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1
Hata, Kunihiko, and Kazuyoshi Futai. "Endophytic fungi associated with healthy pine needles and needles infested by the pine needle gall midge, Thecodiplosis japonensis." Canadian Journal of Botany 73, no. 3 (March 1, 1995): 384–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/b95-040.
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The endophytic mycobiota of the galls of pine needle gall midge, Thecodiplosis japonensis, and healthy current-year needles of Pinus densiflora and the F2 hybrid pine (Pinus thunbergii × (P. thunbergii × P. densiflora)) was compared. Phialocephala sp. was the dominant endophyte isolated from the galls and from the basal regions of healthy needles. Species richness in endophytes was facilitated in galls compared to the basal region of healthy needles, and the commencement of their colonization was hastened in galls. In the early stages of gall formation, however, no endophyte was isolated, suggesting that gall endophytes are not carried into the galls by the midge. Endophytes of healthy and galled pine needles were divided into two groups: position-specific fungi, which showed intrinsically restricted distributions on needles; and gall-specific fungi. These two groups might represent different ecological groups of endophytes. Possible interactions between endophytes and the pine needle gall midge are also discussed. Key words: endophytic fungi, Pinus densiflora, F2 hybrid pine, pine needle gall midge.
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Suresh Govindarao Borkar, A. N. Bhosale, and Ajayasree T. S. "Variability in bacterial endophytes in leaves of transgenic Bt and non-Bt cotton crop varieties and their role in suppression of bacterial leaf blight pathogen X. a. pv. malvacearum and the incited disease reaction." World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews 20, no. 2 (November 30, 2023): 626–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2023.20.2.2216.
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Microbial epiphytes and endophytes are an integral part of the plant system and are known to play various roles in crop growth and crop health management. The transgenic crop plays an important role in crop pest management, however, environmentalists and ecologists have reservations about the cultivation of these crops. Whether the transgenic Bt cotton and non-Bt cotton vary in their microbial habitat ecology is not yet studied. In the present investigations, the leaf endophytic bacteria were detected in the leaves of both transgenic Bt and non-Bt cotton hybrids. However, there were differences in the endophytic bacterial types and their population densities i.e. bacterial colony-forming units (cfu) in the leaves of Bt and non-Bt cotton varieties. At least ten different leaf endophytic bacteria were detected from two cotton varieties i.e. RCH-2 and Bunny (of transgenic Bt and non-Bt versions). A maximum of four types of leaf endophytic bacteria was present in RCH-2 Bt cotton leaves. The population density of leaf endophytic bacteria ranged from 50 cfu/leaf to 5 x 103 cfu/leaf and varied with individual leaf endophyte and cotton variety. These bacterial leaf endophytes were observed to inhibit or suppress the growth of bacterial leaf blight pathogen Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. malvacearum (Xam) under in-vitro test. Leaf endophyte no.7 was more effective followed by leaf endophyte no.4 in suppressing the Xam population and population of other endophytes in the interaction studies. Interaction of leaf endophytes and Xam in cotton leaves suggested that endophytes of transgenic Bunny-Bt were effective on Xam in transgenic Bunny–Bt hybrid only and so these changed the induction of susceptible water-soaking disease reaction into hypersensitive browning resistance reaction (HR). However, these endophytes of Bt-cotton were not effective in the non-Bt version in changing the susceptible reaction of Xam into an HR reaction. This indicated that the endophytes of the respective Bt and non-Bt crops were able to change the susceptible reaction of Xam into a hypersensitive one in their respective host, indicating that the use of leaf endophytes can be effective in their own habitat crop as a biocontrol agent against Xam. The specificity of leaf endophytes has to be considered in biological disease management programs.
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Tiwari, Pragya, and Hanhong Bae. "Endophytic Fungi: Key Insights, Emerging Prospects, and Challenges in Natural Product Drug Discovery." Microorganisms 10, no. 2 (February 4, 2022): 360. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10020360.
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Plant-associated endophytes define an important symbiotic association in nature and are established bio-reservoirs of plant-derived natural products. Endophytes colonize the internal tissues of a plant without causing any disease symptoms or apparent changes. Recently, there has been a growing interest in endophytes because of their beneficial effects on the production of novel metabolites of pharmacological significance. Studies have highlighted the socio-economic implications of endophytic fungi in agriculture, medicine, and the environment, with considerable success. Endophytic fungi-mediated biosynthesis of well-known metabolites includes taxol from Taxomyces andreanae, azadirachtin A and B from Eupenicillium parvum, vincristine from Fusarium oxysporum, and quinine from Phomopsis sp. The discovery of the billion-dollar anticancer drug taxol was a landmark in endophyte biology/research and established new paradigms for the metabolic potential of plant-associated endophytes. In addition, endophytic fungi have emerged as potential prolific producers of antimicrobials, antiseptics, and antibiotics of plant origin. Although extensively studied as a “production platform” of novel pharmacological metabolites, the molecular mechanisms of plant–endophyte dynamics remain less understood/explored for their efficient utilization in drug discovery. The emerging trends in endophytic fungi-mediated biosynthesis of novel bioactive metabolites, success stories of key pharmacological metabolites, strategies to overcome the existing challenges in endophyte biology, and future direction in endophytic fungi-based drug discovery forms the underlying theme of this article.
4
Helander, M. L., T. N. Sieber, O. Petrini, and S. Neuvonen. "Endophytic fungi in Scots pine needles: spatial variation and consequences of simulated acid rain." Canadian Journal of Botany 72, no. 8 (August 1, 1994): 1108–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/b94-135.
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Within- and among-tree variation in assemblages of endophytic fungi in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) needles were studied in a subarctic area where background pollution values are low; the effects of tree density and prolonged simulated acid rain on the occurrence of endophytic fungi were investigated. The needle endophyte most frequently isolated was Cenangium ferruginosum, accounting for 64% of all fungal individuals, followed by Cyclaneusma minus (12% of all individuals). Old needles were colonized more frequently by endophytes than young ones. In young needles the colonization by endophytes increased during the summer, whereas in old ones no seasonal variation was detected. Endophyte colonization was positively correlated with stand density and was reduced on pines treated with spring water acidified with either sulphuric acid alone or in combination with nitric acid. In contrast, nitric acid alone did not affect endophyte colonization. Key words: endophytes, needles, pine, Pinus, simulated acid rain, stand density.
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Jing, Minyu, Xihui Xu, Jing Peng, Can Li, Hanchao Zhang, Chunlan Lian, Yahua Chen, Zhenguo Shen, and Chen Chen. "Comparative Genomics of Three Aspergillus Strains Reveals Insights into Endophytic Lifestyle and Endophyte-Induced Plant Growth Promotion." Journal of Fungi 8, no. 7 (June 29, 2022): 690. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jof8070690.
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Aspergillus includes both plant pathogenic and beneficial fungi. Although endophytes beneficial to plants have high potential for plant growth promotion and improving stress tolerance, studies on endophytic lifestyles and endophyte-plant interactions are still limited. Here, three endophytes belonging to Aspergillus, AS31, AS33, and AS42, were isolated. They could successfully colonize rice roots and significantly improved rice growth. The genomes of strains AS31, AS33, and AS42 were sequenced and compared with other Aspergillus species covering both pathogens and endophytes. The genomes of AS31, AS33, and AS42 were 36.8, 34.8, and 35.3 Mb, respectively. The endophytic genomes had more genes encoding carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) and small secreted proteins (SSPs) and secondary metabolism gene clusters involved in indole metabolism than the pathogens. In addition, these endophytes were able to improve Pi (phosphorus) accumulation and transport in rice by inducing the expression of Pi transport genes in rice. Specifically, inoculation with endophytes significantly increased Pi contents in roots at the early stage, while the Pi contents in inoculated shoots were significantly increased at the late stage. Our results not only provide important insights into endophyte-plant interactions but also provide strain and genome resources, paving the way for the agricultural application of Aspergillus endophytes.
6
West, E. R., E. J. Cother, C. C. Steel, and G. J. Ash. "The characterization and diversity of bacterial endophytes of grapevine." Canadian Journal of Microbiology 56, no. 3 (March 2010): 209–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/w10-004.
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The diversity of culturable and nonculturable bacterial endophytes of grapevine ( Vitis vinifera L.) was examined using a combination of cultivation and molecular methods. Entire grapevines were sampled to characterize bacterial diversity from different locations throughout the vine. Gas chromatography of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) was used to identify culturable isolates prior to subsequent further microbiological characterization, whilst denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) was used to profile the ribosomal DNA of the bacterial endophyte community extracted from grapevines. Gas chromatography of FAMEs identified 75% of culturable bacterial endophytes to genus level (similarity index >0.3). Many isolates were identified as Bacillus spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Curtobacterium spp. Additionally, actinomycetes are reported for the first time as endophytes of grapevines, with a number of isolates identified as Streptomyces spp. DGGE was successfully used to identify major bands present in samples and indicated a degree of homogeneity of bacterial endophyte community profiles within the grapevines sampled. The major bacterial bands were sequenced and used in identification. Comparison with bacterial markers produced from cultured bacterial endophytes suggested that bacteria in the DGGE profiles were not the species most commonly cultured. Additional research demonstrated similarities between epiphytic and endophytic populations and examined potential entry vectors. Endophyte entry was demonstrated in both field-grown and potted grapevines (‘Chardonnay’) using a rifampicin-resistant Bacillus cereus mutant. The possibility of grapevine epiphytes becoming endophytes, if the opportunity arises, was supported by comparison of gas chromatography of FAMEs from epiphytic and endophytic populations. This research adds grapevine bacterial endophyte communities to those that have been characterized by a multifaceted approach.
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Torres, M. S., A. P. Singh, N. Vorsa, T. Gianfagna, and J. R. Author. "Were endophytes pre-adapted for defensive mutualism?" NZGA: Research and Practice Series 13 (January 1, 2007): 63–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.33584/rps.13.2006.3087.
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Defensive mutualism in many grass endophytes involves herbivore deterrence, enhanced disease suppression and drought tolerance. According to our current understanding of the mechanisms, these defensive effects are unique features of the fungi and specific fungal qualities are responsible for each. We examined a selection of species of family Clavicipitaceae for defensive traits including ergot alkaloids and loline production and development of endophytic and epiphytic mycelial states. When features responsible for defensive effects are mapped onto phylogenetic trees showing relationships in the family, it is apparent that all defensive features of endophytic fungi pre-existed evolution of endophytism. We suggest that once endophytism evolved, the alkaloids and other fungal-mediated defensive features switched from previous functions to serve host defense functions. Defensive mutualism in the Clavicipitaceae endophytes naturally evolved through use of pre-existing fungal features after the step to endophytism was made. Keywords: Clavicipitaceae, defensive mutualism, endophytes, ergot alkaloids, loline alkaloids
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Moricca, S., and A. Ragazzi. "Fungal Endophytes in Mediterranean Oak Forests: A Lesson from Discula quercina." Phytopathology® 98, no. 4 (April 2008): 380–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/phyto-98-4-0380.
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Fungal endophytes that colonize forest trees are widespread, but they are less well known than endophytes infecting grasses. The few studies on endophytes in trees mainly concern the tropical areas and the northernmost latitudes, while similar investigations in the Mediterranean region have so far been scarce and incidental. Endophytes are studied mostly in economically important forests suffering from diseases, such as oak forests. One common endophyte that has received some study on oak is the mitosporic Discula quercina. This paper, after first addressing some basic problems on tree endophytes, examines the ecology of D. quercina in Mediterranean oak stands. D. quercina is usually viewed as a symptomless colonizer of healthy Quercus cerris, infecting new leaves early in the growing season, in an unstable equilibrium between transient mutualism/neutralism and latent pathogenesis. It is postulated here that climatic factors can change the endophytic nature of D. quercina, turning it into a weak pathogen or an opportunistic invader of senescing and indeed healthy trees. It is argued more generally that stochastic events can cause the lifestyle of an endophyte to switch from beneficial/neutral to pathogenic, transforming the tree–endophyte interaction, an interaction that depends in part on the matching genomes of the tree and endophyte, and on the environmental context.
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Oliveira, João Arthur dos Santos, Andressa Domingos Polli, Julio Cesar Polonio, Ravely Casarotti Orlandelli, Hélio Conte, João Lúcio Azevedo, and João Alencar Pamphile. "Bioprospection and molecular phylogeny of culturable endophytic fungi associated with yellow passion fruit." Acta Scientiarum. Biological Sciences 42 (July 1, 2020): e48321. http://dx.doi.org/10.4025/actascibiolsci.v42i1.48321.
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Endophytic microorganisms live inside the plants without causing any damage to their hosts. In the agricultural field, these endophytes might be a strategy of biological control for phytopathogens. We aimed to isolate endophytic fungi from yellow passion fruit (Passiflora edulis) leaves, evaluating its biocontrol capacity by in vitro antagonism against phytopathogen Colletotrichum sp. CNPU378. We also carried out greenhouse experiments in bean seedlings. A high colonization frequency was obtained (89%), and the molecular identification based on DNA sequencing attested Colletotrichum as the most frequent genus and minor occurrence of Curvularia endophytes. The endophytes tested showed different types of competitive interactions in in vitro antagonism inhibition rate ranging from 28.8 to 48.8%. There were 10 promising antagonists tested for their antagonist activity of crude extracts of secondary metabolites, in which strain PE-36 (20.8%) stood out among the other strains evaluated. In the greenhouse assay, plants inoculated only with endophyte Colletotrichum sp. PE-36 was symptomless and suggest that the endophyte strengthened the growth promotion in common bean plants, especially in the root length and number of leaves when compared to control plants and other treatments. Despite many fungi of Colletotrichum genus being described as causative agents of anthracnose, in this study, the plant sampled was colonized predominantly by Colletotrichum endophytes living in asymptomatic relationship. By the way, we come across a Colletotrichum sp. endophyte able to antagonize a Colletotrichum sp. pathogen.
10
Liu, Yingxue, Wenpeng Lu, Yang Li, Boyu Zhai, Baoxiang Zhang, Hongyan Qin, Peilei Xu, et al. "Diversity of Endophytes of Actinidia arguta in Different Seasons." Life 14, no. 1 (January 19, 2024): 149. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/life14010149.
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The seasonal changes in environmental conditions can alter the growth states of host plants, thereby affecting the living environment of endophytes and forming different endophytic communities. This study employs Illumina MiSeq next-generation sequencing to analyze the 16SrRNA and ITS rDNA of endophytes in 24 samples of Actinidia arguta stem tissues across different seasons. The results revealed a high richness and diversity of endophytes in Actinidia arguta, with significant seasonal variations in microbial community richness. This study identified 897 genera across 36 phyla for bacteria and 251 genera across 8 phyla for fungi. Notably, 69 bacterial genera and 19 fungal genera significantly contributed to the differences in community structure across seasons. A distinctive feature of coexistence in the endophytic community, both specific and conservative across different seasons, was observed. The bacterial community in winter demonstrated significantly higher richness and diversity compared to the other seasons. Environmental factors likely influence the optimal timing for endophyte colonization. Solar radiation, temperature, precipitation, and relative humidity significantly impact the diversity of endophytic bacteria and fungi. In addition, seasonal variations show significant differences in the nutritional modes of fungal endophytes and the degradation, ligninolysis, and ureolysis functions of bacterial endophytes. This study elucidates the potential role of endophytes in assisting Actinidia arguta in adapting to seasonal changes and provides a theoretical basis for further exploration of functional microbial strains.
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Nwankwo, Ogechukwu L., Onwuzuluigbo C. Chukwuebuka, Okeke O. Collins, Bunu J. Samuel, Josephat C. Obasi, Ezinne S. Iloh, and Emmanuel Okechukwu Nwankwo. "Quantitative phytochemical analysis of the fungus endophytic extracts isolated from Azadirachta indica using gas chromatography- flame ionization detector." Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics 11, no. 5 (September 15, 2021): 80–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v11i5.4999.
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Background information: The phytochemicals of endophytes have generated substantial interest in drug discovery programs because they offer the possibility of discovering new biologically active molecules. Objective: The objective of this study was to quantify and analyze the phytochemical profile of the fungus endophytic extracts isolated from Azadirachta indica leaves, which have been used ethnobotanically for treating malaria and bacterial infections. Methods: Endophytic fungi were isolated, solid-state fermentation of rice medium was performed, and secondary metabolites were extracted according to standard techniques. An analytical system that uses gas chromatography and flame ionization detection (GC-FID) was used to determine the phytochemical constituents contained in the endophytes. Results: The results of GC-FID analysis showed the presence of Ribalinidine, Naringenin, Sparteine, Phenol, Steroids, Kaempferol, Flavone, Oxalate, Catechin, Tannin, and Rutin at different concentrations. Conclusion: This study reveals the promising ability of the endophytic fungi of A. indica as a foundation of naturally occurring bioactive. The quantitative phytochemical assessment of the endophyte extracts from the leaves of A.indica showed that endophyte extracts from the plant are rich in both alkaloids and flavonoids (Phenolics).
Keywords: GC-FID, Phytochemical, Endophytes, Secondary metabolites, Fermentation.
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Watts, Declan, Enzo A. Palombo, Alex Jaimes Castillo, and Bita Zaferanloo. "Endophytes in Agriculture: Potential to Improve Yields and Tolerances of Agricultural Crops." Microorganisms 11, no. 5 (May 12, 2023): 1276. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11051276.
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Endophytic fungi and bacteria live asymptomatically within plant tissues. In recent decades, research on endophytes has revealed that their significant role in promoting plants as endophytes has been shown to enhance nutrient uptake, stress tolerance, and disease resistance in the host plants, resulting in improved crop yields. Evidence shows that endophytes can provide improved tolerances to salinity, moisture, and drought conditions, highlighting the capacity to farm them in marginal land with the use of endophyte-based strategies. Furthermore, endophytes offer a sustainable alternative to traditional agricultural practices, reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, and in turn reducing the risks associated with chemical treatments. In this review, we summarise the current knowledge on endophytes in agriculture, highlighting their potential as a sustainable solution for improving crop productivity and general plant health. This review outlines key nutrient, environmental, and biotic stressors, providing examples of endophytes mitigating the effects of stress. We also discuss the challenges associated with the use of endophytes in agriculture and the need for further research to fully realise their potential.
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Mathew, Suni Anie, Marjo Helander, Kari Saikkonen, Radomira Vankova, Petre I. Dobrev, Serdar Dirihan, and Benjamin Fuchs. "Epichloë Endophytes Shape the Foliar Endophytic Fungal Microbiome and Alter the Auxin and Salicylic Acid Phytohormone Levels in Two Meadow Fescue Cultivars." Journal of Fungi 9, no. 1 (January 6, 2023): 90. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jof9010090.
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Plants harbor a large diversity of endophytic microbes. Meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis) is a cool-season grass known for its symbiotic relationship with the systemic and vertically—via seeds—transmitted fungal endophyte Epichloë uncinata, yet its effects on plant hormones and the microbial community is largely unexplored. Here, we sequenced the endophytic bacterial and fungal communities in the leaves and roots, analyzing phytohormone concentrations and plant performance parameters in Epichloë-symbiotic (E+) and Epichloë-free (E-) individuals of two meadow fescue cultivars. The endophytic microbial community differed between leaf and root tissues independent of Epichloë symbiosis, while the fungal community was different in the leaves of Epichloë-symbiotic and Epichloë-free plants in both cultivars. At the same time, Epichloë symbiosis decreased salicylic acid and increased auxin concentrations in leaves. Epichloë-symbiotic plants showed higher biomass and higher seed mass at the end of the season. Our results demonstrate that Epichloë symbiosis alters the leaf fungal microbiota, which coincides with changes in phytohormone concentrations, indicating that Epichloë endophytes affect both plant immune responses and other fungal endophytes. Whether the effect of Epichloë endophytes on other fungal endophytes is connected to changes in phytohormone concentrations remains to be elucidated.
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Tamekou Stephen, Lacmata, Tchoupe Tchassem Guy-Bertrand, Ousenu Karimo, and Kuiate Jules-Roger. "Antibacterial potential of some Cameroonian ornamental plants and their isolated endophytic fungi." International Journal of Current Research in Biosciences and Plant Biology 9, no. 1 (January 6, 2022): 19–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.20546/ijcrbp.2021.901.003.
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Bacterial resistance to antibiotics is a real challenge for health practitioners and society in general today, bringing a constant need for the search for new molecules. The present study is focused on the antibacterial effect of extracts of three ornamental plants and their endophytes. The endophytic fungi isolated from the ornamental plants included Sansevieria trifasciata leaves, Monstera deliciosa fruits, Monstera deliciosa and Cordyline fruticosa roots. The morphocultural features were studied, the antibacterial activities of the endophytes as well as those of their host plant extracts were determined through the agar diffusion and broth microdilution methods. The plant extracts were obtained by ethanol maceration, while those from the endophytes were obtained by ethyl acetate depletion. Phytochemical screening of the different extracts was done using standard methods. Four endophytes were isolated from the three plants: Geotrichum sp. from the leaves of Sansevieria trifasciata; Colletotrichum sp. and Rhizopus sp. from the roots of Cordyline fruticosa and Monstera deliciosa respectively and Phoma sp. from the fruits of Monstera deliciosa. Endophyte isolates inhibited the growth of almost all the tested bacterial with inhibition diameters ranging from 5 to 40 mm. The host endophytic plant extracts were less active than endophytic extracts, with inhibition diameters ranging from 0 to 20 mm. Some endophytic fungal secretions and plant extracts exhibited antibacterial activities in liquid media, with MICs ranging from 512 to 2048 µg/ml. Finally, endophytic extracts were more active than plant extracts. There was no concordance between the activities of endophytes and those of plant extracts, reflecting their independence.
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Hou, QinZheng, DaWei Chen, Yu-pei Wang, Nurbiye Ehmet, Jing Ma, and Kun Sun. "Analysis of endophyte diversity of Gentiana officinalis among different tissue types and ages and their association with four medicinal secondary metabolites." PeerJ 10 (August 30, 2022): e13949. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.13949.
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Background The difference of metabolites in medicinal plants has always been concerned to be influenced by external environmental factors. However, the relationship between endophytes and host metabolites remains unclear. Methods In this study, we used 16S and ITS amplicon sequencing to compare endophyte diversity among different tissue types and ages of Gentiana officinalis. Endophyte diversity and abundance was also analyzed in relation to the abundance of four secondary metabolites (Gentiopicroside, Loganic acid, Swertiamarine and Sweroside). Results The diversity and richness of G. officinalis endophyte differed as a function of tissue types and ages. Four metabolites of G. officinalis were significantly correlated with the abundance of dominant endophyte genera. The predictive function analysis showed that metabolism was main function of endophytic bacteria in different tissue and year root samples, while saprotroph was dominant trophic modes of endophytic fungi in the different year root samples. The dominant trophic modes of endophytic fungi was saprotroph and pathotroph, and relative abundances differed in the different tissue samples. The results of this study will help to elucidate the plant-microbial interactions and provide key information on the role of endophytes in the production of G.officinalis and its important metabolites.
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Zhao, Caihong, Johnmark Onyino, and Xiquan Gao. "Current Advances in the Functional Diversity and Mechanisms Underlying Endophyte–Plant Interactions." Microorganisms 12, no. 4 (April 11, 2024): 779. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12040779.
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Plant phenotype is a complex entity largely controlled by the genotype and various environmental factors. Importantly, co-evolution has allowed plants to coexist with the biotic factors in their surroundings. Recently, plant endophytes as an external plant phenotype, forming part of the complex plethora of the plant microbial assemblage, have gained immense attention from plant scientists. Functionally, endophytes impact the plant in many ways, including increasing nutrient availability, enhancing the ability of plants to cope with both abiotic and biotic stress, and enhancing the accumulation of important plant secondary metabolites. The current state of research has been devoted to evaluating the phenotypic impacts of endophytes on host plants, including their direct influence on plant metabolite accumulation and stress response. However, there is a knowledge gap in how genetic factors influence the interaction of endophytes with host plants, pathogens, and other plant microbial communities, eventually controlling the extended microbial plant phenotype. This review will summarize how host genetic factors can impact the abundance and functional diversity of the endophytic microbial community, how endophytes influence host gene expression, and the host–endophyte–pathogen disease triangle. This information will provide novel insights into how breeders could specifically target the plant–endophyte extended phenotype for crop improvement.
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Noel, Zachary A., Ludmilla V. Roze, Mikaela Breunig, and Frances Trail. "Endophytic Fungi as a Promising Biocontrol Agent to Protect Wheat from Fusarium graminearum Head Blight." Plant Disease 106, no. 2 (February 1, 2022): 595–602. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/pdis-06-21-1253-re.
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The search for beneficial endophytes that can be part of a constructed microbial community has increased in recent years. We characterized three endophytic fungi previously isolated from wheat for their in vitro and in planta antagonism toward the Fusarium head blight pathogen, Fusarium graminearum. The endophytes were phylogenetically characterized and shown to be Alternaria destruens, Fusarium commune, and Fusarium oxysporum. Individual fungal endophytes significantly increased seed weight and lowered the accumulation of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol compared with F. graminearum-infected wheat heads without endophyte pretreatment. Investigation into the mechanism of competition in vitro showed that endophytes competitively excluded F. graminearum by preemptive colonization and possible inhibition over a distance. Investigations on the use of these endophytes in the field are in progress. Identification of these three endophytes highlights a common quandary in searching for beneficial microbes to use in agriculture: species definitions often do not separate individual isolates’ lifestyles. A greater understanding of the risks in using intraspecies variants for biocontrol is needed and should be examined in the context of the ecology of the individuals being investigated.
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Grabka, Rachel, Tyler W. d’Entremont, Sarah J. Adams, Allison K. Walker, Joey B. Tanney, Pervaiz A. Abbasi, and Shawkat Ali. "Fungal Endophytes and Their Role in Agricultural Plant Protection against Pests and Pathogens." Plants 11, no. 3 (January 30, 2022): 384. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants11030384.
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Virtually all examined plant species harbour fungal endophytes which asymptomatically infect or colonize living plant tissues, including leaves, branches, stems and roots. Endophyte-host interactions are complex and span the mutualist–pathogen continuum. Notably, mutualist endophytes can confer increased fitness to their host plants compared with uncolonized plants, which has attracted interest in their potential application in integrated plant health management strategies. In this review, we report on the many benefits that fungal endophytes provide to agricultural plants against common non-insect pests such as fungi, bacteria, nematodes, viruses, and mites. We report endophytic modes of action against the aforementioned pests and describe why this broad group of fungi is vitally important to current and future agricultural practices. We also list an extensive number of plant-friendly endophytes and detail where they are most commonly found or applied in different studies. This review acts as a general resource for understanding endophytes as they relate to potential large-scale agricultural applications.
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Adhikari, M., and M. Mukhopadhyay. "Potentials of Endophytes of Andrographis Paniculata for the Production of Plant Growth Promoters, Enzymes and Antimicrobial Compounds." SAARC Journal of Agriculture 19, no. 2 (March 2, 2022): 157–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/sja.v19i2.57678.
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In the present study, 9 bacterial and 6 fungal endophytes were isolated from surface sterilized leaf, stem and root samples of the medicinal plant - Andrographis paniculata (Kalmegh). The endophytes were screened for plant growth promoting traits (IAA, phosphate solubilization and N2 fixation), enzymes (cellulase and amylase) and antimicrobial compounds against 3 potent human pathogens- E. coli, Staphylococcus sp. and Vibrio sp. The majority of the isolated endophytes produced the phytohormone - IAA (ranging 2-45μg/ml), and 1 endophyte solubilized phosphate and fixed N2. All the fungal endophytes possessed cellulase and amylase activity. In the preliminary screening, 4 bacterial and 4 fungal endophytic isolates extract showed antagonistic activity against the 3 potent human pathogens which are known causative agents of urinary tract, skin and gastrointestinal tract infections, respectively. The endophytes of A. paniculata exhibiting broad and specific antimicrobial activity make them ideal candidates in medical purposes. SAARC J. Agric., 19(2): 157-170 (2021)
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Sriya Choudhury, Sibashish Baksi, Bidyut Bandyopadhyay, and Debjani Roy. "Assessment of Phytochemicals, Antioxidant Activity and Enzyme Production of Endophytic Fungi Isolated from Medicinal Plant Sources." Journal of Advanced Zoology 44, S6 (December 8, 2023): 1611–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.17762/jaz.v44is6.2580.
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Endophytic fungi are mitosporic and meiosporic ascomycetes that asymptomatically reside in the internal tissues of plants beneath the epidermal cell layer, where fungi colonise healthy and living tissue via quiescent infections. Endophytes are important components of microbial diversity. Endophytic fungi isolated from medicinal plants more likely exhibit pharmaceutical potentials. These plentiful natural products isolated from endophytes represent a huge reservoir which offers an enormous potential for exploitation for medicinal, agricultural and industrial uses. There has been a great interest in endophytic fungi as potential producers of novel, biologically active products. Endophytes are believed to carry out a resistance mechanism to overcome pathogenic invasion by producing secondary metabolites. Globally, there are at least one million species of endophytic fungi in all plants which can potentially provide a variety of structurally unique natural products such as alkaloid, benzopyranones, chinones, flavanoids, phenols, steroids, xanthones and others. Therefore, there is an ample opportunity to unearth novel and interesting endophytic microorganisms with significant therapeutic efficacy. The objectives of our current study are to isolate endophytic fungi from specific medicinal plants found locally and carry out their characterization and isolation, followed by qualitative and quantitative assessment of secondary metabolites produced by them and study their antioxidant and enzyme activities. The present study, therefore would highlight the growing concept that the bioactive compounds produced by the endophytes not only establishes host endophyte relationship but also have an immense chance of application in the field of medicine, agriculture and industry.
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Hata, Kunihiko, Kazuyoshi Futai, and Mitsuya Tsuda. "Seasonal and needle age-dependent changes of the endophytic mycobiota in Pinus thunbergii and Pinus densiflora needles." Canadian Journal of Botany 76, no. 2 (February 1, 1998): 245–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/b97-177.
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Monthly changes in the endophytic mycobiota in Pinus thunbergii Parl. and Pinus densiflora Sieb. et Zucc. needles were detected by tissue culture. Endophytic mycobiota of these pine needles were dominated by four taxa: the Leptostroma anamorph of the Lophodermium pinastri (Schrad. ex Hook.) Chev. complex, Phialocephala sp., Cenangium ferruginosum Fr.:Fr., and an unidentified hyphomycete species (BrS). The mycobiota differed with host pine species, position on the needle, and needle age. Virtually no endophytes were detected in needles just after emergence, but most segments of the older needles harbored endophytes. The endophytic mycobiota changed slowly with needle aging, except for the periods of rapid increase in the detection frequency of Leptostroma and Phialocephala sp. Detection frequency of Leptostroma, the most frequently detected endophyte taxon in the needles of the two pine species, continuously increased with needle aging, while that of Phialocephala sp., the endophyte mainly detected from the basal segments of Pinus densiflora, slowly decreased with needle aging after a massive emergence in current-year needles.Key words: Pinus thunbergii, Pinus densiflora, pine needle, endophytic fungi.
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Ali, Shawkat, A. Harrison Wright, Joey B. Tanney, Justin B. Renaud, and Mark W. Sumarah. "Fungal Endophytes: Discovering What Lies within Some of Canada’s Oldest and Most Resilient Grapevines." Journal of Fungi 10, no. 2 (January 26, 2024): 105. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jof10020105.
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Plant diseases and pests reduce crop yields, accounting for global crop losses of 30% to 50%. In conventional agricultural production systems, these losses are typically controlled by applying chemical pesticides. However, public pressure is mounting to curtail agrochemical use. In this context, employing beneficial endophytic microorganisms is an increasingly attractive alternative to the use of conventional chemical pesticides in agriculture. A multitude of fungal endophytes are naturally present in plants, producing enzymes, small peptides, and secondary metabolites due to their bioactivity, which can protect hosts from pathogens, pests, and abiotic stresses. The use of beneficial endophytic microorganisms in agriculture is an increasingly attractive alternative to conventional pesticides. The aim of this study was to characterize fungal endophytes isolated from apparently healthy, feral wine grapes in eastern Canada that have grown without agrochemical inputs for decades. Host plants ranged from unknown seedlings to long-lost cultivars not widely propagated since the 1800s. HPLC-MS was used to identify unique endophyte-derived chemical compounds in the host plants, while dual-culture competition assays showed a range in endophytes’ ability to suppress the mycelial growth of Botrytis, which is typically controlled in viticulture with pesticides. Twelve of the most promising fungal endophytes isolated were identified using multilocus sequencing and morphology, while DNA barcoding was employed to identify some of their host vines. These fungal endophyte isolates, which consisted of both known and putative novel strains, belonged to seven genera in six families and five orders of Ascomycota. Exploring the fungal endophytes in these specimens may yield clues to the vines’ survival and lead to the discovery of novel biocontrol agents.
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Barra-Bucarei, Lorena, Andrés France Iglesias, Macarena Gerding González, Gonzalo Silva Aguayo, Jorge Carrasco-Fernández, Jean Franco Castro, and Javiera Ortiz Campos. "Antifungal Activity of Beauveria bassiana Endophyte against Botrytis cinerea in Two Solanaceae Crops." Microorganisms 8, no. 1 (December 31, 2019): 65. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms8010065.
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Botrytis cinerea causes substantial losses in tomato and chili pepper crops worldwide. Endophytes have shown the potential for the biological control of diseases. The colonization ability of native endophyte strains of Beauveria bassiana and their antifungal effect against B. cinerea were evaluated in Solanaceae crops. Root drenching with B. bassiana was applied, and endophytic colonization capacity in roots, stems, and leaves was determined. The antagonistic activity was evaluated using in vitro dual culture and also plants by drenching the endophyte on the root and by pathogen inoculation in the leaves. Ten native strains were endophytes of tomato, and eight were endophytes of chili pepper. All strains showed significant in vitro antagonism against B. cinerea (30–36%). A high antifungal effect was observed, and strains RGM547 and RGM644 showed the lowest percentage of the surface affected by the pathogen. Native strains of B. bassiana colonized tomato and chili pepper tissues and provided important levels of antagonism against B. cinerea.
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Yerkhova, A. V., and M. G. Katynska. "Potential use of endophytes in the pharmaceutical industry." Medicine of Ukraine, no. 2-3(258-259) (June 17, 2022): 37–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.37987/1997-9894.2022.2-3(258-259).264060.
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Endophytes are microorganisms, usually fungi or bacteria less commonly algae and viruses, that live in plant tissues without causing disease symptoms in their host. It is estimated that there are over one million endophytic fungal species, but because of their habitat, they have been discovered relatively recently and therefore poorly studied. (Gupta, Chaturvedi, Kulkarni, & Van Staden, 2019) It is estimated that less than 1 % of all endophytic species are currently known. When observing the mutual relationships of plants with endophytes, most researchers take the view that such associations are commensal (Ayswaria, Vasu, & Krishna, 2020). Nowadays, endophytic microorganisms are considered to be a potential source of compounds - secondary metabolites. Endophyte bioactive compounds can be used in the pharmaceutical industry. Endophytes are mainly used in the production of antibiotics, antioxidants, various enzymes, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiparasitics and antifungal drugs, immunosuppressors, and also as anticancer agents. The interest in biotechnology is great, as the application of secondary metabolites of endophytes is possible in the cosmetic industry, agricultural complex, textile production, and food industry besides pharmaceuticals. The relevance of this topic and its further research on the use of already available and the discovery of new bioactive components of endophytic microorganisms can help scientists in resolving the problems of resistance of some pathogenic strains to modern approaches in antibiotic therapy. The potential uses are great, as endophytes can be extracted from numerous plants worldwide. The properties and characteristics of extracted endophytes will vary due to their geographical location and environmental conditions. Besides the wide variety of endophytic microorganisms for production, an important factor is the ability to use the same fungus, bacterium, or algae to synthesize a significant number of different active compounds. These compounds are interesting because they can manifest their action in several directions. In this article we considered several options for classifying endophytic microorganisms, listed the possible applications in the pharmaceutical industry, also considered the most used bioactive compounds from the Streptomyces genus actinobacteria, in addition, we reviewed substances with anti-tumor activity, which are now used to treat cancer of various human organs and are available as drugs for preparing injection solutions, metabolites of endophytes equally found their application. The aim of this work was to describe the modern classification of endophytes and show their potential use in antibiotic drugs as active agents in cancer treatment and their use as sedative drugs.
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Carroll, George. "Forest endophytes: pattern and process." Canadian Journal of Botany 73, S1 (December 31, 1995): 1316–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/b95-393.
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Studies on taxonomy, distribution, and possible function have dominated the literature on forest endophytes since these fungi were first noted. Endophyte distributions have been described at a variety of scales ranging from those at a landscape level to those at the finest scales of resolution within a single leaf or patch of bark. At a landscape level, distribution patterns seem to be determined by host specificity, liquid precipitation, canopy cover, and geographic continuity or disjunctness. At the level of the individual stand or tree, height in the crown may become important. At the level of individual branch systems, age of substrate appears the most important factor. At a microscopic scale, tissue specificity, leaf topography, and phenology of the infection process with respect to leaf development all play a role. Endophytic fungi have seldom been found to cause widespread disease in trees; furthermore, their age-specific infection frequencies in conifer needles show continuous increases with needle age, in contrast to needle pathogens in which infections are largely confined to young needles. Endophytes are usually viewed as protective mutualists acting against herbivorous insects and pathogenic fungi. Proof of mutualism requires not only that endophytes be present in tissues under attack and their presence be correlated with, for example, increased insect mortality, but that inoculation experiments and comparisons with uninoculated plant tissues also be done. Such experiments often show no differences between treatment and control plants, results that may be related to unsuccessful inoculation of the endophyte. Such results may also be rooted in an inability to reproduce the biological complexity present in natural forest stands. Multiple infections of single leaves may lead to synergistic interactions of toxins produced by endophytes. Insect herbivores have evolved behavioral responses to the presence of endophytes, and protective mutualism by endophytes may occur only intermittently. Key words: endophyte, distribution, mutualism, gall midge, toxins, coevolution.
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Martínez-Arias, Clara, Juan Sobrino-Plata, Luis Gil, Jesús Rodríguez-Calcerrada, and Juan Antonio Martín. "Priming of Plant Defenses against Ophiostoma novo-ulmi by Elm (Ulmus minor Mill.) Fungal Endophytes." Journal of Fungi 7, no. 9 (August 25, 2021): 687. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jof7090687.
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Some fungal endophytes of forest trees are recognized as beneficial symbionts against stresses. In previous works, two elm endophytes from the classes Cystobasidiomycetes and Eurotiomycetes promoted host resistance to abiotic stress, and another elm endophyte from Dothideomycetes enhanced host resistance to Dutch elm disease (DED). Here, we hypothesize that the combined effect of these endophytes activate the plant immune and/or antioxidant system, leading to a defense priming and/or increased oxidative protection when exposed to the DED pathogen Ophiostoma novo-ulmi. To test this hypothesis, the short-term defense gene activation and antioxidant response were evaluated in DED-susceptible (MDV1) and DED-resistant (VAD2 and MDV2.3) Ulmus minor genotypes inoculated with O. novo-ulmi, as well as two weeks earlier with a mixture of the above-mentioned endophytes. Endophyte inoculation induced a generalized transient defense activation mediated primarily by salicylic acid (SA). Subsequent pathogen inoculation resulted in a primed defense response of variable intensity among genotypes. Genotypes MDV1 and VAD2 displayed a defense priming driven by SA, jasmonic acid (JA), and ethylene (ET), causing a reduced pathogen spread in MDV1. Meanwhile, the genotype MDV2.3 showed lower defense priming but a stronger and earlier antioxidant response. The defense priming stimulated by elm fungal endophytes broadens our current knowledge of the ecological functions of endophytic fungi in forest trees and opens new prospects for their use in the biocontrol of plant diseases.
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Hilarino, Mariana Patrícia Amorim, Fernando Augusto de Oliveira e. Silveira, Yumi Oki, Leonardo Rodrigues, Jean Carlos Santos, Ary Corrêa Junior, Geraldo Wilson Fernandes, and Carlos Augusto Rosa. "Distribution of the endophytic fungi community in leaves of Bauhinia brevipes (Fabaceae)." Acta Botanica Brasilica 25, no. 4 (December 2011): 815–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0102-33062011000400008.
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Endophytic fungi represent large, yet unexplored components of biodiversity. This work evaluated the richness and the distribution of endophytes in the leaves of Bauhinia brevipes (Fabaceae). A total of 1110 colonies were recovered from the samples and grouped by their morphological traits into 126 taxa. The total number of taxa according to leaf development was: 102 in mature leaves, 93 in recently expanded leaves and 79 for unfolded leaves. The major endophyte genera were Phomopsis, followed by Dothiorella, Pestalotiopsis and Acremonium. The richness and the isolate numbers of endophytes were not statistically affected by leaf region. However, some taxa were leaf-age specific; six were isolated only from unfolded leaves, nine from recently expanded leaves and 17 were exclusively found in mature leaves. The composition of endophytes varied with leaf region; the similarities (Jaccard's Index) among the leaf regions of different leaf ages ranged from 0.36 to 0.46, indicating a high spatial variation in the community of endophytic fungi inside the leaves. The high richness of endophytes in this host plant highlights a significant contribution of fungi to tropical biodiversity and the need for further research in this area.
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Stelmasiewicz, Mateusz, Łukasz Świątek, and Agnieszka Ludwiczuk. "Phytochemical Profile and Anticancer Potential of Endophytic Microorganisms from Liverwort Species, Marchantia polymorpha L." Molecules 27, no. 1 (December 28, 2021): 153. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules27010153.
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Liverwort endophytes could be a source of new biologically active substances, especially when these spore-forming plants are known to produce compounds that are not found in other living organisms. Despite the significant development of plant endophytes research, there are only a few studies describing liverwort endophytic microorganisms and their metabolites. In the presented study, the analysis of the volatile compounds obtained from thallose liverwort species, Marchantia polymorpha L., and its endophytes was carried out. For this purpose, non-polar extracts of plant material and symbiotic microorganisms were obtained. The extracts were analyzed using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Compounds with the structure of diketopiperazine in the endophyte extract were identified. Liverwort volatile extract was a rich source of cuparane-, chamigrane-, acorane-, and thujopsane-type sesquiterpenoids. The cytotoxicity of ethyl acetate extracts from endophytic microorganisms was evaluated on a panel of cancer (FaDu, HeLa, and SCC-25) cell lines and normal (VERO), and revealed significant anticancer potential towards hypopharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma and cervical adenocarcinoma.
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Ancheeva, Elena, Georgios Daletos, and Peter Proksch. "Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Endophytic Fungi." Current Medicinal Chemistry 27, no. 11 (April 23, 2020): 1836–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/0929867326666190916144709.
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Background: Endophytes represent a complex community of microorganisms colonizing asymptomatically internal tissues of higher plants. Several reports have shown that endophytes enhance the fitness of their host plants by direct production of bioactive secondary metabolites, which are involved in protecting the host against herbivores and pathogenic microbes. In addition, it is increasingly apparent that endophytes are able to biosynthesize medicinally important “phytochemicals”, originally believed to be produced only by their host plants. Objective: The present review provides an overview of secondary metabolites from endophytic fungi with pronounced biological activities covering the literature between 2010 and 2017. Special focus is given on studies aiming at exploration of the mode of action of these metabolites towards the discovery of leads from endophytic fungi. Moreover, this review critically evaluates the potential of endophytic fungi as alternative sources of bioactive “plant metabolites”. Results: Over the past few years, several promising lead structures from endophytic fungi have been described in the literature. In this review, 65 metabolites are outlined with pronounced biological activities, primarily as antimicrobial and cytotoxic agents. Some of these metabolites have shown to be highly selective or to possess novel mechanisms of action, which hold great promises as potential drug candidates. Conclusion: Endophytes represent an inexhaustible reservoir of pharmacologically important compounds. Moreover, endophytic fungi could be exploited for the sustainable production of bioactive “plant metabolites” in the future. Towards this aim, further insights into the dynamic endophyte - host plant interactions and origin of endophytic fungal genes would be of utmost importance.
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MURPHY, B. R., F. M. DOOHAN, and T. R. HODKINSON. "Fungal endophytes of barley roots." Journal of Agricultural Science 152, no. 4 (June 13, 2013): 602–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021859613000348.
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SUMMARYFungal infections of barley have tremendous agricultural significance, and can be detrimental or beneficial. Beneficial root infections often involve endophytic fungi, but endophytic associations do not always confer benefits on their hosts. Endophyte infection can be negative, positive or neutral for the host. Benefits to barley and other plants infected with endophytic root fungi include an increase in seed yield, enhanced resistance to pathogens and improved stress tolerance. Even if an endophyte is never pathogenic, it is not always beneficial. The most important factors that determine the nature of the relationship are the specific combination of partner genotypes and developmental stage, and the ecological and environmental setting. The nutrient status of the plant and the availability of soil nutrients may have little effect on the degree of beneficial endophyte colonization and, unlike mycorrhizae, there is no apparent increase in endophyte-associated phosphorous transfer. There are indications of an association between successful endophyte colonization and high soil pH and clay content. The greatest benefits to the barley plant resulting from the associations seem to be obtained in abiotically stressed environments. Fungal infection may give the plant a greater ability to cope with the stress if the partners are in a balanced relationship. Each new study reveals an increasing diversity of beneficial fungal root endophytes and the full potential of these organisms is still to be determined. Further studies are urgently required to develop specific beneficial root–endophyte associations, or combination of them, that are tailored to individual barley varieties for maximum impact in agriculture.
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Suryanarayanan, T. S., T. S. Murali, and G. Venkatesan. "Occurrence and distribution of fungal endophytes in tropical forests across a rainfall gradient." Canadian Journal of Botany 80, no. 8 (August 1, 2002): 818–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/b02-069.
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Fungal endophytes occur in leaves of angiosperm and gymnosperm trees. The occurrence and distribution of fungal endophytes in the leaves of trees growing in four different types of tropical forests in the Western Ghats were studied. One thousand five hundred leaf segments from five different hosts were screened for each forest type. Endophyte communities of trees of the semi-evergreen forest showed the highest species diversity. More endophyte isolates were recovered during the wet season. Although several genera of endophytes were common for different hosts growing in different forests, the dominant endophyte was different for different forest types. Our results suggest that although tropical trees individually may be endophyte rich, the overall endophyte diversity of the entire plant community is not exceptional.Key words: tropical forests, fungal endophytes, fungal diversity, foliar endophytes.
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Caruso, Gianluca, Magdi T. Abdelhamid, Andrzej Kalisz, and Agnieszka Sekara. "Linking Endophytic Fungi to Medicinal Plants Therapeutic Activity. A Case Study on Asteraceae." Agriculture 10, no. 7 (July 10, 2020): 286. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10070286.
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Endophytes are isolated from every plant species investigated to date, so the metabolome coevolution has been affecting the plants’ (microbiota) ethnobotanic, especially therapeutic, usage. Asteraceae fulfill the rationale for plant selection to isolate endophytes since most of the species of this family have a long tradition of healing usage, confirmed by modern pharmacognosy. The present review compiles recent references on the endophyte−Asteraceae spp. interactions, targeting the secondary metabolites profile as created by both members of this biological system. Endophyte fungi associated with Asteraceae have been collected globally, however, dominant taxa that produce bioactive compounds were specific for the plant populations of different geographic origins. Endophytic fungi richness within the host plant and the biological activity were positively associated. Moreover, the pharmacological action was linked to the plant part, so differential forms of biological interactions in roots, stem, leaves, inflorescences were developed between endophytic fungi and host plants. The comparative analysis of the Asteraceae host and/or fungal endophyte therapeutic activity showed similarities that need a future explanation on the metabolome level.
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Pitakbut, Thanet, Michael Spiteller, and Oliver Kayser. "Genome Mining and Gene Expression Reveal Maytansine Biosynthetic Genes from Endophytic Communities Living inside Gymnosporia heterophylla (Eckl. and Zeyh.) Loes. and the Relationship with the Plant Biosynthetic Gene, Friedelin Synthase." Plants 11, no. 3 (January 25, 2022): 321. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants11030321.
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Even though maytansine was first discovered from Celastraceae plants, it was later proven to be an endophytic bacterial metabolite. However, a pure bacterial culture cannot synthesize maytansine. Therefore, an exclusive interaction between plant and endophytes is required for maytansine production. Unfortunately, our understanding of plant–endophyte interaction is minimal, and critical questions remain. For example: how do endophytes synthesize maytansine inside their plant host, and what is the impact of maytansine production in plant secondary metabolites? Our study aimed to address these questions. We selected Gymnosporia heterophylla as our model and used amino-hydroxybenzoic acid (AHBA) synthase and halogenase genes as biomarkers, as these two genes respond to biosynthesize maytansine. As a result, we found a consortium of seven endophytes involved in maytansine production in G. heterophylla, based on genome mining and gene expression experiments. Subsequently, we evaluated the friedelin synthase (FRS) gene’s expression level in response to biosynthesized 20-hydroxymaytenin in the plant. We found that the FRS expression level was elevated and linked with the expression of the maytansine biosynthetic genes. Thus, we achieved our goals and provided new evidence on endophyte–endophyte and plant–endophyte interactions, focusing on maytansine production and its impact on plant metabolite biosynthesis in G. heterophylla.
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Priyanka, Chauhan, Verma Pratibha, and Mishra Aradhana. "Bio Avengers: How do Endophytic Microorganisms Alter a Plant's Defense Mechanisms?" Journal of Plant Science and Phytopathology 8, no. 1 (February 20, 2024): 001–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.29328/journal.jpsp.1001123.
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Endophytic microbes i.e. bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes live inside the plant tissues without causing any harmful effect on them. Recently, research has been conducted on endophytic microbes to enhance agriculture and environmental sustainability. Endophytes stabilize a close association with their host, which leads to major changes in plant physiology. Endophytic microbes and pathogens use the same strategies for entering the host cell. This condition may create competition between the endophytes and the pathogen. Therefore, host plants develop strategies to allow the entry of specific microorganisms. Additionally, endophytic microorganisms may temper their own genetic structure to survive and avoid the host defence machinery. The plant-endophyte symbionts promote direct and indirect defences to host plants. This plays an essential role in modulating plant defences against various stresses, particularly biotic stress. In this minireview, we highlight the interaction of endophytic microbes with their host. As well as the role of endophytic microbes in the enhancement of plant defence systems.
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Stelmasiewicz, Mateusz, Łukasz Świątek, Simon Gibbons, and Agnieszka Ludwiczuk. "Bioactive Compounds Produced by Endophytic Microorganisms Associated with Bryophytes—The “Bryendophytes”." Molecules 28, no. 7 (April 5, 2023): 3246. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules28073246.
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The mutualistic coexistence between the host and endophyte is diverse and complex, including host growth regulation, the exchange of substances like nutrients or biostimulants, and protection from microbial or herbivore attack. The latter is commonly associated with the production by endophytes of bioactive natural products, which also possess multiple activities, including antibacterial, insecticidal, antioxidant, antitumor, and antidiabetic properties, making them interesting and valuable model substances for future development into drugs. The endophytes of higher plants have been extensively studied, but there is a dearth of information on the biodiversity of endophytic microorganisms associated with bryophytes and, more importantly, their bioactive metabolites. For the first time, we name bryophyte endophytes “bryendophytes” to elaborate on this important and productive source of biota. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the diversity of compounds produced by endophytes, emphasizing bioactive molecules from bryendophytes. Moreover, the isolation methods and biodiversity of bryendophytes from mosses, liverworts, and hornworts are described.
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Singh, Nripendra Vikram, Jyotsana Sharma, Manjushri Dinkar Dongare, Ramakant Gharate, Shivkumar Chinchure, Manjunatha Nanjundappa, Shilpa Parashuram, et al. "In Vitro and In Planta Antagonistic Effect of Endophytic Bacteria on Blight Causing Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. punicae: A Destructive Pathogen of Pomegranate." Microorganisms 11, no. 1 (December 20, 2022): 5. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11010005.
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Pomegranate bacterial blight caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. punicae (Xap) is a highly destructive disease. In the absence of host resistance to the disease, we aimed to evaluate the biocontrol potential of endophytic bacteria against Xap. Thus, in this study, we isolated endophytes from pomegranate plants, identified them on the basis of 16S rDNA sequencing, tested them against Xap, and estimated the endophyte-mediated host defense response. The population of isolated endophytes ranged from 3 × 106 to 8 × 107 CFU/g tissue. Furthermore, 26 isolates were evaluated for their biocontrol activity against Xap, and all the tested isolates significantly reduced the in vitro growth of Xap (15.65% ± 1.25% to 56.35% ± 2.66%) as compared to control. These isolates could reduce fuscan, an uncharacterized factor of Xap involved in its aggressiveness. Lower blight incidence (11.6%) and severity (6.1%) were recorded in plants sprayed with endophytes 8 days ahead of Xap spray (Set-III)_ as compared to control plants which were not exposed to endophytes (77.33 and 50%, respectively%) during in vivo evaluation. Moreover, significantly high phenolic and chlorophyll contents were estimated in endophyte-treated plants as compared to control. The promising isolates mostly belonged to the genera Bacillus, Burkholderia, and Lysinibacillus, and they were deposited to the National Agriculturally Important Microbial Culture Collection, India.
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Soares, Deyze Alencar, Luiz Henrique Rosa, Juliana Fonseca Moreira Da Silva, and Raphael Sanzio Pimenta. "A A review of bioactive compounds produced by endophytic fungi associated with medicinal plants." Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi - Ciências Naturais 12, no. 3 (April 6, 2018): 331–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.46357/bcnaturais.v12i3.83.
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Interest in exploring endophytic fungi has increased in recent years, especially those associated with medicinal plants, reflecting the great potential of these microorganisms for the production of bioactive substances. Medicinal plants shelter a high diversity of endophytes that represent targets for use in biotechnological processes. These fungi synthetize several compounds that can be used in pharmaceutical, agricultural and other industries. Additionally, endophytes produce many bioactive metabolites involved in host-endophyte symbiosis, such as those that increase resistance to stressful conditions, alter physiological properties, and produce phytohormones, toxins, antimicrobial compounds and medicinal substances, immunosuppressants, antitumoral agents, and other biotechnological substances of interest, such as enzymes. In this review, information regarding plant interactions with endophytes is highlighted, contributing to a better understanding of this association, benefits and potential for biotechnological utilization.
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Conn, Vanessa M., and Christopher M. M. Franco. "Effect of Microbial Inoculants on the Indigenous Actinobacterial Endophyte Population in the Roots of Wheat as Determined by Terminal Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 70, no. 11 (November 2004): 6407–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/aem.70.11.6407-6413.2004.
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ABSTRACT The effect of single actinobacterial endophyte seed inoculants and a mixed microbial soil inoculant on the indigenous endophytic actinobacterial population in wheat roots was investigated by using the molecular technique terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP). Wheat was cultivated either from seeds coated with the spores of single pure actinobacterial endophytes of Microbispora sp. strain EN2, Streptomyces sp. strain EN27, and Nocardioides albus EN46 or from untreated seeds sown in soil with and without a commercial mixed microbial soil inoculant. The endophytic actinobacterial population within the roots of 6-week-old wheat plants was assessed by T-RFLP. Colonization of the wheat roots by the inoculated actinobacterial endophytes was detected by T-RFLP, as were 28 to 42 indigenous actinobacterial genera present in the inoculated and uninoculated plants. The presence of the commercial mixed inoculant in the soil reduced the endophytic actinobacterial diversity from 40 genera to 21 genera and reduced the detectable root colonization by approximately half. The results indicate that the addition of a nonadapted microbial inoculum to the soil disrupted the natural actinobacterial endophyte population, reducing diversity and colonization levels. This was in contrast to the addition of a single actinobacterial endophyte to the wheat plant, where the increase in colonization level could be confirmed even though the indigenous endophyte population was not adversely affected.
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Ma, Jing, Dawei Chen, Yifan Xu, Yue Liu, Lele Liu, Jing Huang, Ruochun Gao, Jie Bai, and Qinzheng Hou. "Effects of Different Heavy Metal Stressors on the Endophytic Community Composition and Diversity of Symphytum officinale." Microorganisms 12, no. 3 (February 27, 2024): 477. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12030477.
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Endophytes play an important role in helping plants resist heavy metal stress. However, little is known about the effects of different heavy metals on the diversity and composition of endophyte communities. In this study, we used 16S and ITS amplicon sequencing to reveal the structure and function of endophytes in Symphytum officinale under different heavy metal stressors. The results showed that the endophytic fungal diversity decreased compared with the control under the different heavy metals stressors, while the diversity of endophytic bacteria showed an increasing trend. The biomarker analysis indicated that Zn and Pb stress led to obvious branches. Specific OTUs analysis showed that there were 1224, 597, and 1004 OTUs specific under Zn, Pb, and Cd stress in the bacterial community and 135, 81, and 110 OTUs specific under Zn, Pb, and Cd stress in the fungal community. The co-occurrence network showed changes in microbial interactions under heavy metal contamination conditions, suggesting that endophytic bacteria play an important role in the resistance of host plants. The Spearman analysis showed that the correlation between endophytic bacteria and endophytic fungi in relation to heavy metal transport exhibited variations. Our results expand the knowledge of the relationships of plant–microbe interactions and offer pivotal information to reveal the role of endophytes under different heavy metal stress conditions.
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Milne, G. D. "Technology transfer of novel ryegrass endophytes in New Zealand." NZGA: Research and Practice Series 13 (January 1, 2007): 237–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.33584/rps.13.2006.3067.
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The adoption of novel endophyte ryegrass in New Zealand has been successful and rapid, with AR1 novel endophyte seed representing 80% of the total ryegrass seed infected with endophyte within 3 years of release. Success was underpinned by a large amount of research into endophytes and the animal production benefits of novel endophytes. Awareness amongst farmers and seed retailers was created by scientists and seed company staff, often with an organised and collaborative campaign. The domination of the market with novel endophytes is likely to increase further with the on-farm success of AR1, and the recent introduction of third-generation endophytes. Keywords: endophyte, ryegrass, technology, transfer, adoption, knowledge, awareness, benefits, validation, research
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S, Nisy, Vishnu N, Megha M, and Amitha C. "Endophytes Associated with Macrophyte Ceratophyllum Demersum." International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology 10, no. 3 (March 31, 2022): 2075–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2022.41055.
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Abstract: Endophytes are microorganisms living inside plants which have various types of symbiotic relations and non-symbiotic relations with host plant. The endophytes reside inside a plant without any signs or symptoms in living tissues of their host. Plants without any endophytes are rare, bacteria and fungi have been seen residing inside plants. Endophytes inside fossilized tissues and stems of plants indicates this relationship started during the evolution or formation of higher plants. The Bacterial and fungal endophytes reach the plant tissues from the rhizosphere, phyllosphere or seed of the plant. Endophytes of Ceratophyllum demersum, were isolated by two methods. Endophytic bacteria and fungi were found to reside in the leaves of macrophyte Ceratophyllum demersum. Four fungal isolates and three bacterial isolates were obtained. Results indicates that fungal endophytes were predominant than bacterial endophytes in Ceratophyllum demersum. Keywords: Ceratophyllum demersum, Macrophytes, Endophytic Bacteria, Endophytic Fungi.
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Singh, Archana, Dheeraj K. Singh, Ravindra N. Kharwar, James F. White, and Surendra K. Gond. "Fungal Endophytes as Efficient Sources of Plant-Derived Bioactive Compounds and Their Prospective Applications in Natural Product Drug Discovery: Insights, Avenues, and Challenges." Microorganisms 9, no. 1 (January 19, 2021): 197. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9010197.
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Fungal endophytes are well-established sources of biologically active natural compounds with many producing pharmacologically valuable specific plant-derived products. This review details typical plant-derived medicinal compounds of several classes, including alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids, glycosides, lignans, phenylpropanoids, quinones, saponins, terpenoids, and xanthones that are produced by endophytic fungi. This review covers the studies carried out since the first report of taxol biosynthesis by endophytic Taxomyces andreanae in 1993 up to mid-2020. The article also highlights the prospects of endophyte-dependent biosynthesis of such plant-derived pharmacologically active compounds and the bottlenecks in the commercialization of this novel approach in the area of drug discovery. After recent updates in the field of ‘omics’ and ‘one strain many compounds’ (OSMAC) approach, fungal endophytes have emerged as strong unconventional source of such prized products.
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Bittleston, L. S., F. Brockmann, W. Wcislo, and S. A. Van Bael. "Endophytic fungi reduce leaf-cutting ant damage to seedlings." Biology Letters 7, no. 1 (July 7, 2010): 30–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2010.0456.
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Our study examines how the mutualism between Atta colombica leaf-cutting ants and their cultivated fungus is influenced by the presence of diverse foliar endophytic fungi (endophytes) at high densities in tropical leaf tissues. We conducted laboratory choice trials in which ant colonies chose between Cordia alliodora seedlings with high ( E high ) or low ( E low ) densities of endophytes. The E high seedlings contained 5.5 times higher endophyte content and a greater diversity of fungal morphospecies than the E low treatment, and endophyte content was not correlated with leaf toughness or thickness. Leaf-cutting ants cut over 2.5 times the leaf area from E low relative to E high seedlings and had a tendency to recruit more ants to E low plants. Our findings suggest that leaf-cutting ants may incur costs from cutting and processing leaves with high endophyte loads, which could impact Neotropical forests by causing variable damage rates within plant communities.
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Popay, A. J., and B. A. Tapper. "Endophyte effects on consumption of seed and germinated seedlings of ryegrass and fescue by grass grub (Costelytra zealandica) larvae." NZGA: Research and Practice Series 13 (January 1, 2007): 353–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.33584/rps.13.2006.3168.
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Tall fescue, meadow fescue and ryegrass seeds with and without endophyte infection were fed to third-instar grass grub to determine the relative effects of different endophytes on consumption. Treatments were: tall fescue without endophyte or infected with four novel endophytes (AR514, AR542, AR584, ES), meadow fescue without endophyte or infected with Neotyphodium uncinatum and perennial ryegrass infected with a novel endophyte AR37. Grass grub larvae were initially given hard seed but when they failed to eat this, moist soil was added to allow seed to soften and germinate. After 7 days, all endophytes had reduced feeding compared to their endophytefree counterparts. At the completion of the trial, 15 days after adding moist soil, only AR37 in perennial ryegrass had no effect on damage to the seed. Of the endophytes in tall fescue, seeds containing AR542 were significantly more damaged than other endophyte treatments. Composition of loline alkaloids may be important in reducing feeding. Keywords: tall fescue, meadow fescue, ryegrass, endophytes, loline alkaloids, seed damage, grass grub, Costelytra zealandica
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Srinivasan, Jansirani, Janardan Khadka, Nurit Novoplansky, Osnat Gillor, and Gideon Grafi. "Endophytic Bacteria Colonizing the Petiole of the Desert Plant Zygophyllum dumosum Boiss: Possible Role in Mitigating Stress." Plants 11, no. 4 (February 11, 2022): 484. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants11040484.
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Zygophyllum dumosum is a dominant shrub in the Negev Desert whose survival is accomplished by multiple mechanisms including abscission of leaflets to reduce whole plant transpiration while leaving the fleshy, wax-covered petioles alive but dormant during the dry season. Petioles that can survive for two full growing seasons maintain cell component integrity and resume metabolic activity at the beginning of the winter. This remarkable survival prompted us to investigate endophytic bacteria colonizing the internal tissues of the petiole and assess their role in stress tolerance. Twenty-one distinct endophytes were isolated by culturing from surface-sterile petioles and identified by sequencing of the 16S rDNA. Sequence alignments and the phylogenetic tree clustered the isolated endophytes into two phyla, Firmicutes and Actinobacteria. Most isolated endophytes displayed a relatively slow growth on nutrient agar, which was accelerated by adding petiole extracts. Metabolic analysis of selected endophytes showed several common metabolites whose level is affected by petiole extract in a species-dependent manner including phosphoric acid, pyroglutamic acid, and glutamic acid. Other metabolites appear to be endophyte-specific metabolites, such as proline and trehalose, which were implicated in stress tolerance. These results demonstrate the existence of multiple endophytic bacteria colonizing Z. dumosum petioles with the potential role in maintaining cell integrity and functionality via synthesis of multiple beneficial metabolites that mitigate stress and contribute to stress tolerance.
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Chen, Dawei, Lingyun Jia, Qinzheng Hou, Xiang Zhao, and Kun Sun. "Analysis of Endophyte Diversity of Rheum palmatum from Different Production Areas in Gansu Province of China and the Association with Secondary Metabolite." Microorganisms 9, no. 5 (April 30, 2021): 978. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9050978.
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Investigations of the differences in the metabolites of medicinal plants have typically focused on the effects of external environmental factors. However, little is known about the relationship between endophytes diversity and host metabolites. We used high-throughput sequencing methods to compare the endophyte diversity of Rheum palmatum from eight different production areas in Gansu Province of China and to analyze the association between those areas and five secondary metabolites (aloe-emodin, rhein, emodin, chrysophanol, and physcion). The results show that the diversity and OTUs (Operational taxonomic units) abundance of endophytic fungi and bacteria of R. palmatum differed according to production area. Spearman analysis showed that the five secondary metabolites of R. palmatum were positively correlated with the diversity and abundance of endophytic fungi. Comparing both space and environmental differences to determine influences on community structure, VPA analysis revealed that geographic factors explained more difference in community composition of fungal and bacterial endophytes than climate factors. PICRUSt and FUNGuild predictive analysis indicated that metabolites were the primary components of endophytic bacteria in all samples, while the function of endophytic fungi was composed of dominant trophic modes (saprotroph and pathotroph), and relative abundances were different. Our results help elucidate the correlation of plant–microbe interactions and offer pivotal information to reveal the role of endophytes in the production of R. palmatum and its important secondary metabolite.
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Patyal, Urvasha, Vikas Kumar, Manoj Singh, and Kulbir Singh. "Plant Growth Promoting Efficacy of Endophytic Fungi Isolated from the Terrestrial Plants of North India." Nature Environment and Pollution Technology 22, no. 3 (September 1, 2023): 1343–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.46488/nept.2023.v22i03.021.
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Enhanced crop health, which is crucial for sustainable agriculture, is facilitated by a unique endophyte or endophytic community that is frequently linked to a variety of crops. Plant growth-promoting (PGP) characteristics of endophytes can directly or indirectly boost crop growth. Endophytic fungi have been proven to create a high percentage of new compounds, making them a particularly potential source of physiologically active chemicals. In this study, we have isolated two endophytic isolates, i.e., Paecilomyces sp. (Isolate AT1) and Aspergillus flavus (Isolate AT3), from different host plants, namely Melaleuca citrine and Carica papaya. These endophytes have shown significant plant growth-promoting potential toward different assays such as IAA production, phosphate solubilization, amylase production, cellulose-degrading assay, and ammonia production. These endophytic fungi also exhibit visible antimicrobial action towards selected crop pathogenic fungi (Aspergillus sp. and Penicillium sp.). Additionally, these fungal strains are reported for the first time from these plants, as we have found no reports in the literature. The research aims to explore the growth-promoting efficacy of endophytic fungi to boost plant growth.
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Dong, Xin, Feifei Jiang, Dongdong Duan, Zhen Tian, Huining Liu, Yinan Zhang, Fujiang Hou, Zhibiao Nan, and Tao Chen. "Contrasting Effects of Grazing in Shaping the Seasonal Trajectory of Foliar Fungal Endophyte Communities on Two Semiarid Grassland Species." Journal of Fungi 9, no. 10 (October 14, 2023): 1016. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jof9101016.
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Fungal endophytes are harboured in the leaves of every individual plant host and contribute to plant health, leaf senescence, and early decomposition. In grasslands, fungal endophytes and their hosts often coexist with large herbivores. However, the influence of grazing by large herbivores on foliar fungal endophyte communities remains largely unexplored. We conducted a long-term (18 yr) grazing experiment to explore the effects of grazing on the community composition and diversity of the foliar fungal endophytes of two perennial grassland species (i.e., Artemisia capillaris and Stipa bungeana) across one growing season. Grazing significantly increased the mean fungal alpha diversity of A. capillaris in the early season. In contrast, grazing significantly reduced the mean fungal alpha diversity of endophytic fungi of S. bungeana in the late season. Grazing, growing season, and their interactions concurrently structured the community composition of the foliar fungal endophytes of both plant species. However, growing season consistently outperformed grazing and environmental factors in shaping the community composition and diversity of both plant species. Overall, our findings demonstrate that the foliar endophytic fungal community diversity and composition differed in response to grazing between A. capillaris and S. bungeana during one growing season. The focus on this difference will enhance our understanding of grazing’s impact on ecological systems and improve land management practices in grazing regions. This variation in the effects of leaf nutrients and plant community characteristics on foliar endophytic fungal community diversity and composition may have a pronounced impact on plant health and plant–fungal interactions.
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Viljoen, Altus, Nico Labuschagne, Thomas Dubois, Shahasi Athman, Daniel Coyne, and Clifford S. Gold. "Effect of endophytic Fusarium oxysporum on root penetration and reproduction of Radopholus similis in tissue culture-derived banana (Musa spp.) plants." Nematology 9, no. 5 (2007): 599–607. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156854107782024839.
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AbstractIn Uganda, banana (Musa spp.) production is constrained by the burrowing nematode Radopholus similis. Non-pathogenic, endophytic Fusarium oxysporum has been isolated from healthy banana plants, and several strains have shown potential as biological control agents against R. similis. Plant infection by R. similis can be characterised in three steps: host searching, root penetration and reproduction. In this study, we investigated the effects of three endophytic F. oxysporum strains (Eny1.31i, Eny7.11o and V5w2) on root penetration and reproduction of R. similis in tissue culture-derived banana plants. The number of R. similis that penetrated roots of endophyte-inoculated and untreated plants was not influenced by the endophytes in either laboratory or screenhouse experiments. However, R. similis reproduction was reduced by endophytes. Strain V5w2 gave the greatest suppression of R. similis reproduction. The results of this study imply that antagonism of endophytic F. oxysporum against R. similis in banana plants is post-infectional and mediated through disruption of nematode reproduction.
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Ghasemi, Saied, Sima Khodaei, Kaivan Karimi, Majid Tavakoli, Illaria Pertot, and Mahdi Arzanlou. "Biodiversity study of endophytic fungi associated with two Quercus species in Iran." Forest Systems 28, no. 1 (June 7, 2019): e003. http://dx.doi.org/10.5424/fs/2019281-14528.
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Aim of study: In this study, frequency and diversity of fungal endophyte communities inhabiting twigs and branches of apparently healthy Q. macranthera and Q. brantii in East Azerbaijan and Lorestan provinces of Iran is presented.Area of study: East Azerbaijan and Lorestan provinces in Iran.Materials and methods: Culturable fungal endophytes were recovered from wood tissues using routine technique for isolation of fungal endophytes. The identity of fungal isolates were determined based on morphological characteristics and sequences data of ITS-rDNA region and Beta-tubulin gene. Frequency and diversity among fungal communities were analyzed using chi-square test and biodiversity indices.Main results: The highest frequency and diversity was detected for fungal endophyte community recovered from Q. macranthera and East Azerbaijan province. The assemblage of endophytic fungi characterized in this study in healthy tissues of oak trees indicates that some of the fungi are possible latent pathogens such as Biscogniauxia mediterranea with 18.28% frequency followed by Alternaria alternata and Trichothecium roseum respectively. Two fungal taxa of Pyronema domesticum and Valsa persoonii are reported for the first time in Iran. Overall, the results of this study show that the plant species and growth location influence frequency and diversity of culturable fungal endophytic communities of Quercus in Iran.Keywords: Quercus macranthera, Quercus brantii, Fungal endophytes, Molecular identification.Abbreviations used: CBS (Centraal Bureau voor Schimmelcultures); CCTU (Culture Collection of University of Tabriz); GTR (General Time Reversible); HKY (Hasegawa Kishino Yano); ITS-rDNA (Internal Transcribed Space); km (kilometer) ; PDA (Potato Dextrose Agar); TUB (Tubulin).