Journal articles: 'Embedding a vector of bits'

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Yang, Zekun, and Juan Feng. "A Causal Inference Method for Reducing Gender Bias in Word Embedding Relations." Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 34, no. 05 (April 3, 2020): 9434–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v34i05.6486.

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Word embedding has become essential for natural language processing as it boosts empirical performances of various tasks. However, recent research discovers that gender bias is incorporated in neural word embeddings, and downstream tasks that rely on these biased word vectors also produce gender-biased results. While some word-embedding gender-debiasing methods have been developed, these methods mainly focus on reducing gender bias associated with gender direction and fail to reduce the gender bias presented in word embedding relations. In this paper, we design a causal and simple approach for mitigating gender bias in word vector relation by utilizing the statistical dependency between gender-definition word embeddings and gender-biased word embeddings. Our method attains state-of-the-art results on gender-debiasing tasks, lexical- and sentence-level evaluation tasks, and downstream coreference resolution tasks.

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Lee, Jiann-Der, Yaw-Hwang Chiou, and Jing-Ming Guo. "Reversible Data Hiding Scheme with High Embedding Capacity Using Semi-Indicator-Free Strategy." Mathematical Problems in Engineering 2013 (2013): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/476181.

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A novel reversible data-hiding scheme is proposed to embed secret data into a side-matched-vector-quantization- (SMVQ-) compressed image and achieve lossless reconstruction of a vector-quantization- (VQ-) compressed image. The rather random distributed histogram of a VQ-compressed image can be relocated to locations close to zero by SMVQ prediction. With this strategy, fewer bits can be utilized to encode SMVQ indices with very small values. Moreover, no indicator is required to encode these indices, which yields extrahiding space to hide secret data. Hence, high embedding capacity and low bit rate scenarios are deposited. More specifically, in terms of the embedding rate, the bit rate, and the embedding capacity, experimental results show that the performance of the proposed scheme is superior to those of the former data hiding schemes for VQ-based, VQ/SMVQ-based, and search-order-coding- (SOC-) based compressed images.

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D R, Vinay, and Ananda Babu J. "A Novel Secure Data Hiding Technique into Video Sequences Using RVIHS." International Journal of Computer Network and Information Security 13, no. 2 (April 8, 2021): 53–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.5815/ijcnis.2021.02.05.

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Most of the present hiding techniques on video are considered over plaintext domain and plain video sequences are used to embed information bits. The work presented here reveals the novelty for information embedding in a video sequence over the ciphered domain. The carrier video signal is encrypted using chaos technique which uses multiple chaotic maps for encryption. The proposed reversible video information hiding scheme (RVIHS) exhibits an innovative property that, at the decoding side we can perfectly extract the information along with carrier video without any distortion. The public key modulation is a mechanism used to achieve data embedding, where as in secret key encryption is not required. The proposed approach is used to differentiate encoded and non-encoded picture patches at decoder end by implementing 2 class Support Vector Machine grouping. This helps for us to retrieve the original visual sequence with embedded message and to scale up embedding capacity. The experiment is conducted using real time videos for embedding the information. The outcome of proposed work bring about best embedding capacity, compared to existing techniques.

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Lauscher, Anne, Goran Glavaš, Simone Paolo Ponzetto, and Ivan Vulić. "A General Framework for Implicit and Explicit Debiasing of Distributional Word Vector Spaces." Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 34, no. 05 (April 3, 2020): 8131–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v34i05.6325.

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Distributional word vectors have recently been shown to encode many of the human biases, most notably gender and racial biases, and models for attenuating such biases have consequently been proposed. However, existing models and studies (1) operate on under-specified and mutually differing bias definitions, (2) are tailored for a particular bias (e.g., gender bias) and (3) have been evaluated inconsistently and non-rigorously. In this work, we introduce a general framework for debiasing word embeddings. We operationalize the definition of a bias by discerning two types of bias specification: explicit and implicit. We then propose three debiasing models that operate on explicit or implicit bias specifications and that can be composed towards more robust debiasing. Finally, we devise a full-fledged evaluation framework in which we couple existing bias metrics with newly proposed ones. Experimental findings across three embedding methods suggest that the proposed debiasing models are robust and widely applicable: they often completely remove the bias both implicitly and explicitly without degradation of semantic information encoded in any of the input distributional spaces. Moreover, we successfully transfer debiasing models, by means of cross-lingual embedding spaces, and remove or attenuate biases in distributional word vector spaces of languages that lack readily available bias specifications.

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Tissier, Julien, Christophe Gravier, and Amaury Habrard. "Near-Lossless Binarization of Word Embeddings." Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 33 (July 17, 2019): 7104–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v33i01.33017104.

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Word embeddings are commonly used as a starting point in many NLP models to achieve state-of-the-art performances. However, with a large vocabulary and many dimensions, these floating-point representations are expensive both in terms of memory and calculations which makes them unsuitable for use on low-resource devices. The method proposed in this paper transforms real-valued embeddings into binary embeddings while preserving semantic information, requiring only 128 or 256 bits for each vector. This leads to a small memory footprint and fast vector operations. The model is based on an autoencoder architecture, which also allows to reconstruct original vectors from the binary ones. Experimental results on semantic similarity, text classification and sentiment analysis tasks show that the binarization of word embeddings only leads to a loss of ∼2% in accuracy while vector size is reduced by 97%. Furthermore, a top-k benchmark demonstrates that using these binary vectors is 30 times faster than using real-valued vectors.

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K., Akubuilo, and Rix Torimiro. "LARGE DATA EMBEDDING; PROBLEM & SOLUTION." Engineering Science & Technology Journal 1, no. 2 (December 29, 2019): 18–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.51594/estj.v1i2.114.

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The objective of the study was to propose a high capacity data embedding system from DCT domain. The default quantization table is used for fixed mask projection quantization steps. Accordingly, DCT coefficient of the host image from low to higher frequency bands and embed bits from band to band with specially designed base vectors called Hadamard vectors. The embedding scheme procedure is described step wise. The proposed system can be used for data embedding and can be associated with another encryption method to make it safer. The proposed system is reported to be highly robust and secure

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Cao, Fang, Yujie Fu, Heng Yao, Mian Zou, Jian Li, and Chuan Qin. "Separable Reversible Data Hiding in Encrypted VQ-Encoded Images." Security and Communication Networks 2022 (April 23, 2022): 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/1227926.

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In this paper, a reversible data-hiding scheme in encrypted, vector quantization (VQ) encoded images is proposed. During image encryption, VQ-encoded image, including codebook and index table, is encrypted by content owner with stream-cipher and permutation to protect the privacy of image contents. As for additional-data embedding, a baseline method is first proposed and its corresponding optimized method is then given. By grouping one high-occurrence index with one or multiple low-occurrence indices, a series of index groups are constructed. Thus, by modifying the high-occurrence index to the corresponding index within the same group according to the current to-be-embedded bits, data embedding can be realized. The optimal hiding capacity is obtained by optimizing the coefficient vector for different types of index groups. Separable operations of data extraction, image decryption, and recovery can be achieved on the receiver side based on the availability of the encryption and data-hiding keys. Experimental results show that our scheme can achieve high hiding capacity and satisfactory directly decrypted image quality and guarantee security and reversibility simultaneously.

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Subramanian, Maheswari, and Reeba Korah. "A Framework of Secured Embedding Scheme Using Vector Discrete Wavelet Transformation and Lagrange Interpolation." Journal of Computer Networks and Communications 2018 (2018): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/8695103.

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Information hiding techniques have a significant role in recent application areas. Steganography is the embedding of information within an innocent cover work in a way which cannot be detected by any person without accessing the steganographic key. The proposed work uses a steganographic scheme for useful information with the help of human skin tone regions as cover image. The proposed algorithm has undergone Lagrange interpolation encryption for enhancement of the security of the hidden information. First, the skin tone regions are identified by using YCbCr color space which can be used as a cover image. Image pixels which belong to the skin regions are used to carry more secret bits, and the secret information is hidden in both horizontal and vertical sequences of the skin areas of the cover image. The secret information will hide behind the human skin regions rather than other objects in the same image because the skin pixels have high intensity value. The performance of embedding is done and is quite invisible by the vector discrete wavelet transformation (VDWT) technique. A new Lagrange interpolation-based encryption method is introduced to achieve high security of the hidden information with higher payload and better visual quality.

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Tang, Chun Ge, Tie Sheng Fan, Lei Liu, and Zhi Hui Li. "Blind Digital Image Watermarking Algorithm Based on the Chain Code." Advanced Materials Research 546-547 (July 2012): 410–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.546-547.410.

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A new blind digital watermarking algorithm based on the chain code is proposed. The chain code is obtained by the characteristics of the original image -the edge contour. The feather can reflect the overall correlation of the vector image, and chain code expression can significantly reduce the boundary representation of the amount of data required. For the watermarking embedding, the original vector image is divided into sub-block images, and two bits of the watermarking information are embedded into sub-block images repeatedly by quantization. For watermarking extracting, the majority decision method is employed to determine the size of the extracted watermark. Experimental results show that the image quality is not significantly lowered after watermarking. The algorithm can resist the basic conventional attacks and has good robustness on the shear attacks.

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Voyiatzis, Ioannis. "A Low-Cost BIST Scheme for Test Vector Embedding in Accumulator-Generated Sequences." VLSI Design 2008 (March 17, 2008): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2008/680157.

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Test set embedding built-in self test (BIST) schemes are a class of pseudorandom BIST techniques where the test set is embedded into the sequence generated by the BIST pattern generator, and they displace common pseudorandom schemes in cases where reverse-order simulation cannot be applied. Single-seed embedding schemes embed the test set into a single sequence and demand extremely small hardware overhead since no additional control or memory to reconfigure the test pattern generator is required. The challenge in this class of schemes is to choose the best pattern generator among various candidate configurations. This, in turn, calls for a need to evaluate the location of each test pattern in the sequence as fast as possible, in order to try as many candidate configurations as possible for the test pattern generator. This problem is known as the test vector-embedding problem. In this paper we present a novel solution to the test vector-embedding problem for sequences generated by accumulators. The time overhead of the solution is of the order O(1). The applicability of the presented method for embedding test sets for the testing of real-world circuits is investigated through experimental results in some well-known benchmarks; comparisons with previously proposed schemes indicate that comparable test lengths are achieved, while the time required for the calculations is accelerated by more than 30 times.

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Hou, Xiang, Lianquan Min, and Hui Yang. "A Reversible Watermarking Scheme for Vector Maps Based on Multilevel Histogram Modification." Symmetry 10, no. 9 (September 12, 2018): 397. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sym10090397.

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To protect the security of vector maps, we propose a novel reversible watermarking scheme for vector maps based on a multilevel histogram modification. First, a difference histogram is constructed using the correlations of adjacent coordinates, and the histogram is divided into continuous regions and discontinuous regions by combining the characteristics of vector map data. Second, the histogram bins that require modification are determined in the continuous regions through the optimal peak value, and the peak values are chosen from the flanking discontinuous regions in both directions; the watermarks are embedded by adopting the multilevel histogram modification strategy. The watermark extraction process is the reverse of the embedding process, and after completing the watermark extraction, the carrier data can be recovered losslessly. The experimental results show that the proposed algorithm has good invisibility and is completely reversible. Compared with similar algorithms reported previously, it achieves higher watermark embedding capacity under the same embedding distortion with lower complexity, thereby having a higher application value.

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Gong, Cheng, Jingbing Li, Uzair Aslam Bhatti, Ming Gong, Jixin Ma, and Mengxing Huang. "Robust and Secure Zero-Watermarking Algorithm for Medical Images Based on Harris-SURF-DCT and Chaotic Map." Security and Communication Networks 2021 (November 3, 2021): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/3084153.

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To protect the patient information in medical images, this article proposes a robust watermarking algorithm for medical images based on Harris-SURF-DCT. First, the corners of the medical image are extracted using the Harris corner detection algorithm, and then, the previously extracted corners are described using the method of describing feature points in the SURF algorithm to generate the feature descriptor matrix. Then, the feature descriptor matrix is processed through the perceptual hash algorithm to obtain the feature vector of the medical image, which is a binary feature vector with a size of 32 bits. Secondly, to enhance the security of the watermark information, the logistic map algorithm is used to encrypt the watermark before embedding the watermark. Finally, with the help of cryptography knowledge, third party, and zero-watermarking technology, the algorithm can embed the watermark without modifying the medical image. When extracting the watermark, the algorithm can extract the watermark from the test image without the original image. In addition, the algorithm has strong robustness to conventional attacks and geometric attacks. Especially under geometric attacks, the algorithm performs better.

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Nematollahi, Mohammad Ali, Chalee Vorakulpipat, and Hamurabi Gamboa Rosales. "Optimization of a Blind Speech Watermarking Technique against Amplitude Scaling." Security and Communication Networks 2017 (2017): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/5454768.

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This paper presents a gain invariant speech watermarking technique based on quantization of the Lp-norm. In this scheme, first, the original speech signal is divided into different frames. Second, each frame is divided into two vectors based on odd and even indices. Third, quantization index modulation (QIM) is used to embed the watermark bits into the ratio of the Lp-norm between the odd and even indices. Finally, the Lagrange optimization technique is applied to minimize the embedding distortion. By applying a statistical analytical approach, the embedding distortion and error probability are estimated. Experimental results not only confirm the accuracy of the driven statistical analytical approach but also prove the robustness of the proposed technique against common signal processing attacks.

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Kang, Jinwoo, Hyunjung Kim, and Sang-ug Kang. "Genuine Reversible Data Hiding Technique for H.264 Bitstream Using Multi-Dimensional Histogram Shifting Technology on QDCT Coefficients." Applied Sciences 10, no. 18 (September 14, 2020): 6410. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10186410.

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Video has become the most important medium for communication among people. Video has become the most important medium for communication among people. Therefore, reversible data hiding technologies for video have been developed so that information can be hidden in the video without damaging the original video in order to be used in the copyright protection and distribution field of video. This paper proposes a practical and genuine reversible data hiding method by using a multi-dimensional histogram shifting scheme on QDCT coefficients in the H.264/AVC bitstream. The proposed method defines the vacant histogram bins as a set of n-dimensional vectors and finds the optimal vector space, which gives the best performance, in a 4 × 4 QDCT block. In addition, the secret message is mapped to the optimal vector space, which is equivalent to embedding the information into the QDCT block. The simulation results show that the data hiding efficiency is the highest among the compared five existing methods. In addition, the image distortion and maximum payload capacity are measured quite high.

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Kumar, Vaibhav, Tenzin Singhay Bhotia, Vaibhav Kumar, and Tanmoy Chakraborty. "Nurse is Closer to Woman than Surgeon? Mitigating Gender-Biased Proximities in Word Embeddings." Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics 8 (August 2020): 486–503. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/tacl_a_00327.

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Word embeddings are the standard model for semantic and syntactic representations of words. Unfortunately, these models have been shown to exhibit undesirable word associations resulting from gender, racial, and religious biases. Existing post-processing methods for debiasing word embeddings are unable to mitigate gender bias hidden in the spatial arrangement of word vectors. In this paper, we propose RAN-Debias, a novel gender debiasing methodology that not only eliminates the bias present in a word vector but also alters the spatial distribution of its neighboring vectors, achieving a bias-free setting while maintaining minimal semantic offset. We also propose a new bias evaluation metric, Gender-based Illicit Proximity Estimate (GIPE), which measures the extent of undue proximity in word vectors resulting from the presence of gender-based predilections. Experiments based on a suite of evaluation metrics show that RAN-Debias significantly outperforms the state-of-the-art in reducing proximity bias (GIPE) by at least 42.02%. It also reduces direct bias, adding minimal semantic disturbance, and achieves the best performance in a downstream application task (coreference resolution).

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Jasim, Abbas. "Image Hiding Using Variable Length Least Significant Bits Embedding." Iraqi Journal for Electrical and Electronic Engineering 10, no. 1 (June 1, 2014): 15–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.37917/ijeee.10.1.2.

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In this work a new hiding system is proposed. It is based on Least Significant Bits (LSB) embedding of secrete image into another cover image. The proposed hiding algorithm embeds the secrete image bits in the least significant bits of the cover image pixels such that the number of secrete image bits that are embedded in least significant bits of cover image pixel is variable and determined randomly. Such cover image pixel may contain no secrete information bit, one bit, two bits , or three bits according to the pseudo random number generator that generates integer numbers randomly between 0 and 3. The resulting image (the cover image within which the secret image is hidden) is called stego_image. Stego_image is closely related to the cover image and does not show any details of the secret information. It ensures that the eavedroppers will not have any suspicion that message bits are hidden in the image. The proposed system achieves perfect reconstruction of the secret message.

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Sao, Nguyen Kim, Nguyen Ngoc Hoa, and Pham Van At. "AN EFFECTIVE REVERSIBLE DATA HIDING METHOD BASED ON PIXEL-VALUE-ORDERING." Journal of Computer Science and Cybernetics 36, no. 2 (May 11, 2020): 139–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.15625/1813-9663/36/2/14084.

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This paper presents a new effective reversible data hiding method based on pixel-value-ordering (iGePVO-K) which is improvement of a recent GePVO-K method that recently is considered as a PVO-used method having highest embedding capacity. In comparison with GePVO-K method, iGePVO-K has the following advantages. First, the embedding capacity of the new method is higher than that of GePVO-K method by using data embedding formulas reasonably and reducing the location map size. Second, for embedding data, in the new method, each pixel value is modified at most by one, while in GePVO-K method, each pixel value may be modified by two. In fact, in the GePVO-K method, the largest pixels are modified by two for embedding bits 1 and by one for bits 0. This is also true for the smallest pixels. Meanwhile, in the proposed method, the largest pixels are modified by one for embedding bits 1 and are unchanged if embedding bits 0. Therefore, the stego-image quality in proposed method is better than that in GePVO-K method. Theoretical analysis and experiment results show that the proposed method has higher embedding capacity and better stego image quality than GePVO-K method.

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GALKA, ANDREAS, and GERD PFISTER. "DYNAMICAL CORRELATIONS ON RECONSTRUCTED INVARIANT DENSITIES AND THEIR EFFECT ON CORRELATION DIMENSION ESTIMATION." International Journal of Bifurcation and Chaos 13, no. 03 (March 2003): 723–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218127403006881.

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We investigate the structure of dynamical correlations on reconstructed attractors which were obtained by time-delay embedding of periodic, quasi-periodic and chaotic time series. Within the specific sampling of the invariant density by a finite number of vectors which results from embedding, we identify two separate levels of sampling, corresponding to two different types of dynamical correlations, each of which produces characteristic artifacts in correlation dimension estimation: the well-known trajectory bias and a characteristic oscillation due to periodic sampling. For the second artifact we propose random sampling as a new correction method which is shown to provide improved sampling and to reduce dynamical correlations more efficiently than it has been possible by the standard Theiler correction. For accurate numerical analysis of correlation dimension in a bootstrap framework both corrections should be combined. For tori and the Lorenz attractor we also show how to construct time-delay embeddings which are completely free of any dynamical correlations.

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Ulčar, Matej, Anka Supej, Marko Robnik-Šikonja, and Senja Pollak. "Slovene and Croatian word embeddings in terms of gender occupational analogies." Slovenščina 2.0: empirical, applied and interdisciplinary research 9, no. 1 (July 6, 2021): 26–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.4312/slo2.0.2021.1.26-59.

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In recent years, the use of deep neural networks and dense vector embeddings for text representation have led to excellent results in the field of computational understanding of natural language. It has also been shown that word embeddings often capture gender, racial and other types of bias. The article focuses on evaluating Slovene and Croatian word embeddings in terms of gender bias using word analogy calculations. We compiled a list of masculine and feminine nouns for occupations in Slovene and evaluated the gender bias of fastText, word2vec and ELMo embeddings with different configurations and different approaches to analogy calculations. The lowest occupational gender bias was observed with the fastText embeddings. Similarly, we compared different fastText embeddings on Croatian occupational analogies.

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Yang, Jun De, Zhong Ping Luo, Fan Lu, and Yuan Wang. "Research on Embedding Strength of Diamond." Key Engineering Materials 480-481 (June 2011): 560–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.480-481.560.

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It is stated that Diamond saw blades requires high embedding strength of the diamond, while diamond drill bits do not. It is necessary to improve the embedding strength of diamond in diamond saw blades, rather than in the diamond drilling bits. It is recommended to count the number of diamond particles on the matrix surface and get the embedding strength of diamond by calculation. Another recommendation is to use the compound powder of cobalt and tungsten carbide for pelletizing in order to improve the embedding strength of diamond and lower the cost of matrix. There are people studying how to raise embedding strength of diamond, for both diamond saw blades and diamond drilling bit. However, the requirements for embedding strength of diamond saw blades and diamond drilling bit are different. The following parts include the analysis for this problem.

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Bray, Elizabeth. "Fixing and Embedding Protocol for Octocorals and Their Sclerites." Microscopy Today 9, no. 2 (March 2001): 33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929500056467.

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Many organisms are mostly soft tissue, with hard bits embedded within them. This includes many invertebrates, and vertebrates with calcified areas in their tissues. This procedure works well for soft-bodied corals which have hard pieces of calcium carbonate (sclerites) embedded in their tissues. It should also work for similar soft-tissue/calcified bits in other animals.

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Xiao, Hong, and Panchi Li. "Quantum steganography based on reflected gray code for color images." Intelligent Decision Technologies 14, no. 3 (September 29, 2020): 291–312. http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/idt-190034.

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Digital steganography is the art and science of hiding information in covert channels, so as to conceal the information and prevent the detection of hidden messages. On the classic computer, the principle and method of digital steganography has been widely and deeply studied, and has been initially extended to the field of quantum computing. Quantum image steganography is a relatively active branch of quantum image processing, and the main strategy currently used is to modify the LSB of the cover image pixels. For the existing LSB-based quantum image steganography schemes, the embedding capacity is no more than 3 bits per pixel. Therefore, it is meaningful to study how to improve the embedding capacity of quantum image steganography. This work presents a novel steganography using reflected Gray code for color quantum images, and the embedding capacity of this scheme is up to 6 bits per pixel. In proposed scheme, the secret qubit sequence is considered as a sequence of 6-bit segments. For 6 bits in each segment, the first 3 bits are embedded into the second LSB of RGB channels of the cover image, and the remaining 3 bits are embedded into the LSB of RGB channels of the cover image using reflected-Gray code to determine the embedded bit from secret information. Following the transforming rule, the LSBs of stego-image are not always same as the secret bits and the differences are up to almost 50%. Experimental results confirm that the proposed scheme shows good performance and outperforms the previous ones currently found in the literature in terms of embedding capacity.

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Saini, Mangat, and Pratibha. "A Review on Various Approaches of Image Steganography and Data Security." International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Science and Software Engineering 8, no. 1 (January 30, 2018): 102. http://dx.doi.org/10.23956/ijarcsse.v8i1.532.

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Images are used as the popular cover objects for steganography. A message is embedded in a digital image through an embedding algorithm, using the secret key. In this process image is divided into different regions for the detection of least significant bits available in different images. The no. of bits that can be utilized for image enhancement depend upon the pixel intensity the low intensity pixel utilizes less no. of bits and pixel having a high intensity utilized maximum bits in the process of hiding the image. The issue in this is security for prevention image from stegnalysis attack and the secret data is available in such a manner as it transmitted.in this paper a review on various approaches have been done that has been used for embedding of secret information behind the cover object.

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Zakaria, Abdul, Mehdi Hussain, Ainuddin Wahab, Mohd Idris, Norli Abdullah, and Ki-Hyun Jung. "High-Capacity Image Steganography with Minimum Modified Bits Based on Data Mapping and LSB Substitution." Applied Sciences 8, no. 11 (November 9, 2018): 2199. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app8112199.

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Steganography is the art and practice of communication using hidden messages. The least significant bits (LSB) based method is the well-known type of steganography in the spatial domain. Usually, achieving the larger embedding capacity in LSB-based methods requires a large number of LSB bits modification which indirectly reduces the visual quality of stego-image and increases the risk of steganalysis detection attacks. In this study, we propose a novel steganography method with data mapping strategy which can reduce the number of bits modification per pixel. In the proposed method, four secret data bits are mapped with the four most significant bits of a cover pixel. Furthermore, the only two LSBs of a pixel are modified to indicate the mapping strategy. Experimental results show that the proposed method is able to achieve 3.48% larger embedding capacity while enhancing the visual quality (i.e., peak signal to noise ratio (PSNR) 3.73 dB) and reducing the modification of 0.76 bits per pixel. Moreover, the proposed method provides security against basic Regular and Singular groups (RS) steganalysis and histogram steganalysis detection attacks.

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Yongjun, Kong, Zhang Minqing, Wang Zexi, Ke Yan, and Huang Siyuan. "Reversible Data Hiding in Encrypted Domain Based on the Error-Correction Redundancy of Encryption Process." Security and Communication Networks 2022 (May 12, 2022): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/6299469.

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The existing reversible data hiding methods in encrypted domain separate image encryption from information embedding and do not make full use of the redundant space in the process of image encryption. In order to improve the performance of reversible data hiding by using the technical characteristics of image encryption, a reversible data hiding method based on McEliece error correction is proposed. Firstly, the segmentation position of bit plane is determined according to the embedding requirement and texture characteristic, and the image is divided into high and low significant bits. Secondly, because of the error-correcting characteristic of McEliece encryption, reversible data embedding can be realized while encrypting low significant bits. Then, the high significant bits are compressed to reserve space for the ciphertext extension of the low significant bits. Finally, the whole high significant bits information is stream-encrypted. As long as the image receiver has the decryption key, the image can be restored without distortion. By concealing the relationship between error correction and secret information mapping, the concealment of secret information transmission can be realized. In addition, due to different processing for different pixels, it can be efficiently transmitted with low computational complexity for applications that only need general images. The simulation results show that this scheme can not only realize the separable operation of information extraction and image recovery but also resist the noise attack to a certain extent. The maximum embedding rates of 10 standard images from USC-SIPI and 50 standard images from BOSS-BASE are 2.228 and 2.323 bpp, respectively.

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Wang, Haoye, Xin Xia, David Lo, Qiang He, Xinyu Wang, and John Grundy. "Context-aware Retrieval-based Deep Commit Message Generation." ACM Transactions on Software Engineering and Methodology 30, no. 4 (July 2021): 1–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3464689.

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Commit messages recorded in version control systems contain valuable information for software development, maintenance, and comprehension. Unfortunately, developers often commit code with empty or poor quality commit messages. To address this issue, several studies have proposed approaches to generate commit messages from commit diffs . Recent studies make use of neural machine translation algorithms to try and translate git diffs into commit messages and have achieved some promising results. However, these learning-based methods tend to generate high-frequency words but ignore low-frequency ones. In addition, they suffer from exposure bias issues, which leads to a gap between training phase and testing phase. In this article, we propose CoRec to address the above two limitations. Specifically, we first train a context-aware encoder-decoder model that randomly selects the previous output of the decoder or the embedding vector of a ground truth word as context to make the model gradually aware of previous alignment choices. Given a diff for testing, the trained model is reused to retrieve the most similar diff from the training set. Finally, we use the retrieval diff to guide the probability distribution for the final generated vocabulary. Our method combines the advantages of both information retrieval and neural machine translation. We evaluate CoRec on a dataset from Liu et al. and a large-scale dataset crawled from 10K popular Java repositories in Github. Our experimental results show that CoRec significantly outperforms the state-of-the-art method NNGen by 19% on average in terms of BLEU.

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Tiwari, Dhananjay. "Improving signal-to-noise ratio of magnetic tunnel junction based radio frequency detector via spin-torque ferromagnetic resonance." Review of Scientific Instruments 93, no. 5 (May 1, 2022): 053904. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0087860.

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This article focuses on the spin-torque ferromagnetic resonance (STFMR) technique, which was developed and optimized to investigate spin-transfer effects in magnetic tunnel junctions (MTJ) and spin Hall effect phenomena in ferromagnet/non-magnetic heavy metal bilayer systems. The devices for STFMR are typically fabricated with co-planar waveguides with contact pads for applying radio frequency or direct current, Irf(Idc). The device under investigation was a CoFeB/MgO/CoFeB based MTJ with a resistance-area product of 1.5 Ω ( μm)2 having a circular cross section with a diameter of 180 nm and tunneling magneto-resistance in the range of 60%–80%. The development of the STFMR setup and its optimization for achieving higher signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is discussed using two modulation schemes, namely, radio-frequency modulation and field modulation (FM). The FM-STFMR method reduces frequency-dependent noise and offers a higher SNR of 30 dB compared to other modulation schemes in the literature. In addition, a vector network analyzer based STFMR technique is developed, which provides a simple and fast means for characterizing MTJ devices. Furthermore, to calculate the exact power reaching the MTJ, impedance mismatch is calculated using the de-embedding method. The magnitude of in-plane torkance and out-of-plane torkance with dc bias is measured, and the results are found to be consistent with the results of STFMR techniques. The results show that the magnitude of out-of-plane torkance is substantially smaller than that of in-plane torkance in MTJ.

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Ker, Andrew D. "Steganalysis of Embedding in Two Least-Significant Bits." IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security 2, no. 1 (March 2007): 46–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tifs.2006.890519.

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Wang, Jijun, and Soo Fun Tan. "Separable Reversible Data Hiding in Encryption Image with Two-Tuples Coding." Computers 10, no. 7 (July 7, 2021): 86. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/computers10070086.

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Separable Reversible Data Hiding in Encryption Image (RDH-EI) has become widely used in clinical and military applications, social cloud and security surveillance in recent years, contributing significantly to preserving the privacy of digital images. Aiming to address the shortcomings of recent works that directed to achieve high embedding rate by compensating image quality, security, reversible and separable properties, we propose a two-tuples coding method by considering the intrinsic adjacent pixels characteristics of the carrier image, which have a high redundancy between high-order bits. Subsequently, we construct RDH-EI scheme by using high-order bits compression, low-order bits combination, vacancy filling, data embedding and pixel diffusion. Unlike the conventional RDH-EI practices, which have suffered from the deterioration of the original image while embedding additional data, the content owner in our scheme generates the embeddable space in advance, thus lessening the risk of image destruction on the data hider side. The experimental results indicate the effectiveness of our scheme. A ratio of 28.91% effectively compressed the carrier images, and the embedding rate increased to 1.753 bpp with a higher image quality, measured in the PSNR of 45.76 dB.

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Zhou, RiGui, YouDe Cheng, Hou Ian, and XingAo Liu. "Quantum watermarking algorithm based on chaotic affine scrambling." International Journal of Quantum Information 17, no. 04 (June 2019): 1950038. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0219749919500382.

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In order to improve the security of watermark image, a scheme of quantum watermarking algorithm which is based on chaotic affine scrambling is proposed and it includes scrambling, embedding and extracting procedures. In the embedding process, the position and the color of the watermark image are scrambled by chaotic affine and the size of the scrambled watermark image is extended from [Formula: see text] to [Formula: see text]. Meanwhile, the color value of the pixel is changed from 24-bits to 3-[Formula: see text](1-bit per channel) bits. The extended watermark image is embedded into the carrier image through a two-bit embedding strategy, and the extraction process is the inverse one of the embedding process. The simulation results show that the proposed scheme is superior to the comparison scheme in terms of visual quality, peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR).

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Yu, Lifang, Yun Q. Shi, Yao Zhao, Rongrong Ni, and Gang Cao. "A Study on Embedding Efficiency of Matrix Encoding." International Journal of Digital Crime and Forensics 4, no. 1 (January 2012): 37–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/jdcf.2012010103.

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In this paper, the authors examine embedding efficiency, which influences the most concerned performance of steganography, security, directly. Embedding efficiency is defined as the number of random message bits embedded per embedding change. Recently, matrix embedding has gained extensive attention because of its outstanding performance in boosting steganographic schemes’ embedding efficiency. Firstly, the authors evaluate embedding change not only on the number of changed coefficients but also on the varying magnitude of changed coefficients. Secondly, embedding efficiency of matrix embedding with different radixes is formularized and investigated. A conclusion is drawn that ternary matrix embedding can achieve the highest embedding efficiency.

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Swain, Gandharba, and Saroj Kumar Lenka. "A Robust Image Steganography Technique Using Dynamic Embedding with Two Least Significant Bits." Advanced Materials Research 403-408 (November 2011): 835–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.403-408.835.

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In this paper we are proposing a new Image steganography technique for secure communication between sender and receiver. At the sender we follow two steps. In the first step we encrypt the secret information by blowfish algorithm and in second step we embed the cipher text in LSB minus one and LSB (least significant bit) locations of some of the selected pixels (bytes) of the carrier image. One pixel is 8 bits in 8-bit gray scale. The selection of the pixels is done by a dynamic evaluation function. Depending on the cipher text bits, the dynamic evaluation function decides on which pixels the different cipher text bits are to be embedded. At the receiver also two steps are followed, first the cipher bits are retrieved from the image from the said locations and then it is decrypted by using the blowfish algorithm to get the secret information. As the embedding byte locations are decided based on bits of the cipher text, so it is dynamic steganography. This approach provides two levels of security, one at the cryptography level and the other at the steganography level. The proposed technique is experimented through a large number of experiments.

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Tian, Hui, Jie Qin, Yongfeng Huang, Xu An Wang, Jin Liu, Yonghong Chen, Tian Wang, and Yiqiao Cai. "A High-Capacity Covering Code for Voice-Over-IP Steganography." International Journal of Information Technology and Web Engineering 10, no. 3 (July 2015): 46–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijitwe.2015070104.

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Although steganographic transparency and embedding capacity are considered to be two conflicting objectives in the design of steganographic systems, it is possible and necessary to strike a good balance between them in Voice-over-IP steganography. In this paper, to improve steganographic transparency while maintaining relatively large embedding capacity, the authors present a (2n-1, 2n) covering code, which can hide 2n-1 bits of secret messages into 2n bits of cover messages with not more than n-bit changed. Specifically, each (2n-1)-bit secret message is first transformed into two 2n-bit candidate codewords. In embedding process, the cover message is replaced with the optimal codeword more similar with it. In this way, the embedding distortion can be largely reduced. The proposed method is evaluated by comparing with existing ones with a large number of ITU-T G.729a encoded speech samples. The experimental results show that the authors' scheme can provide good performance on both steganographic transparency and embedding capacity, and achieve better balance between the two objectives than the existing ones.

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Lee, Chin-Feng, Jau-Ji Shen, Somya Agrawal, and Yen-Hsi Li. "High-Capacity Embedding Method Based on Double-Layer Octagon-Shaped Shell Matrix." Symmetry 13, no. 4 (April 1, 2021): 583. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sym13040583.

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Data hiding is a technique that embeds a secret message into a cover medium and transfers the hidden information in the secret message to the recipient. In the past, several data hiding methods based on magic matrix have used various geometrical shapes to transmit secret data. The embedding capacity achieved in these methods was often limited due to simple geometrical layouts. This paper proposes a data hiding scheme based on a double-layer octagon-shaped shell matrix. Compared to previous octagon-shaped data hiding methods, the proposed method embeds a total of 7 bits in each pixel pair, reaching an embedding capacity of 3.5 bits per pixel (bpp). Experimental results show that the proposed scheme has a higher embedding capacity compared to other irreversible data hiding schemes. Using the proposed method, it is possible to maintain the Peak Signal to Noise Ratio (PSNR) within an acceptable range with the embedding time less than 2 s.

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Tieqiao Liu, Jishun Kuang, Weizheng Wang, Zhiqiang You, and Shuo Cai. "Embedding N-Detect Test Set into Controlled Bits Stream." International Journal of Digital Content Technology and its Applications 5, no. 10 (October 31, 2011): 271–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.4156/jdcta.vol5.issue10.31.

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Yang, Chunfang, Fenlin Liu, Xiangyang Luo, and Bin Liu. "Steganalysis Frameworks of Embedding in Multiple Least-Significant Bits." IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security 3, no. 4 (December 2008): 662–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tifs.2008.2007240.

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A. Jasim, Abbas. "Image Hiding Using Variable Length Least Significant Bits Embedding." Iraqi Journal for Electrical And Electronic Engineering 10, no. 1 (June 28, 2014): 15–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.33762/eeej.2014.93014.

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Adi, Prajanto Wahyu, Yani Parti Astuti, and Egia Rosi Subhiyakto. "Feature Image Watermarking Based on Bicubic Interpolation of Wavelet Coefficients Using CRT." CommIT (Communication and Information Technology) Journal 11, no. 2 (October 31, 2017): 93. http://dx.doi.org/10.21512/commit.v11i2.3870.

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The main objective of watermarking method is to improve the robustness and imperceptibility. This paper introduces an improved CRT watermarking method using absolute value of interpolated wavelet coefficients aiming to improve the imperceptibility and robustness. The standard CRT method embeds the watermark bits on the blocks of pixels evenly. Hence, it can significantly reduce the quality of watermarked images when the watermark lies on the homogeneous area. Otherwise, the proposed method is embedding the watermark bits on the heterogeneous area by sorting the absolute magnitude of wavelet coefficients descending. The waveletcoefficients are selected from high frequency wavelet sub band HH. This scheme is able to determine the appropriate embedding location in certain range of value. The watermark bits are then embedding on the selectedpixel value using CRT scheme. The result shows that the average imperceptibility value the CRT is 0.9980 while the proposed method has average value of 0.9993. On robustness against compression, the proposed method achieves better result compared to the CRT with the average NC values of 0.7916 higher than the CRT value of 0.7530. These prove that the proposed method has better performance in term of imperceptibility and robustness against compression than the CRT method.

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Liang, Zhuoqian, Bingwen Feng, Xuba Xu, Xiaotian Wu, and Tao Yang. "Geometrically Invariant Image Watermarking Using Histogram Adjustment." International Journal of Digital Crime and Forensics 10, no. 1 (January 2018): 54–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijdcf.2018010105.

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In this article, a blind image watermarking scheme, which is a robust against common image processing and geometric attacks is proposed by adopting the concept of histogram-based embedding. The average filter is employed to low-pass pre-filter the host image. The watermark bits are embedded into the histogram of the low-frequency component and the template bits are embedded in the high-frequency residual. The embedding is performed by adjusting the value of two consecutive histogram bins. Furthermore, a post-quantization is employed after the embedding round to improve robustness. All pixel modifications incurred are based on the human visual system (HVS) characteristics. As a result, a good tradeoff between robustness and imperceptibility is achieved. Experimental results reported the satisfactory performance of the proposed scheme with respect to both common image processing and geometric attacks.

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Lee, Chin-Feng, and Hua-Zhe Wu. "High-Capacity and High-Quality Reversible Data Hiding Method Using Recurrent Round-Trip Embedding Strategy in the Quotient Image." Applied Sciences 11, no. 21 (October 29, 2021): 10157. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app112110157.

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In previous research, scholars always think about how to improve the information hiding algorithm and strive to have the largest embedding capacity and better image quality, restoring the original image. This research mainly proposes a new robust and reversible information hiding method, recurrent robust reversible data hiding (triple-RDH), with a recurrent round-trip embedding strategy. We embed the secret message in a quotient image to increase the image robustness. The pixel value is split into two parts, HiSB and LoSB. A recurrent round-trip embedding strategy (referred to as double R-TES) is designed to adjust the predictor and the recursive parameter values, so the pixel value carrying the secret data bits can be first shifted to the right and then shifted to the left, resulting in pixel invariance, so the embedding capacity can be effectively increased repeatedly. Experimental results show that the proposed triple-RDH method can effectively increase the embedding capacity up to 310,732 bits and maintain a certain level of image quality. Compared with the existing pixel error expansion (PEE) methods, the triple-RDH method not only has a high capacity but also has robustness for image processing against unintentional attacks. It can also be used for capacity and image quality according to the needs of the application, performing adjustable embedding.

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Khan, Sahib, Khalil Khan, Farman Ali, and Kyung-Sup Kwak. "Forgery Detection and Localization of Modifications at the Pixel Level." Symmetry 12, no. 1 (January 9, 2020): 137. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sym12010137.

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In this paper, we present a new technique of image forgery detection. The proposed technique uses digital signatures embedded in the least significant bits of the selected pixels of each row and column. The process maintains a symmetry in the use of pixels for computing and hiding the digital signatures. Each row and column of the image symmetrically contributes to both processes, with the number of pixels per row or column used for computing the signature, and the pixels used for embedding are not equal and are asymmetric. The pixels in each row and column of an image are divided into two groups. One group contains pixels of a row or column used in the calculation of digital signatures, and the second group of pixels is used for embedding the digital signatures of the respective row or column. The digital signatures are computed using the hash algorithm, e.g., message digest five (MD5). The least significant bits substitution technique is used for embedding the computed digital signature in the least significant bits of the selected pixels of the corresponding row or column. The proposed technique can successfully detect the modification made in an image. The technique detects pixel level modification in a single or multiple pixels.

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Zhang, Wen-Rong, and Yuh-Ming Huang. "An Improved Product Code-Based Data Hiding Scheme." Applied Sciences 8, no. 11 (November 1, 2018): 2119. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app8112119.

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This paper explores the data hiding schemes which are based on the principle of matrix embedding. Under the same embedding rate, the efficiency of each data hiding scheme is evaluated by the metric of average embedding efficiency. In the literature, both the row-column embedding and the weight approximation embedding algorithms are sub-optimal solutions for the product code-based data hiding problem. For the former, it is still based on the concept of one-dimensional (1-D) toggle syndrome, and the concept of two-dimensional (2-D) toggle syndrome is directly adopted for the latter one. Data hiding with multiple embedding channels is the practice of hiding messages into hidden media many times. Here, two multi-channel embedding-based data hiding techniques—one is the 1-D toggle syndrome-based embedding scheme (1DTS-1), and the other is the improved weight approximation-based embedding scheme (2DTS-1), are presented. In the former, the proposed one-off decision technique is used to determine the locations of the required modification bits, and the amount of modification will be reduced through utilizing the characteristics of the linear code. With the technique of the former, in the latter, the amount of modification bits can be further reduced because that a toggle array with better structure is generated, which is more suitable for being assigned as the initial toggle array while applying the weight approximation approach. The experimental results show our proposed hybrid 1-D/2-D toggle syndrome-based embedding scheme (2DTS-1) has increased the embedding efficiency by 0.1149 when compared to the weight approximation embedding algorithm. Further, the embedding efficiency of the latter one can be further and significantly enhanced through the Hamming+1 technique.

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Wang, Dewang, Xianquan Zhang, Chunqiang Yu, and Zhenjun Tang. "Reversible Data Hiding in Encrypted Image Based on Multi-MSB Embedding Strategy." Applied Sciences 10, no. 6 (March 18, 2020): 2058. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10062058.

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In this paper, a reversible data hiding method in encrypted image (RDHEI) is proposed. Prior to image encryption, the embeddable pixels are selected from an original image according to prediction errors due to adjacent pixels with strong correlation. Then the embeddable pixels and the other pixels are both rearranged and encrypted to generate an encrypted image. Secret bits are directly embedded into the multiple MSBs (most significant bit) of the embeddable pixels in the encrypted image to generate a marked encrypted image during the encoding phase. In the decoding phase, secret bits can be extracted from the multiple MSBs of the embeddable pixels in the marked encrypted image. Moreover, the original embeddable pixels are restored losslessly by using correlation of the adjacent pixels. Thus, a reconstructed image with high visual quality can be obtained only when the encryption key is available. Since exploiting multiple MSBs of the embeddable pixels, the proposed method can obtain a very large embedding capacity. Experimental results show that the proposed method is able to achieve an average embedding rate as large as 1.7215 bpp (bits per pixel) for the BOW-2 database.

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Xia, Xue Wen, Zeng Gang Xiong, and Zhi Ming Li. "Self-Embedding Watermark for Image Restoration Based on Repeat Correcting Code." Advanced Materials Research 219-220 (March 2011): 66–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.219-220.66.

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A simple image restoration scheme based on watermark is proposed in this paper. In the watermark scheme, an image is divided into multi-blocks. Repeat correcting code is adopted to be a copy of the most significant bits (MSBs) which will be selected as watermark that embedded into the least significant bits (LSBs). There are two shares of MSBs and scattered in the LSBs within other blocks. In order to avoid tampering coincidence and to improve the ability of restoration, the distance among the original block and other two blocks that their shares belong to is optimized as long as possible. The experiments indicate that this scheme is simple and easy to implement and the smaller the tampered area, the more pixels in the tampered area can be recovered correctly.

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Hasmawati, Hasmawati, and Ari Moesriami Barmawi. "Increasing The Capacity of Headstega Based on Bitwise Operation." Jurnal Ilmu Komputer dan Informasi 14, no. 2 (July 4, 2021): 113–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.21609/jiki.v14i2.957.

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Headstega (Head steganography) is a noiseless steganography that used email headers as a cover for concealing messages. However, it has less embedding capacity and it raises suspicion. For overcoming the problem, bitwise operation is proposed. In the proposed method, the message was embedded into the cover by converting the message and the cover into binary representation based on a mapping table that was already known by the sender and the receiver. Furthermore, XOR bitwise operations were applied to the secret message and cover bits based on random numbers that were generated using a modular function. Moreover, the result was converted into characters that represent the secret message bits. After embedding the message into the cover, an email alias was generated to camouflage the secret message characters. Finally, the sender sends the embedded cover and the email alias to the recipient. Using the proposed method, the embedding capacity is 89% larger than using the original Headstega. For reducing the adversary’s suspicion, the existing email address was used instead of creating a new email address.

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Clark, T. E., S. T. Love, Muneto Nitta, T. ter Veldhuis, and Chi Xiong. "Brane vector dynamics from embedding geometry." Nuclear Physics B 810, no. 1-2 (March 2009): 97–114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nuclphysb.2008.10.017.

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Lee, Kong Aik, Qiongqiong Wang, and Takafumi Koshinaka. "Xi-Vector Embedding for Speaker Recognition." IEEE Signal Processing Letters 28 (2021): 1385–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/lsp.2021.3091932.

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Kim, Cheonshik, Ching-Nung Yang, and Lu Leng. "High-Capacity Data Hiding for ABTC-EQ Based Compressed Image." Electronics 9, no. 4 (April 14, 2020): 644. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/electronics9040644.

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We present a new data hiding method based on Adaptive BTC Edge Quantization (ABTC-EQ) using an optimal pixel adjustment process (OPAP) to optimize two quantization levels. The reason we choose ABTC-EQ as a cover media is that it is superior to AMBTC in maintaining a high-quality image after encoding is executed. ABTC-EQ is represented by a form of t r i o ( Q 1 , Q 2 , [ Q 3 ] , BM) where Q is quantization levels ( Q 1 ≤ Q 2 ≤ Q 3 ) , and BM is a bitmap). The number of quantization levels are two or three, depending on whether the cover image has an edge or not. Before embedding secret bits in every block, we categorize every block into smooth block or complex block by a threshold. In case a block size is 4x4, the sixteen secret bits are replaced by a bitmap of the smooth block for embedding a message directly. On the other hand, OPAP method conceals 1 bit into LSB and 2LSB respectively, and maintains the quality of an image as a way of minimizing the errors which occur in the embedding procedure. The sufficient experimental results demonsrate that the performance of our proposed scheme is satisfactory in terms of the embedding capacity and quality of an image.

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Xin, Guojiang, Yuling Liu, Ting Yang, and Yu Cao. "An Adaptive Audio Steganography for Covert Wireless Communication." Security and Communication Networks 2018 (August 16, 2018): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/7096271.

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In recent years, the wide applications of the wireless sensor networks have achieved great success. However, the security is a critical issue in many scenarios ranging from covert military operations to the organization of the social unrest. Because the traditional encrypting methods are easy to arouse suspicion, an adaptive audio steganography method is proposed. The method is based on interval and variable low bit coding, which can be applied to covert wireless communication. The interval for embedding secret messages into the audio file and the threshold in variable low bit coding are used for selecting the embedding location and embedding bits adaptively; thus the embedding capacity and the embedding rate are variable. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method has better performance in embedding rate and invisibility than other audio steganography methods.

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Boostani, R., and M. Sabeti. "MULTI-CHANNEL ECG-BASED STEGANOGRAPHY." Biomedical Engineering: Applications, Basis and Communications 30, no. 06 (November 29, 2018): 1850046. http://dx.doi.org/10.4015/s1016237218500461.

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There is a growing tendency for the concealment of secure information into electrocardiogram (ECG) signals in a way that the embedded ECGs still remain diagnosable. The average length of ECG recording for a primary diagnosis takes no longer than 1[Formula: see text]min yielding to limit its concealment capacity. To overcome this drawback, we enhanced both concealment capacity and embedding quality by: (I) using 12-lead ECGs to span more embedding space, (II) shuffling input message bits via nonlinear feedback shift register (NLFSR) method, (III) inserting the selected bits of each channel into the high-frequency wavelet coefficients of non-QRS parts. Inserting the message bits into high frequency coefficients of less important ECG parts leads to preserve the quality watermarked ECGs. To assess the proposed method, a text containing different letters (changes with size of both non-QRS segments and high-frequency sub-band) was hidden through 12-lead ECG signals of 56 randomly selected subjects of PTB database, where each signal length is 10[Formula: see text]s. The performance was compared to state-of-the-art ECG-based steganography schemes in terms of the following criteria: percentage residual difference (PRD), peak signal to noise ratio (PSNR), structural similarity index measure (SSIM) and bit error rate (BER). Our results showed that the proposed scheme has benefits of fast computing along with secure embedding, providing high capacity of data hiding.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Embedding a vector of bits'

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