Journal articles: 'Embalming – Egypt'

1

Koller, Johann, Ursula Baumer, Yoka Kaup, Mirjam Schmid, and Ulrich Weser. "Effective Mummification Compounds Used in Pharaonic Egypt: Reactivity on Bone Alkaline Phosphatase." Zeitschrift für Naturforschung B 58, no. 5 (May 1, 2003): 462–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/znb-2003-0518.

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In Pharaonic Egypt from the Old Kingdom up to the Ptolemaic Period the deceased were pre-treated in the course of the mummification process using a wealth of embalming components including resins and many different wood tars. GC/MS studies allowed the elucidation of a great number of clearly separated compounds found in the ancient embalming material. Phenols, guaiacols, naphthalenes, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenoids, oxidised diterpene resin acids and triterpenoids were noticed. These results and particularly the detection of an unused embalming material shed some new light on the possible way as to how the different embalming materials might have been prepared and applied. It was striking to see the accordance of the present data with the well-known treatises by Herodotus (490-425 B. C.) and by Pliny the Elder (23/24-79 A. C.). The impact of the historical observations on modern science and in return the dramatic promotion of ancient texts stimulated by the present study is intriguing. An enzyme, alkaline phosphatase, bound inside mummified bones was a useful tool to reveal the efficacy of the embalming materials. Initial data showed that alkaline phosphatase isolated from embalmed bones from the Old Kingdom and the Ptolemaic Period was significantly more abundant and displayed a higher activity compared to the properties of the corresponding enzyme from non-treated mummified bones. Additionally, in a model study porcine ribs were pre-treated with four selected embalming compounds - guaiacol, limonene, α-pinene and p-cymene - and subsequently air-dried. Among the four selected compounds guaiacol was the most reactive species in the course of the preservation process. The specific activity of bone alkaline phosphatase rose 12-fold compared to that of the control. The enzyme itself remained unharmed as the observed relative molecular mass was surprisingly identical with the contemporary enzyme. It was again striking that the guaiacol derivatives were richly abundant in the unused embalming material mentioned above.

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2

Counts, Derek B. "Regum Externorum Consuetudine: The Nature and Function of Embalming in Rome." Classical Antiquity 15, no. 2 (October 1, 1996): 189–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/25011039.

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Although embalming is traditionally considered an Egyptian custom, ancient sources suggest that in imperial Rome the practice was not employed by Egyptians or Egyptianized Romans alone. The mos Romanorum in funerary ritual encompassed both cremation and inhumation, yet embalming appears in Rome as early as the first century AD and evidence points to its limited use during the first three centuries AD. Within the social structure of Rome's dead these preserved corpses certainly occupied a distinct place. Yet who were they and why were they embalmed? It is argued here that various factors allowed for the occasional use of embalming by Romans: (1) an apparent shift in attitudes towards Egypt, (2) the manipulation of death ritual for social distinction, and (3) the flexibility of the traditional Roman funeral, which was able to incorporate deviations in methods of body disposal. Although embalming has been largely ignored as a significant aspect of Roman funerary history, its patrons come from the classes of highest status, including even the imperial household. This fact alone makes it worthwhile to examine this small corpus of evidence. For example, the emperor Nero embalmed his wife Poppaea; such a deviation from standard disposal methods reflects imperial fashion, but also requires us to re-evaluate Nero's reign and, especially, the societal constructs of Neronian Rome. This study attempts to contextualize embalming within Roman society and offer some likely causes and effects of its use.

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3

Weser, Ulrich, Yoka Kaup, Hedwig Etspüler, Johann Koller, and Ursula Baumer. "Peer Reviewed: Embalming In The Old Kingdom Of Pharaonic Egypt." Analytical Chemistry 70, no. 15 (August 1998): 511A—516A. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ac981912a.

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4

Brockbals, Lana, Michael Habicht, Irka Hajdas, Francesco M. Galassi, Frank J. Rühli, and Thomas Kraemer. "Untargeted metabolomics-like screening approach for chemical characterization and differentiation of canopic jar and mummy samples from Ancient Egypt using GC-high resolution MS." Analyst 143, no. 18 (2018): 4503–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c8an01288a.

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5

Marković, Milan, Elodie Mezzatesta, Stéphanie Porcier, Cathy Vieillescazes, and Carole Mathe. "Rethinking the Process of Animal Mummification in Ancient Egypt: Molecular Characterization of Embalming Material and the Use of Brassicaceae Seed Oil in the Mummification of Gazelle Mummies from Kom Mereh, Egypt." Molecules 27, no. 5 (February 24, 2022): 1532. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules27051532.

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The study of animal mummification in ancient Egypt has recently received increasing attention from a number of modern scholars given the fact that this part of ancient Egyptian funerary and religious history is a practice yet to be fully understood. In this study, nine samples of embalming matter were extracted from six gazelle mummies from the archaeological site of Kom Mereh (modern village of Komir), dated to the Roman period of dominance in ancient Egypt. All samples were analyzed for the presence of inorganic and organic matter applying a multi-analytical approach based on Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Furthermore, in order to identify more specific compounds such as bitumen and beeswax in studied balms, each sample was subjected to a solid phase extraction (SPE) and saponification separation process, respectively. The results of this study revealed that the majority of the analyzed embalming substances sampled from six gazelle mummies from Kom Mereh were complex mixtures of plant oils, animal fats, conifer resin, and beeswax. In this regard, this study was able to report a practice until now unmentioned in the scientific literature, namely, the use of cruciferous oil, derived from seeds of Brassicaceae plants, in animal mummification.

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Weser, Ulrich, and Yoka Kaup. "Borate, an Effective Mummification Agent in Pharaonic Egypt." Zeitschrift für Naturforschung B 57, no. 7 (July 1, 2002): 819–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/znb-2002-0715.

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Mummification salts and mummified bones were assayed for borate. In two samples of mummification salt one from Deir el-Bahari (26th Dynasty, 700-600 BC) and salt from the embalming material of Tutankhamen (18th Dynasty, 1370-1335 BC) 3.9 and 2.1 μMol borate/ gram were found, respectively. Six mummified bone fragments from the Old Kingdom contained up to 1.2 μMol/gram. It is suggested that borate containing salt was used during mummification. The reactivity of borate on bone alkaline phosphatase, which is known to survive mummification for more than 4000 years, was examined. Borate forms high relative molecular mass adducts of this enzyme being temperature resistant and functionally distinct.

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7

Harter, Stéphanie, Matthieu Le Bailly, Francis Janot, and Françoise Bouchet. "First paleoparasitological study of an embalming rejects jar found in Saqqara, Egypt." Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 98, suppl 1 (January 2003): 119–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0074-02762003000900017.

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8

Rühli, Frank, Salima Ikram, and Susanne Bickel. "New Ancient Egyptian Human Mummies from the Valley of the Kings, Luxor: Anthropological, Radiological, and Egyptological Investigations." BioMed Research International 2015 (2015): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/530362.

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The Valley of the Kings (arab.Wadi al Muluk; KV) situated on the West Bank near Luxor (Egypt) was the site for royal and elite burials during the New Kingdom (ca. 1500–1100 BC), with many tombs being reused in subsequent periods. In 2009, the scientific project “The University of Basel Kings’ Valley Project” was launched. The main purpose of this transdisciplinary project is the clearance and documentation of nonroyal tombs in the surrounding of the tomb of Pharaoh Thutmosis III (ca. 1479–1424 BC; KV 34). This paper reports on newly discovered ancient Egyptian human mummified remains originating from the field seasons 2010–2012. Besides macroscopic assessments, the remains were conventionally X-rayed by a portable X-ray unitin situinside KV 31. These image data serve as basis for individual sex and age determination and for the study of probable pathologies and embalming techniques. A total of five human individuals have been examined so far and set into an Egyptological context. This project highlights the importance of ongoing excavation and science efforts even in well-studied areas of Egypt such as the Kings’ Valley.

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9

Maurer, Joachim, Thomas Möhring, Jürgen Rullkötter, and Arie Nissenbaum. "Plant Lipids and Fossil Hydrocarbons in Embalming Material of Roman Period Mummies from the Dakhleh Oasis, Western Desert, Egypt." Journal of Archaeological Science 29, no. 7 (July 2002): 751–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jasc.2001.0773.

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10

Barnes, Kate M., Ashleigh L. Whiffin, and Mark T. Bulling. "A preliminary study on the antibacterial activity and insect repellent properties of embalming fluids from the 18th Dynasty (1550–1292 BCE) in ancient Egypt." Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 25 (June 2019): 600–609. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.05.032.

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11

Fulcher, Kate, Margaret Serpico, John H. Taylor, and Rebecca Stacey. "Molecular analysis of black coatings and anointing fluids from ancient Egyptian coffins, mummy cases, and funerary objects." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, no. 18 (April 26, 2021): e2100885118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2100885118.

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Black organic coatings and ritual deposits on ancient Egyptian coffins and cartonnage cases are important and understudied sources of evidence about the rituals of funerary practice. Sometimes, the coatings were applied extensively over the surface of the coffin, resembling paint; in other cases, they were poured over the mummy case or wrapped body, presumably as part of a funerary ritual. For this study, multiple samples of black coatings and ritual liquids were taken from 20 Egyptian funerary items dating to a specific time period (c. 943 to 716 BC). Multiple sampling from each object enabled several comparisons to be made: the variability of the black coating within one application, the variability between two applications on one object, and the variability from object to object. All samples were analyzed for lipids using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and 51 samples from across the 20 items were further analyzed for the presence of bitumen using solid phase separation followed by selected ion monitoring GC-MS. The majority of the black substances were found to comprise a complex mixture of organic materials, including bitumen from the Dead Sea, conifer resin, and Pistacia resin, providing evidence for a continuation in international trade between Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean after the Late Bronze Age. Both the coating and the anointing liquid are very similar to mummification balms, pointing to parallels with Egyptian embalming rituals and raising questions about the practical aspects of Egyptian funerary practice.

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12

Maurer, Joachim, Thomas Möhring, Jürgen Rullkötter, and Arie Nissenbaum. "Errata to: Plant lipids and fossil hydrocarbons in embalming material of Roman Period mummies from the Dakhleh Oasis, Western Desert, Egypt[Journal of Archeological Science, 29(7), 751–762]." Journal of Archaeological Science 31, no. 1 (January 2004): 137–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0305-4403(03)00068-2.

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13

Davis, Victoria. "Ancient embalming workshop unearthed in Egypt." Science, July 17, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.aau8102.

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14

Cesarani, Federico, Maria Cristina Martina, Rosa Boano, Anna Maria Donadoni Roveri, Andrea Ferraris, Renato Grilletto, and Giovanni Gandini. "The three sisters:multidetector computed tomography and 3D reconstructions of three sister mummies from the Egyptian Museum of Turin." Journal of Biological Research - Bollettino della Società Italiana di Biologia Sperimentale 80, no. 1 (December 31, 2005). http://dx.doi.org/10.4081/jbr.2005.10089.

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The “three sisters” is a particular group of mummies from the Drovetti collection of the Egyptian Museum in Turin. They were purchased in 1824 by King Carlo Felice of Savoy for the new Museum. The mummies come from the area of Tebe in Upper Egypt. Their names are Tapeni (CGT 13002–Cat. 2215), Tamiu (CGT 13003–Cat. 2218), and Renpetnefert (CGT 13007–Cat.2231). They were evaluated the same day with multidetector CT (GE Light Speed Qx/I). In all three cases whole body CT helical acquisition with thin slices (2.5 mm thickness, 1.25 mm reconstruction interval) followed by multiplanar and 3D reconstructions were performed. Stature, anthropometric measurements, sex, and approximate age, were estimated. Also embalming techniques, condition of the skeleton and of the soft tissues, and the presence of foreign objects were analyzed. The similarities and differences of embalming methods were also evaluated. To our knowledge, there are no other reports of CT studies on mummies belonging to the same family. We believe these results are of particular interest for archaeology and computed imaging technology.

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15

Elias, Jonathan, and Carter Lupton. "The role of computed axial tomography in the study of the mummies of Akhmim, Egypt." Journal of Biological Research - Bollettino della Società Italiana di Biologia Sperimentale 80, no. 1 (December 31, 2005). http://dx.doi.org/10.4081/jbr.2005.10086.

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For more than a quarter century, computed axial tomography (CT) has given Egyptologists an increasingly sophisticated, non-invasive means of examining the interior of mummified bodies. What has been lacking from mummy studies to date is a regional focus confining itself to a single, defined population which makes its comparisons within narrowly defined limits of time and space. A study of Akhmimic mummies, hundreds of which entered the museum collections of Europe, America and elsewhere late in the 19th century, promises to greatly benefit the study of Egyptian mummification generally while gathering specific data on Akhmim’s priestly population of the Ptolemaic period (332-30 BC). Recent CT examination of two female mummies from Akhmim has underscored the importance of considering features other than those on the traditional list of mummy contents. While amulets, visceral packets, and linen wadding have been noted for years, it is clear that they existed side by side with objects that, while difficult to classify, were equally deliberate and significant. The Akhmim Studies Consortium has been established to increase our knowledge of these poorly understood aspects of the embalming process as it existed at Akhmim and in surrounding locale

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16

Mahfouz, Prof Dr Essam Mohamed. ""Mummies and their symbolic and expressive connotations as an entrance to enrich the figurative painting"." International Scientific Forum, October 1, 2022, 121–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.36772/isf10.6.

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he atmosphere and nature of Egypt created in the soul of the Egyptian a feeling of immortality، and born in his conscience spirituality، and a belief about the afterlife، and about the continuity of life after death. Continuity، the ancient Egyptian artist was influenced by the Baath doctrine، and by the many religious beliefs that dominated his society، and therefore he kept assuming that “the picture he engraved on the walls of the temple or the cemetery is not just lines in which artistic harmony alone should be available، but that it can turn into a realistic reality” where They believed that the soul would return again، and that he would live another life in the grave similar to his earthly life. The beliefs of the other world in the ancient Egyptian required maintaining the body intact by embalming and making offerings so that the deceased could، through his soul (the ba) and the consort (the ka)، ascend with it and become acquainted with it. The ancient Egyptian would sometimes put a golden mask on the face of the mummy، especially if it belonged to a king، as was the case with King Tutankhamon، and this mask had the same features as the face of the deceased according to their beliefs، and this mask was a natural prelude. their mummies. Research Methodology and Type of Study: The research relied on the descriptive approach based on analysis in presenting and analyzing the theoretical framework related to the study and inductive research in presenting the various concepts، which depends primarily on an analytical study of selected examples of ancient Egyptian mummies and the faces of Fayoum.

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17

Saleem, Sahar N., Sabah Abd el-Razek Seddik, and Mahmoud el-Halwagy. "Scanning and three-dimensional-printing using computed tomography of the “Golden Boy” mummy." Frontiers in Medicine 9 (January 24, 2023). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2022.1028377.

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Ancient Egyptian mummies represent an opportunity to learn more about the health, beliefs, and skills of humans in antiquity. A fully wrapped mummy, from a Late Ptolemaic cemetery (c.332-30 BC) in Edfu, Egypt, has been stored, unexamined, at the Cairo Egyptian Museum since 1916. We hypothesized that scanning and 3D-printing the mummy using Computed Tomography (CT) could help in documenting and promoting its public display. CT enabled non-invasive digital unwrapping and revealed a well-preserved mummy. Biological sex could be determined from the presence of male genitalia; epiphyseal fusion and tooth eruption indicated an approximate age at death of 14–15 years. The deceased had healthy teeth and bones without evidence of poor nutrition or disease. CT detected a high-quality mummification process that included brain removal through an iatrogenic defect of the cribriform plate and viscera removal via a left lower-abdominal incision. The heart remained in the chest as a spiritual symbol. Resin was poured into the emptied cranial and torso cavities, and linen packs were placed inside the torso. The Mummy’s external ornamentation includes a gilded head mask, a pectoral cartonnage, and a pair of sandals. CT identified 49 amulets inside the mummy and between the wrappings, arranged in three columns. The amulets have 21 different shapes, including Udjat, scarabs, Ajet, Djed-pillar, Tyt, Placenta, Double-Plume, and Right-angle. CT densities indicated that 30 (61%) amulets were metal (likely gold), and the other amulets were made of faience, stones, or fired clay. The embalmers placed amulets to protect and provide vitality for the body for the afterlife. A gold tongue amulet was placed inside the mouth to ensure the deceased could speak in the afterlife. A Two-finger amulet was placed beside the penis to protect the embalming incision. 3D-printing enabled the tactile and visual study of a heart scarab found inside the thoracic cavity. Findings from this study suggest that ancient Egyptians valued their children and provided them with ritual treatment. State-of-the-art techniques such as CT and 3D printing provided valuable insights and supported the museum display of the mummy, nicknamed “The Golden Boy.”

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Journal articles on the topic 'Embalming – Egypt'

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