Academic literature on the topic 'Emergency clauses'

This article examines the compatibility of emergency arbitration with (1) investment treaty disputes and (2) construction disputes, respectively. The article begins by giving a brief synopsis of the evolution of emergency arbitration, following which its suitability to investment treaty disputes and construction disputes is considered. The authors provide critical analysis of the compatibility of the emergency arbitration procedure with pre-arbitral requirements in both of these categories of disputes. The authors conclude that the practices surrounding emergency arbitration need to be developed further, and specifically, the issues surrounding enforcement need to be resolved. Emergency Arbitration, Construction Arbitration, Investment Treaty Arbitration, Enforceability, Third Parties, Dynamic Interpretation of Consent, Cooling-off Clauses, Multi- Tiered Dispute Resolution Clauses

Pharmacists with religious or ethical objections to prescribing emergency contraception won the latest round in the fight over conscience clauses in a case that could have broader implications for attempts to restrict access to contraception. In Stormans, Inc. v. Selecky, a federal District Court in Washington State granted an injunction to block the enforcement of regulations that would have forbidden pharmacists to refuse to dispense emergency contraception on the grounds of religious or ethical objections. In its decision, the court applied Supreme Court abortion precedent without explicitly ruling whether emergency contraception should be legally categorized as a form of abortion or as contraception. However, the legal status of emergency contraception affects the strength of the defendants’ claims that the law was justified on the grounds of preventing sex discrimination. In neglecting to rule one way or the other, the court not only failed to adequately consider the sex discrimination claim but also may have opened the door to more restrictive regulation on contraceptives generally.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the possibility of a postfertilization effect in regard to the most common types of hormonal emergency contraception (EC) used in the US and to explore the ethical impact of this possibility. DATA SOURCES AND STUDY SELECTION: A MEDLINE search (1966–November 2001) was done to identify all pertinent English-language journal articles. A review of reference sections of the major review articles was performed to identify additional articles. Search terms included emergency contraception, postcoital contraception, postfertilization effect, Yuzpe regimen, levonorgestrel, mechanism of action, Plan B. DATA SYNTHESIS: The 2 most common types of hormonal EC used in the US are the Yuzpe regimen (high-dose ethinyl estradiol with high-dose levonorgestrel) and Plan B (high-dose levonorgestrel alone). Although both methods sometimes stop ovulation, they may also act by reducing the probability of implantation, due to their adverse effect on the endometrium (a postfertilization effect). The available evidence for a postfertilization effect is moderately strong, whether hormonal EC is used in the preovulatory, ovulatory, or postovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the present theoretical and empirical evidence, both the Yuzpe regimen and Plan B likely act at × by causing a postfertilization effect, regardless of when in the menstrual cycle they are used. These findings have potential implications in such areas as informed consent, emergency department protocols, and conscience clauses.

This paper tackles the issue of derogation of State’s international obligations in the field of human rights protection. Although derogation clauses are often included in human rights treaties, their application is regarded as an exception rather than a rule and undergo strict scrutiny as to their legality. It is universally acknowledged that such derogation is allowed in the most severe of circumstances, usually referred as “war or other public emergency threatening the life of the nation”. The Author therefore considers whether the global COVID-19 pandemic might be categorized as such and thereby justify the measures undertaken by States to stop the spread of the coronavirus. Keywords: human rights, ECHR, public emergency, derogation of human rights, SARS-CoV-2, threat to the life of the nation

AbstractThe present article examines the usage of coordinators as subordinating devices. An investigation of a corpus of spoken American English reveals that and and but can occupy clause-final position and be used for marking syntactic and functional asymmetries. It has been pointed out that such final coordinators arise as a result of interactional contingencies (Barth-Weingarten 2014, Dialogism and the emergence of final particles: The case of and. In Susanne Günthner, Wolfgang Imo & Jörg Bücker (eds.), Grammar and dialogism, 335–366. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter). However, a cross-linguistic observation suggests that not all coordinators can be used as clause-final elements. Our research demonstrates that the emergence of clause-final and and but does not only come from interactional needs but also presupposes typological requirements. Head-initial (VO) languages like English, where adverbial clauses are marked by clause-initial subordinators, are subject to three competing motivations for the ordering of main and adverbial clauses (Diessel 2005, Competing motivations for the ordering of main and adverbial clauses. Linguistics 43(3). 449–470). Our study contends that clause-final coordinators serve as stopgap subordinators, which help to resolve such competition between the three motivating forces.

Abstract This study examines the on-line emergence of insubordinate clauses in Hebrew conversation as constrained by local interactional contingencies, questioning traditional notions of grammatical ‘subordination’ and contributing to conceptions of grammar as a locally sensitive, temporally unfolding resource for social interaction. The clauses examined are syntactically unintegrated (unembedded in any matrix clause), or loosely-integrated (cannot be viewed unambiguously as constituting a relative, complement, or adverbial clause), yet they all begin with she- – the general ‘subordinating conjunction’ in traditional Modern Hebrew grammar. All 102 insubordinate she- clauses found throughout a 5.5 hour audio-recorded corpus were classified according to their discourse function: modal, elaborative, or evaluative/epistemic. Leaving aside the modal type, the remaining insubordinate she- clauses (N = 70, 69%) are shown to emerge on-line while speakers are busy performing a variety of tasks and responding to local interactional contingencies. In all of these cases she- functions as a generic ‘wildcard’ tying back to immediately prior discourse and projecting an elaboration/evaluation of it, in either same- or other-speaker talk. The findings concerning insubordinate clauses suggest a usage-based perspective also on canonical subordinate clauses, positioning canonical and syntactically unintegrated clauses at two ends of a continuum.

"Astoundingly, the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (ACHPR) does not contain [a] derogation clause. Furthermore, it has been established by the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights (the Commission) in the case of Commission Nationale des Droits de l'Homme et des Libertes v Chad (Commission Nationale case) that a member state of teh ACHPR cannot derogate human rights in case of emergencies. Hence, the Commission's view may lead to a conclusion that all rights under the ACHPR are non-derogable. This raises the issue of whether it is tenable to conclude that a state facing a situation that endangers the nation, should not at all derogate from the provisions of the ACHPR. Emergency clauses, which permit derogation of human rights in times of emergencies, are also found in most domestic legal instruments. Most African states also encompass this clause in their constitutions. Although the levels of compliance by states are questionable, some of these constitutions also include a list of non-derogable rights. The constitutions of Ethiopia and Mozambique also provide for a derogation clause and a list of non-derogable rights. The aim of the study is to make a critical analysis of the African derogation system. Firstly, the study will analyse the concept of derogation and non-derogable rights in general. Secondly, the jurisprudence and the law of the African system with regard to derogation and non-derogable rights will be examined. In analysing the jurisprudence of the Commission effort will be made to critically study the cases that have been examined by the Commission in relation to derogation and non-derogable rights. Lastly, the compatibility of the Ethiopian and Mozambique constitutions in light of the African system and international standards will be discussed. ... Chapter one highlights the basis and structure of the entire study. Chapter two presents a brief historical evolution as well as conceptual framework of the system of derogation and non-derogable human rights in state of emergency. Chapter three focuses on the ACHPR and the jurisprudence of the Commission with regard to derogation and non-derogable rights in state of emergency. Chapter four assesses the compatibility of the non-derogable rights provided in the constitutions of African states with African and international standards. This chapter will [analyse], in particular, the constitutions and the practices of Ethiopia and Mozambique. Chapter five is a conclusion of the overall study stating specific recommendations." -- Introduction.
Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2005.
Prepared under the supervision of Mr. Leopoldo Amaral, Faculty of Law, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, Mozambique
http://www.chr.up.ac.za/academic_pro/llm1/dissertations.html
Centre for Human Rights
LLM

L’injonction anti-suit ou anti-procédure est le seul moyen susceptible d’empêcher une partie de s’engager, de mauvaise foi, dans une procédure initiée devant un tribunal étatique de son choix dans le but d’entraver l’arbitrage. Sa forme la plus efficace est celle d’une mesure provisoire. Cet outil juridictionnel peut, conformément aux lois et règlement d’arbitrage modernes, être obtenu des tribunaux arbitraux, qui jouissent habituellement d’un imperium suffisant pour le prononcer ainsi que pour sanctionner tout non-respect de l’ordre. S’il peut être octroyé « avant dire droit », l’arbitre doit néanmoins le fonder sur une base légale se trouvant dans le champ de sa compétence juridictionnelle. L’apparence d’une possible violation de l’une des obligations découlant de la clause compromissoire, comme celle de l’exécuter de bonne foi, ou d’un manquement à une cause de confidentialité insérée dans le contrat principal en sont des exemples. Cette mesure d’interdiction est, en outre, disponible au juge étatique français, l’injonction « de ne pas faire » n’étant guère inconnue en droit français. En matière d’arbitrage, elle pourrait par ailleurs être autorisée, en dépit de l’arrêt West Tankers, au regard du nouveau Règlement Bruxelles I bis et, surtout, lorsqu’elle prend la forme d’une mesure provisoire. Lorsque son émission paraît légitime, il revient principalement au juge étatique du siège d’un arbitrage de décider si une injonction anti-suit doit être prononcée en soutien de l’instance arbitrale. Cependant, pour des raisons d’efficacité, la juridiction d’un autre Etat qui serait en mesure de mieux faire respecter l’injonction anti-suit peut aussi l’ordonner
The anti-suit injunction is the only means capable of preventing a party from being involved in proceedings commenced before a domestic court of its choice in bad faith and with the only objective of disrupting arbitration. It is most efficient in the form of an interim measure. In accordance with modern arbitration laws and rules, this jurisdictional tool may be obtained, in this form, from arbitration tribunals, which normally have sufficient imperium to order it, as well as to impose sanctions on any non-compliant party. Although it can be issued before the parties’ rights have been determined, the arbitrator must nevertheless make sure that its legal basis falls under his jurisdiction. Examples of such legal bases are the prima facie potential breaches of one of the obligations contained in the arbitration clause, such as to perform it in good faith, or of a confidentiality clause contained in the main contract. This restraining measure is also available to the French judge, since prohibitory injunctions are hardly unknown to French law. In the field of arbitration, it appears that its use may be permitted under the new Brussels 1 bis Regulation in spite of the West Tankers case and, especially, where it takes the form of an interim measure. When its issuance appears to be legitimate, it is primarily for the court of the seat of an arbitration to decide whether it should be ordered in support of the arbitration proceedings. However, for reasons of efficiency, if the court of another country happens to be in a better position to ensure compliance with the anti-suit injunction, it may also order it

Cette thèse prend pour point de départ l'exploration de quelques pratiques chimiques contemporaines en vue d'identifier certains réquisits que devrait satisfaire un concept d'émergence pour être mis en relation avec la chimie. Cette épistémologie distribuée prend appui sur l'histoire de la chimie. Dans cette perspective seront mis en évidence : la dépendance mutuelle des niveaux d'organisation ainsi que celle des relations et des relata, et le rôle constitutif des modes d'intervention dans la définition, toujours ouverte et provisoire, de ce à quoi les chimistes disent avoir affaire. Un détour par l'histoire de la philosophie est alors envisagé pour étudier comment les émergentistes britanniques ont mis en relation la chimie avec l'émergence. L'étude attentive de ces textes est l'occasion d'une mise au banc d'essai de mon étude préliminaire. Nous revenons ensuite aux définitions formelles de l'émergence, et en particulier aux analyses de Kim, en montrant que la clause ceteris paribus sur laquelle elles s'appuient prend un autre sens en métrologie chimique. Cette étude nous permet d'insister sur le rôle et l'importance de deux types de méréologie pour penser l'émergence d'un point de vue formel en tenant compte de la spécificité du travail des chimistes. La thèse envisage enfin de prolonger son enquête en explorant les travaux en chimie quantique et la façon très particulière avec laquelle ils entre-définissent un tout, ses parties et le milieu qui leur est associé. Une mise en relation est alors tentée et ouvre plusieurs pistes : une approche ontologique et pragmatique adaptant à la chimie le concept d'habitude de Peirce repris par Claudine Tiercelin ou celui d' " affordance " proposé par Rom Harré ; une approche pragmatique et transcendantale inspirée des travaux menés par Michel Bitbol en philosophie de la physique quantique ; et, enfin, une approche qui prend en charge les conséquences des transformations chimiques sur les humains et les non-humains, en réintégrant les conditions pragmatiques, socio-politiques, institutionnelles et technologiques de la chimie dans le débat à propos de l'émergence.

Oggetto della tesi di dottorato é l’analisi del concetto di “necessità” come applicato nel diritto internazionale degli investimenti. La tematica ha attratto l’attenzione della dottrina solo recentemente. Infatti, il diritto internazionale degli investimenti si è sviluppato soprattutto negli ultimi vent’anni, con un numero sempre crescente di accordi internazionali di promozione e protezione degli investimenti. Ad oggi, oltre 2.500 trattati bilaterali di investimento (BITs, secondo l’acronimo inglese – Bilateral Investment Treaties) garantiscono protezione agli investitori stranieri negli Stati di investimento. Negli ultimi anni si inoltre assistito ad un aumento di arbitrati internazionali in materia di investimenti. In particolare, l’ICSID (International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of other States) si è rivelato il forum privilegiato di soluzione di controversie tra Stati e investitori stranieri che lamentavano violazioni di BITs. I tribunali arbitrali chiamati a dirimere le relative controversie si sono trovati così ad affrontare questioni sostanziali in materia di diritto degli investimenti. Nel sistema ICSID, più di 40 procedimenti (alcuni dei quali tuttora pendenti) sono stati iniziati contro la Repubblica argentina. I ricorrenti, per lo più investitori americani, hanno sostenuto che le misure adottate dal Governo argentino per far fronte alla grave crisi economica e finanziaria che aveva colpito il paese alla fine del 2001 avevano violato una serie di obblighi internazionali garantiti dai BITs. In molti dei casi già decisi, l’Argentina ha invocato lo stato di necessità per giustificare le presunte violazioni dei BITs, basandosi sia sulle clausole di emergenza contenute nei trattati applicabili, che sulla regole consuetudinaria dello stato di necessità. La presente tesi di ricerca offre uno studio sistematico della materia. In via preliminare, occorre verificare se esista una definizione condivisa di “necessità” a livello di diritto internazionale generale. La Commissione di diritto internazionale delle Nazioni Unite (CDI) ha codificato lo stato di necessità come circostanza escludente l’illiceità nell’articolo 25 dell’“Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts” del 2001 (Articoli della CDI). Si trattato del primo (e unico) tentativo di codificare lo stato di necessità a livello di diritto internazionale generale. In particolare, l’articolo 25 afferma che uno Stato non può invocare la necessità come causa escludente l’illiceità di una condotta non in conformità con un obbligo internazionale, a meno che tale condotta costituisca l’unico modo per lo Stato di salvaguardare un interesse essenziale a fronte di un pericolo grave ed imminente. Oggi si considera che tale articolo rifletta la regola di diritto internazionale consuetudinario sullo stato di necessitá. Quando si passa a considerare come il concetto di “necessità” venga applicato nei diversi settori del diritto internazionale, di particolare interesse sono le interazioni che si creano tra la norma consuetudinaria relativa allo stato di necessità e i diversi tipi di clausole di emergenza che si ritrovano nei trattati internazionali. Queste ultime, infatti, permettono agli Stati di derogare ai propri obblighi convenzionali in determinate circostanze. In questo senso, la necessità opera come norma primaria, dal momento che la condotta dello Stato è lecita nei limiti in cui vengono rispettati i requisiti stabiliti dalla clausola di necessità. Solo nel caso in cui la clausola di necessità non possa essere applicata e vi sia una violazione di obblighi internazionali, si può applicare l’articolo 25 degli Articoli della CDI, codificato come norma secondaria di diritto internazionale (che viene quindi in considerazione solo quando si accerti una violazione di un obbligo internazionale). Questo è vero anche quando si passano ad esaminare i casi arbitrali in materia di investimenti. In particolare, la lettura dei decisioni arbitrali relative all’Argentina consente di mettere in luce i punti fondamentali della questione. Come già ricordato, in molti casi già decisi nel quadro del sistema di soluzione delle controversie dell’ICSID, l’Argentina ha invocato lo stato di necessità per escludere la sua responsabilità per le presunte violazioni del BIT applicabile. I tribunali arbitrali chiamati a decidere sulla corretta applicazione delle norme nei casi di specie sono giunti a decisioni discordanti. Alcuni hanno infatti escluso l’applicazione dell’esimente della necessità (basandosi per lo più sull’articolo 25 degli Articoli della CDI), altri sono invece giunti a conclusioni opposte (applicando in modo pressochè esclusivo la clausola di emergenza contenuta nel BIT). Tuttavia, partendo da una riflessione generale sul rapporto tra norme primarie e norme secondarie nel diritto internazionale generale, sembra possibile trovare una soluzione interpretativa che riesca a tener conto della specifica natura e funzione delle previsioni normative coinvolte. In particolare, occorre considerare le clausole di emergenza contenute nei trattati come norme primarie del diritto internazionale, distinte dalla difesa della necessità di diritto consuetudinario (qualificabile come norma secondaria). In tal modo, si giustifica l’approccio che privilegia l’applicazione delle clausole di emergenza nel caso concreto, rendendo così lecita l’azione dello Stato alla luce degli obblighi derivanti dal BIT applicabile, senza dover ricorrere alla difesa della necessità ex articolo 25 degli Articoli della CDI.
The thesis focuses on the analysis of the state of necessity under international investment law, in particular in the light of the recent case law. The interest in this topic is strictly related to the recent attention devoted to international investment law by international scholars. International investment law has developed mainly in the last two decades, particularly through the extraordinary increase of international investment agreements, with over 2500 bilateral investment treaties (BITs) granting protection to foreign investors in host State. The last few years have also witnessed a rise of investment arbitration. In this regard, the ICSID (International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of other States) system has turned out to be a forum for adjudicating claims arising from the alleged violations of BITs. Today 147 States are parties to the ICSID Convention and investors in those State may bring claims directly to host Sates. Arbitral tribunals have thus come to deal with substantive issue of investment protection in the efforts of solving disputes between private investors and host States. In the ICSID context, more than 40 cases actually pending have been brought against the Republic of Argentina. Claimants (for the most part American private investors) have alleged that the Argentine Government’s regulatory measures adopted to cope with financial crisis that hit the country in late 2001 had breached a number of BITs obligations. In most of the cases already decided, Argentina invoked the necessity defence to justify the alleged violations of the applicable BITs, relying on both the emergency clause included in the applicable US-Argentina BIT and on the customary rule of necessity. Arbitral tribunals did not deal with the necessity defence in the same way and this situation led to inconsistent decisions. The present work offers a systemic study of this issue. The first task of the research is to outline the concept of necessity under general international law. Indeed, under general international law, the concept of necessity has been subject to an evolving interpretation. The United Nations International Law Commission (ILC) has codified the state of necessity as a circumstance precluding wrongfulness in article 25 of its 2001 Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (ILC Articles). This work has been the first (and only) attempt at codifying the state of necessity under international law. In particular, article 25 affirms that a State may not invoke necessity as a ground for precluding the wrongfulness of an act not in conformity with an international obligation, unless the act is the only way for the State to safeguard an essential interest against a grave and imminent peril. Article 25 has come to be considered as reflecting customary international law on necessity. When considering how the concept of ‘necessity’ is applied in the different fields of international law, the role of the emergency clauses included in international treaties and their relationship with the necessity defence under customary international law is worth mentioning. Since such provisions refer to a situation of ‘emergency’, which is similar to the concept of ‘necessity’, they are frequently interpreted through reliance on article 25 of the ILC Articles. However, the ILC has drafted ‘necessity’, as a secondary rule of international law. Article 25 is indeed a circumstance precluding the wrongfulness of a conduct which is in breach of an international obligation. Instead, emergency clauses are primary rules of international law. Such clauses justify the non performance of certain treaty obligations under exceptional circumstances. Consequently, an act of the State which meets the requirements of such provisions is lawful under the treaty. It follows that article 25 of the ILC Articles and the treaty-based emergency clauses operate at different levels and deal with different situations. Therefore, the former cannot be relied upon for interpreting the latter. This thesis aims at demonstrating that the primary-secondary rule approach may be also relied upon in the framework of investment arbitration. As a matter of fact, the ICSID Tribunals in the above mentioned cases involving Argentina had to face the question of invocation of the necessity defence both under article 25 of the ILC Articles and under the emergency clause of the applicable BIT and came to different conclusions as to the relationship between these two provisions. While some Tribunals have excluded the application of the necessity defence (relying almost exclusively on article 25 of the ILC Articles), others have come to divergent conclusions (applying instead the emergency clause included in the US-Argentina BIT). In this respect, the thesis shows that treaty-based emergency clauses should be considered as primary rules of international law, distinct from the customary rule of necessity defence (qualified as secondary rule of law). Accordingly, a State may derogate from its treaty obligations under the specific circumstances provided in the emergency clause, without relying on the state of necessity as codified in article 25 of the ILC Articles. This thesis is mainly devoted to the analysis of the case law relating to the Argentine economic crisis. As a matter of fact, the issue of the necessity defence has been dealt with in such instances. Nevertheless, the aim of the research is to offer a systemic framework of the matter. This is also an effort to define a matter of public international law in the context of investment protection.

Crises come in a variety of forms. A focus on the incidence of financial crises underemphasizes the cross-border element in financial crises. How important is the exchange-rate regime in monetary policy strategies? Is the EMU experience a cautionary tale? The exchange-rate regime matters less than we think because financial globalization has conspired to effectively reduce the scope for an independent monetary policy. The EMU is unlikely to survive in its current form. Politicians seek coordinated solutions in a system that is built on policy cooperation. International coordination is only practical in emergency or crisis conditions. Cooperation is desirable only if common standards or objectives are combined with escape clauses to render them realistic. This is a goal worth pursuing. Exiting from post-GFC is a reminder that the focus on policy spillovers is misplaced. Business cycles are rarely synchronized and there cannot be a one-size fits all monetary policy.

This chapter discusses the following topics: challenges concerning the applicable law in international financial transactions; the powers of international arbitrators, the delocalization issue, the emergence of a transnational commercial and financial legal order and its meaning for international arbitration and applicable law; the operation of transnational private law; the building-blocks of private law in international finance; public policy concerning financial instruments; and the applicable law clause in the P.R.I.M.E. Finance arbitration rules.

This chapter studies Articles 3, 4, 5, 18, 23, and 46(1) of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP). The debate about the right to self-determination for indigenous peoples, and its provisional conclusion through the adoption of the Declaration, represents a very significant step in the development of concepts of international legal personality. First, the change in terminology from ‘populations’ to ‘people’ marks the emergence of indigenous peoples as subjects, rather than objects of international law. Second, there was the possibility of drawing on existing international legal language in relation to a safeguard clause, which was eventually adopted in line with the General Assembly's vulnerable Friendly Relations resolution. Without the adoption of this clause, it is unlikely that the Declaration could have been adopted with a significant majority, if at all.

This chapter provides an overview of the diachronic development of the left periphery in German. It introduces the OV/V2 asymmetry as a basic property of continental West Germanic syntax, as well as the components of the verb-second rule. On this basis, it surveys the rise of verb-second, elaborating on state-of-the-art in the beginning of the attestation, on the relation between V2 and the emergence of complementizers in Germanic, as well as on the role of Germanic sentence particles in the left periphery of the clause. In addition, orders challenging the validity V2 in German—such as verb-first, verb-third, and verb-final orders—are discussed. The chapter also discusses the role of information structure in movement to the left periphery, as well as the emergence of a special class of adverbial connectives, which develop from low adverbs and acquire a special status with respect to the left periphery.

Headed relative clauses with filled Spec,CP positions are cross-linguistically rare, but have emerged repeatedly in Indo-European languages. We explore this unusual typological fact by examining the emergence and spread of English headed wh-relatives. The major claims developed in this chapter are: (1) aspects of the diachrony of headed wh-relatives must be reduced to competing specifications of the behaviour of a given lexical item, rather than to competition among multiple forms associated with a given function; (2) headed wh-relatives spread gradually from form to form, rather than spreading gradually up the Accessibility Hierarchy as assumed in much earlier work. We suggest that the unusual typology of headed relatives with filled specifiers can then be understood in terms of inheritance of a stable set of lexical items from Proto-Indo-European, and biases affecting acquisition of the syntactic properties of these items.

The experience of World War II and the precedent of the Japanese American internment dramatically altered the political and legal landscape surrounding habeas corpus and suspension. This chapter discusses Congress’s enactment of the Emergency Detention Act of 1950 along with its repeal in 1971. It further explores how in the wake of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, questions over the scope of executive authority to detain prisoners in wartime arose anew. Specifically, this chapter explores the Supreme Court’s sanctioning of the concept of the “citizen-enemy combatant” in its 2004 decision in Hamdi v. Rumsfeld and evaluates Hamdi against historical precedents. Finally, the chapter explores how Hamdi established the basis for an expansion of the reach of the Suspension Clause in other respects—specifically, to the U.S. Naval Base at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.

This chapter provides an overview of the alignment splits found in most Iranian languages, focussing on their historical emergence, and their currently attested variability. Following Haig (2008), the origins of ergativity in Iranian are linked to pre-existing, non-canonical subject constructions typically involving Benefactives, External Possessors, and Experiencers, which then extended to clauses with participial predicates expressing agentive semantics. The current variation found in the ergative-like constructions is illustrated through three case-studies of dialectal microvariation: Kurdish, Balochi, and Taleshi. It is argued that the variation in the ergative constructions of the modern languages should be viewed as resulting from the interplay of partially independent changes working through distinct sub-systems, in particular case-marking, agreement, and pronominal clitic systems, rather than in terms of monolithic shifts from one alignment type to another. From this perspective, ergativity is merely a taxonomic label for a particular constellation of case and agreement features, with no more theoretical significance than any of the other attested constellations.

AbstractAt the heart of the case for a federal Europe is the need to extend qualified majority voting (QMV) in the Council and co-decision with the European Parliament. Legislative procedures need simplification and clarification. All special laws of the Council should be replaced by introducing a formal class of organic law. Constraints on the use of the passerelle clauses should be eased, along with the relaxation of the provisions on enhanced cooperation to encourage the emergence of a vanguard. The procedures for future treaty revision should be liberalised, bringing them into line with other federal and international organisations.

The paper addresses the evolution of the rules of the European private international labour law and identifies three key challenges that will shape the future development of this field of law and that will have to be addressed by the judiciary and/or the legislators. These challenges include: (i) the operation of the connecting factor engaging place of business, (ii) the interpretation of the escape clause and (iii) challenges resulting from the fourth industrial revolution and emergence of new working arrangements.

AbstractThis chapter begins by considering the dominant affective state that came into being after the election of Trump in 2016, namely shock and disbelief, and contextualizes it through two opposed yet complementary impulses. First, it illustrates how political and cultural derealization was actively promoted by Trump himself and his administration, to then consider the liberal biases that were already implicit in the widespread perception that reality was collapsing. In the context of the emergence of two and seemingly irreconcilable American realities, ever more polarized along partisan lines, the literary world felt compelled to respond and did so publicly. This chapter considers various initiatives but focuses in particular on the insights provided by writers Aleksandar Hemon, Jan Clausen, and Viet Thanh Nguyen, who denounced the exceptionalist rhetoric that was often employed and called for a more engaged and less self-deluded American literature. It then proceeds to map the emerging corpus of ‘Trump fiction’ and existing scholarly studies, and argues that the analyses offered in American Literature in the Era of Trumpism contribute not only to the continued understanding of the landscape of American literature after 2016, but also to the long-standing scholarly tradition of decentering the notion of ‘America.’

Accurate determination of the place of preliminary investigation indicates adherence to the principle of legality in criminal proceedings and the achievement of goals on the protection of rights and lawful interests of the affected parties, as well as on protection of individual from wrongful and unfounded accusations and restrictions of their rights and freedoms. Science addresses the general questions pertaining to determination of the place of preliminary investigation, but does not give due attention to realization of discretionary powers of the higher investigating authority to determination of the place of preliminary investigation. The article reveals the essential conditions for application of such power by the investigating authority, and analyzes case law for compliance with these conditions. The conclusion is made that legislation does not contain clear and specific rules for determination of the place of preliminary investigation, including the territorial jurisdiction of advocating for the election or extension of pre-trial detention. The author describes the flaws in legal regulation associated with the possibility of determination of jurisdiction of a case in administrative proceedings, by means of law enforcement decision prior to the emergence of legal situation (for example, before submission of a request for the election or extension of pre-trial detention) by lowering the rank of investigating authority, for example to district level. From the practical perspective, elimination of such flaws should facilitate the proper application of the corresponding legal norm, as well as accurate determination of the place of preliminary investigation.