper. Rather, I have sought to reveal some of the ways in which the attitudes, assumptions, and everyday practices of service providers and members of the broader community impact on refugees' settlement experience. 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