Journal articles: 'Elite swimming'

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Costa, Mário J., José A. Bragada, Daniel A. Marinho, António J. Silva, and Tiago M. Barbosa. "Longitudinal Interventions in Elite Swimming." Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 26, no. 7 (July 2012): 2006–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0b013e318257807f.

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Clayburn, Andrew, Jonathon W. Senefeld, Sarah E. Baker, Rickey Carter, Patrick Johnson, and Michael J. Joyner. "Sex Differences in Youth Elite Swimming." FASEB Journal 34, S1 (April 2020): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1096/fasebj.2020.34.s1.00021.

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Senefeld, Jonathon W., Andrew J. Clayburn, Sarah E. Baker, Rickey E. Carter, Patrick W. Johnson, and Michael J. Joyner. "Sex differences in youth elite swimming." PLOS ONE 14, no. 11 (November 22, 2019): e0225724. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0225724.

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Mendes, Pedro Alexandre Duarte, Daniel Almeida Marinho, Diogo Monteiro, Luís Cid, Rui Paulo, and João Petrica. "The comparison of Imagery ability in elite, sub-elite and non-elite swimmers." Cuadernos de Psicología del Deporte 19, no. 2 (May 1, 2019): 124–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.6018/cpd.345891.

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The ability to generate and control mental images is present in all of us, but it differs from person to person. Therefore, it is important to understand that imagery ability can be changed through training and experimentation, it is not a fixed ability (Cumming & Williams, 2012). The aim of this study is to compare imagery ability in elite, sub-elite and non-elite athletes in a sport which involves closed and continuous motor skills, such as swimming. 79 swimmers (male N = 37; female N = 42) at an average age of 17 took part in this study. In order to assess imagery ability, the Movement Imagery Questionnaire 3 was used, Portuguese version (Mendes et al., 2016). After analysis of the results, these show that in each and every imagery modality, the scores in the three groups differ significantly. In kinesthetic and external visual imagery the elite and sub-elite groups’ scores, although not statistically different from each other, are significantly higher than those of the non-elite group. In internal visual imagery, the differences between all the compared pairs of groups are statistically significant. The elite group got the highest scores, followed by the sub-elite group average scores and finally the non-elite group average scores. According to these results, the conclusion is that athletes with better performance show greater imagery ability and that apparently the external visual imagery proved to be the best intervention method among swimming athletes.

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Matsuda, Yuji, Yosuke Yamada, Yasushi Ikuta, Teruo Nomura, and Shingo Oda. "Intracyclic Velocity Variation and Arm Coordination for Different Skilled Swimmers in the Front Crawl." Journal of Human Kinetics 44, no. 1 (December 1, 2014): 67–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/hukin-2014-0111.

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Abstract The aim of this study was to examine whether the intracyclic velocity variation (IVV) was lower in elite swimmers than in beginner swimmers at various velocities, and whether differences may be related to arm coordination. Seven elite and nine beginner male swimmers swam front crawl at four different swimming velocities (maximal velocity, 75%, 85%, and 95% of maximal swimming velocity). The index of arm coordination (IDC) was calculated as the lag time between the propulsive phases of each arm. IVV was determined from the coefficient of variation of horizontal velocity within one stroke cycle. IVV for elite swimmers was significantly lower (26%) than that for beginner swimmers at all swimming velocities . In contrast, the IDC was similar between elite and beginner swimmers. These data suggest that IVV is a strong predictor of the skill level for front crawl, and that elite swimmers have techniques to decrease IVV. However, the IDC does not contribute to IVV differences between elite and beginner swimmers.

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Brammer, Christopher, Andrew Cornett, and Joel Stager. "Lane bias in elite-level swimming competition." Journal of Sports Sciences 35, no. 3 (March 28, 2016): 283–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1163402.

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Driska, Andrew P., Cindra Kamphoff, and Suzannah Mork Armentrout. "Elite Swimming Coaches’ Perceptions of Mental Toughness." Sport Psychologist 26, no. 2 (June 2012): 186–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/tsp.26.2.186.

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Using the mental toughness framework of Jones, Hanton and Connaughton (2007), the authors interviewed thirteen highly-experienced swimming coaches in a two-part study to determine the specific mental toughness subcomponents present in mentally tough swimmers, and to examine the factors that led swimmers to develop mental toughness. Interviews were transcribed and analyzed using methods outlined by Creswell (2007). While confirming eleven of thirteen subcomponents of mental toughness previously identified by Jones et al. (2007), the participants identified (a) “coachability” and (b) “retaining psychological control on poor training days” as previously unidentified subcomponents of mental toughness. In the second part of the study, the authors identified six higher-order themes describing how both the coach and the swimmer acted to develop mental toughness in the swimmer. Implications for researchers, swimming coaches, and sport psychology consultants are discussed.

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Kaneoka, Koji, Ken Shimizu, Mika Hangai, Toru Okuwaki, Naotaka Mamizuka, Masataka Sakane, and Naoyuki Ochiai. "Lumbar Intervertebral Disk Degeneration in Elite Competitive Swimmers." American Journal of Sports Medicine 35, no. 8 (August 2007): 1341–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0363546507300259.

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Background The majority of orthopaedic problems experienced by competitive swimmers are related to pain in the shoulder, low back, and knee. Three of 39 national swim team members were hampered in their performance due to lumbar disk herniation at an international competition in 2001. There has been no previous research into lumbar disk degeneration in elite competitive swimmers. Hypothesis Excessive competitive swimming activities accelerate lumbar disk degeneration. Study Design Case control study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods Fifty-six elite swimmers (high-load group, 35 men and 21 women; mean age, 19.6 years) and a control group of 38 university recreational level swimmers (low-load group, 24 men and 14 women; mean age, 21.1 years) were evaluated for lumbar disk degeneration using magnetic resonance imaging. We compared the prevalence of disk degeneration and the disk level between the 2 groups and further investigated the relationship among their symptoms, swimming styles, and disk degeneration. Results Thirty-eight (68%) elite swimmers and 11 (29%) controls had degenerated disks at various disk levels, and the prevalence was significantly greater in the elite swimmers (P = .0002). Comparison between the 2 groups of the prevalence of disk degeneration at each level revealed that the disk level of L5-S1 was significantly more frequently degenerated in the high-load group (P = .026). There was no significant relationship observed among the variables of low back pain symptoms, swimming strokes, and disk degeneration. Conclusion Excessive competitive swimming activities might exaggerate lumbar intervertebral disk degeneration, especially in the L5-S1 intervertebral segment. Keywords lumbar intervertebral disk; disk degeneration; swimming; sports

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Cappaert, Jane M., David L. Pease, and John P. Troup. "Three-Dimensional Analysis of the Men‘s 100-m Freestyle during the 1992 Olympic Games." Journal of Applied Biomechanics 11, no. 1 (February 1995): 103–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jab.11.1.103.

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Twelve male 100-m freestyle swimmers were videotaped during the 1992 Olympic Games. Four cameras, two above water and two below, recorded the same stroke cycle of the swimmer at approximately the 40- to 45-m mark. The whole body and the recovering arms were digitized from the videotapes to recreate a complete stroke cycle. Body position variables and hand reaction forces (Schleihauf, 1979) were calculated. Swimmers were divided into elite and subelite groups based on their swimming velocity and were compared for differences in biomechanical variables. Elites used slightly lower hand forces while maintaining a higher propelling efficiency. Subelites had opposite rotations about the longitudinal axis of the body rather than symmetrical body roll. The elite swimmers were different from subelites in that their pulling patterns were more efficient and their body position was more streamlined. These variables assisted them in achieving faster swimming velocities without requiring higher propulsive forces.

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Tan, Tien-Chin, Jinming Zheng, and Geoff Dickson. "Policy transfer in elite sport development: the case of elite swimming in China." European Sport Management Quarterly 19, no. 5 (February 5, 2019): 645–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2019.1572768.

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Higson, Emma, Lee Herrington, Carl Butler, and Ian Horsley. "The short-term effect of swimming training load on shoulder rotational range of motion, shoulder joint position sense and pectoralis minor length." Shoulder & Elbow 10, no. 4 (May 12, 2018): 285–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1758573218773539.

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Background Shoulder pain or injury is the most common issue facing elite competitive swimmers and the most frequent reason for missed or modified training. Literature suggests that highly repetitive upper limb loading leads to inappropriate adaptations within the shoulder complex. The most likely maladaptations to occur are variations in shoulder rotational range of motion, reduction in joint position sense and shortened pectoralis minor length. This has yet to have been confirmed in experimental studies. The aim of this study was to investigate the short-term effects of swimming training load upon internal and external rotation range of motion, joint position sense and pectoralis minor length. Method Sixteen elite swimmers training in the British Swimming World Class programme participated. Measures of internal and external range of motion, joint position sense error score and pectoralis minor length were taken before and after a typical 2 h swimming session. Results Following swimming training shoulder external rotation range of motion and pectoralis minor length reduced significantly (−3.4°, p = <0.001 and −0.7 cm, p = <0.001, respectively), joint position sense error increased significantly (+2.0° error angle, p = <0.001). Internal rotation range of motion demonstrated no significant change (−0.6, p = 0.53). Discussion This study determined that elite level swimming training results in short-term maladaptive changes in shoulder performance that could potentially predispose them to injury.

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Katz, Stephen L. "Design of heterothermic muscle in fish." Journal of Experimental Biology 205, no. 15 (August 1, 2002): 2251–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.205.15.2251.

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SUMMARY Among the tremendous diversity of fish, there are a small number that are considered elite in their swimming performance. These include representatives from the tunas, billfish and sharks. In addition to being elite swimmers,these fish share numerous specialized anatomical features including the structure of their swimming muscles and some form of regional endothermy,termed heterothermy. These heterothermies fall into two classes: those that maintain elevated temperatures in swimming muscles and those that have muscle-derived tissues specialized for delivering warm blood to the brain. Because these versions of heterothermy are manifest in fish whose swimming performance is considered elite, it has been parsimonious to hypothesize that heterothermy is part of an integrated high-performance design. Recognizing that the design of skeletal muscle is hierarchical, the design of heterothermic muscle in fish will be examined within a hierarchical framework. This paper will examine, in order, the specific anatomical specializations,the performance of muscle as a biomaterial and then as a dynamic mechanical structure or device — in each case looking at the extent to which heterothermy is part of an integrated high-performance design or is perhaps just a happy accident. This examination will reveal how difficult it is to make a case for the central importance of heterothermy in the design of these swimming muscle systems.

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McMahon, Jenny, and Kerry McGannon. "Re-Immersing Into Elite Swimming Culture: A Meta-Autoethnography by a Former Elite Swimmer." Sociology of Sport Journal 34, no. 3 (September 2017): 223–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ssj.2016-0134.

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This paper presents two meta-autoethnographies written by a former elite swimmer. In the first metaautoethnography, the swimmer revealed doubts in relation to details, emotions and inner-thoughts that she had included in her historical autoethnographic work. As a means of sorting and pondering these tensions and uncertainties, the swimmer explored cultural re-immersion as a possible additional element in the metaautoethnographic process. The second meta-autoethnography centers on the swimmer’s re-immersion into elite swimming culture. It was revealed how cultural re-immersion enabled the swimmer to better reflect on her historical autoethnographic work by providing a more conscientized, rational and reflexive voice. This research highlights how cultural re-immersion should be considered as an additional element in the metaautoethnographic process as it benefits both the author and also audience.

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Alentejano, Teresa, Dru Marshall, and Gordon Bell. "A Time–Motion Analysis of Elite Solo Synchronized Swimming." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 3, no. 1 (March 2008): 31–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.3.1.31.

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Purpose:To determine the total amount and relative time periods of face immersion (FI) in a synchronized swimming solo routine and the relationship between FI, distance covered, and the technical-merit score of the 11 top Canadian soloists at a synchronized swimming national championship (mean age 20 ± 1.8 y, height 173.3 ± 4.1 cm, and body mass 58.3 ± 4 kg).Methods:Videotape and timing of solo performances combined with manual tracking of pool patterns.Results:Analysis of performance revealed that an average of 18 FI periods, mean of 6.8 s, were performed for an average total time of 133.7 ± 27.1 s (range 102.2 to 199.8 s). The average longest FI time period was 25.45 ± 6.2 s (range 18.18 to 38.72 s), and most (10/11) of these were in the first third of the solo. The mean total horizontal distance covered was 57.61 ± 6.84 m (range 48.61 to 68.2 m), and the total horizontal distance covered relative to time was 0.276 ± 0.034 m/s (range 0.235 to 0.340 m/s). No significant relationships were found between any of the FI periods and the distance covered or between the technical-merit score and FI periods. Each solo contained 6 to 8 underwater sequences, none of which were longer than 40 seconds, the cutoff deemed dangerous by FINA (Fédération Internationale de Natation).Conclusion:This study shows that the times underwater for solos in Canada are within safety limits recommended by FINA and that judging in Canada is not related to underwater periods of swimming.

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Blinde, Elaine M., and James E. Tierney. "Diffusion of Sport Psychology into Elite U.S. Swimming Programs." Sport Psychologist 4, no. 2 (June 1990): 130–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/tsp.4.2.130.

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This study explored in depth the process by which sport psychology ideas and techniques are diffused into elite-level swimming programs in the United States. Three stages in the diffusion process were examined: initial exposure, degree of receptivity, and rate of implementation. A questionnaire designed to measure this diffusion process was mailed to the 165 Level 5 coaches in the U.S. Sources through which coaches are exposed to sport psychology were identified, as well as factors influencing levels of receptivity and implementation. Intercorrelations among initial exposure, receptivity, and implementation were also examined and factors were identified that may reduce levels of receptivity and implementation. Findings suggest that despite only a moderate degree of exposure, coaches are generally receptive and willing to implement sport psychology into their programs. Major obstacles to both receptivity and implementation were generally related to structural aspects of amateur swimming in the U.S. or the sport psychology community. Identification of such factors can help the sport psychology community improve the process by which its knowledge base is diffused into the sporting community.

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Haran, James, and Patrick Kicker. "RECURRENT SWIMMING-INDUCED PULMONARY EDEMA IN THE ELITE TRIATHLETE." Chest 156, no. 4 (October 2019): A1396. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2019.08.1244.

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Wilson, Emma E., Tricia M. McKeever, Claire Lobb, Tom Sherriff, Luke Gupta, Glenn Hearson, Neil Martin, Martin R. Lindley, and Dominick E. Shaw. "Respiratory muscle specific warm-up and elite swimming performance." British Journal of Sports Medicine 48, no. 9 (November 1, 2013): 789–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2013-092523.

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Pelayo, P., D. Chollet, M. Sidney, and C. Tourny. "Stroking characteristics in free style during elite swimming competition." Journal of Biomechanics 27, no. 6 (January 1994): 682. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0021-9290(94)91026-x.

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Zamparo, P., M. Bonifazi, M. Faina, A. Milan, F. Sardella, F. Schena, and C. Capelli. "Energy cost of swimming of elite long-distance swimmers." European Journal of Applied Physiology 94, no. 5-6 (May 11, 2005): 697–704. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00421-005-1337-0.

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Robertson, Sherry, Dan Benardot, and Margo Mountjoy. "Nutritional Recommendations for Synchronized Swimming." International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism 24, no. 4 (August 2014): 404–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2014-0013.

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The sport of synchronized swimming is unique, because it combines speed, power, and endurance with precise synchronized movements and high-risk acrobatic maneuvers. Athletes must train and compete while spending a great amount of time underwater, upside down, and without the luxury of easily available oxygen. This review assesses the scientific evidence with respect to the physiological demands, energy expenditure, and body composition in these athletes. The role of appropriate energy requirements and guidelines for carbohydrate, protein, fat, and micronutrients for elite synchronized swimmers are reviewed. Because of the aesthetic nature of the sport, which prioritizes leanness, the risks of energy and macronutrient deficiencies are of significant concern. Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport and disordered eating/eating disorders are also of concern for these female athletes. An approach to the healthy management of body composition in synchronized swimming is outlined. Synchronized swimmers should be encouraged to consume a well-balanced diet with sufficient energy to meet demands and to time the intake of carbohydrate, protein, and fat to optimize performance and body composition. Micronutrients of concern for this female athlete population include iron, calcium, and vitamin D. This article reviews the physiological demands of synchronized swimming and makes nutritional recommendations for recovery, training, and competition to help optimize athletic performance and to reduce risks for weight-related medical issues that are of particular concern for elite synchronized swimmers.

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Kolmogorov, Sergei, Andrei Vorontsov, and João Paulo Vilas-Boas. "Metabolic Power, Active Drag, Mechanical and Propelling Efficiency of Elite Swimmers at 100 Meter Events in Different Competitive Swimming Techniques." Applied Sciences 11, no. 18 (September 13, 2021): 8511. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11188511.

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Eight elite swimmers—four females and four males—were studied, each of whom specialized in different swimming techniques and ranked among the top 10 in the world in the 100 m event in their swimming specialty. Methods included a complex of physiological, biomechanical and hydrodynamic procedures, as well as mathematical modeling. During the special preparation period for the 2017 Swimming World Championship, all subjects performed an 8 × 100 m swimming step-test using their main swimming technique. The relationships between velocity, mechanical and metabolic power were obtained and analyzed for each swimming technique. It was found that, at the last stage of the test, in all swimming techniques, men demonstrated higher values of metabolic power (Pai = 3346–3560 W) and higher mechanical efficiency (eg = 0.062–0.068) than women (Pai = 2248–2575 W; eg = 0.049–0.052). As for propelling efficiency, women (ep = 0.67–0.71) and men (ep = 0.65–0.71) did not differ from each other. Results showed that the frontal component of active drag force is the main reason for the existing differences in maximal swimming velocity between different techniques, since no relevant differences were observed for mechanical and propelling efficiencies among swimming techniques.

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McGowan, Courtney J., David B. Pyne, Kevin G. Thompson, and Ben Rattray. "Evaluating Warm-Up Strategies for Elite Sprint Breaststroke Swimming Performance." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 11, no. 7 (October 2016): 975–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2015-0581.

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Purpose:Targeted passive heating and completion of dryland-based activation exercises within the warm-up can enhance sprint freestyle performance. The authors investigated if these interventions would also elicit improvements in sprint breaststroke swimming performance.Methods:Ten national and internationally competitive swimmers (~805 FINA (Fédération internationale de natation) 2014 scoring points; 6 men, mean ± SD 20 ± 1 y; 4 women, 21 ± 3 y) completed a standardized pool warm-up (1550 m) followed by a 30-min transition phase and a 100-m breaststroke time trial. In the transition phase, swimmers wore a conventional tracksuit and remained seated (control) or wore tracksuit pants with integrated heating elements and performed a 5-min dryland-based exercise routine (combo) in a crossover design.Results:Performance in the 100-m time trial (control: 68.6 ± 4.0 s, combo: 68.4 ± 3.9 s, P = .55) and start times to 15 m (control: 7.3 ± 0.6 s; combo: 7.3 ± 0.6 s; P = .81) were not different between conditions. It was unclear (P = .36) whether combo (–0.12°C ± 0.19°C [mean ± 90% confidence limits]) elicited an improvement in core temperature maintenance in the transition phase compared with control (–0.31°C ± 0.19°C). Skin temperature immediately before commencement of the time trial was higher (by ~1°C, P = .01) within combo (30.13°C ± 0.88°C [mean ± SD]) compared with control (29.11°C ± 1.20°C). Lower-body power output was not different between conditions before the time trial.Conclusions:Targeted passive heating and completion of dryland-based activation exercises in the transition phase does not enhance sprint breaststroke performance despite eliciting elevated skin temperature immediately before time trial commencement.

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Costa, Aldo Matos, António José Silva, Nuno Domingos Garrido, Hugo Louro, Ricardo Jacó de Oliveira, and Luiza Breitenfeld. "Association between ACE D allele and elite short distance swimming." European Journal of Applied Physiology 106, no. 6 (May 21, 2009): 785–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00421-009-1080-z.

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Lee, Soo-Jung, Jae-Hee Choi, Yoo-Jin Shim, and A.-Ram Kim. "Effect of swimming training on spinal alignment of elite swimmer." Korean Journal of Sports Science 30, no. 3 (June 30, 2021): 1069–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.35159/kjss.2021.6.30.3.1069.

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Mello, Marco Túlio de, Mário Antônio de Moura Simim, Fernanda Veruska Narciso, João Paulo Pereira Rosa, Dayane Ferreira Rodrigues, Luísa de Sousa Nogueira Freitas, Jorge José Bichara, et al. "DURATION AND QUALITY OF SLEEP IN SPRINT AND RECOVERY PERFORMANCES AMONG ELITE SWIMMERS." Revista Brasileira de Medicina do Esporte 26, no. 2 (April 2020): 126–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1517-869220202602220003.

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ABSTRACT Introduction: Circadian rhythms can impact athletes' sports performance, where the plateau occurs between 15 and 21 hours. Swimming is a peculiar case, as athletes perform training and final sessions in competitions at different times, as in the Rio2016 Olympic Games for example, where the semifinal and final competitions took place from ten o'clock at night. Objectives: (1) to present the protocol of an intervention performed with elite athletes of the Brazilian swimming team during the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio; (2) to find out whether the time at which the competitions were held affected the swimming performances of these athletes during the competition. Materials and Methods: Fourteen athletes of the Brazilian swimming team (males: n= 10; 71% and females: n= 4; 29%) participated in the study. They were followed up during two preparation periods (baseline and intervention) for the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio during June and July 2016. During the competition, we recorded the Reaction Time (RT) and Competition Time (CT) of each athlete in different modalities. The intervention strategies used were light therapy and sleep hygiene. The values of RT at the starting block and CT were registered and conferred with the official results. Results: The athletes showed a decrease in the total time awake (Δ = −13%; Effect size [ES] = 1.0) and sleep latency (Δ = −33%; ES = 0.7), and an increase in total sleep time (Δ = 13%; ES = 1.1; p = 0.04) between the baseline and the period of the intervention, pre-competition. We identified an improvement in the RT (Δ = −2.2% to −1.0%; ES = 0.2 to 0.5) during the competition only for the athletes who participated in the competition finals. Conclusion: We conclude that the intervention carried out was effective in mitigating any negative influence of competition time on the RT and CT of elite athletes of the Brazilian swimming team. Level of evidence II; Prospective comparative study.

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Olstad, Bjørn Harald, Veronica Bjørlykke, and Daniela Schäfer Olstad. "Maximal Heart Rate for Swimmers." Sports 7, no. 11 (November 12, 2019): 235. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sports7110235.

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The main purpose of this study was to identify whether a different protocol to achieve maximal heart rate should be used in sprinters when compared to middle-distance swimmers. As incorporating running training into swim training is gaining increased popularity, a secondary aim was to determine the difference in maximal heart rate between front crawl swimming and running among elite swimmers. Twelve elite swimmers (4 female and 8 male, 7 sprinters and 5 middle-distance, age 18.8 years and body mass index 22.9 kg/m2) swam three different maximal heart rate protocols using a 50 m, 100 m and 200 m step-test protocol followed by a maximal heart rate test in running. There were no differences in maximal heart rate between sprinters and middle-distance swimmers in each of the swimming protocols or between land and water (all p ≥ 0.05). There were no significant differences in maximal heart rate beats-per-minute (bpm) between the 200 m (mean ± SD; 192.0 ± 6.9 bpm), 100 m (190.8 ± 8.3 bpm) or 50 m protocol (191.9 ± 8.4 bpm). Maximal heart rate was 6.7 ± 5.3 bpm lower for swimming compared to running (199.9 ± 8.9 bpm for running; p = 0.015). We conclude that all reported step-test protocols were suitable for achieving maximal heart rate during front crawl swimming and suggest that no separate protocol is needed for swimmers specialized on sprint or middle-distance. Further, we suggest conducting sport-specific maximal heart rate tests for different sports that are targeted to improve the aerobic capacity among the elite swimmers of today.

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Allen, Sian V., Tom J. Vandenbogaerde, and Will G. Hopkins. "The Performance Effect of Centralizing a Nation’s Elite Swim Program." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 10, no. 2 (March 2015): 198–203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2014-0106.

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Many national sporting organizations recruit talented athletes to well-resourced centralized training squads to improve their performance.Purpose: To develop a method to monitor performance progression of swimming squads and to use this method to assess the progression of New Zealand’s centralized elite swimming squad.Methods: Best annual long-course competition times of all New Zealand swimmers with at least 3 y of performances in an event between 2002 and 2013 were downloaded from takeyourmarks.com (~281,000 times from ~8500 swimmers). A mixed linear model accounting for event, age, club, year, and elite-squad membership produced estimates of mean annual performance for 175 swim clubs and mean estimates of the deviation of swimmers’ performances from their individual quadratic trajectories after they joined the elite squad. Effects were evaluated using magnitude-based inferences, with a smallest important improvement in swim time of –0.24%.Results: Before 2009, effects of elite-squad membership were mostly unclear and trivial to small in magnitude. Thereafter, both sexes showed clear additional performance enhancements, increasing from large in 2009 (males –1.4% ± 0.8%, females –1.5% ± 0.8%; mean ± 90% confidence limits) to extremely large in 2013 (males –6.8% ± 1.7%, females –9.8% ± 2.9%). Some clubs also showed clear performance trends during the 11-y period.Conclusions: Our method of quantifying deviations from individual trends in competition performance with a mixed model showed that Swimming New Zealand’s centralization strategy took several years to produce substantial performance effects. The method may also be useful for evaluating performance-enhancement strategies introduced at national or club level in other sports.

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Surda, Pavol, Matus Putala, Pavel Siarnik, Abigail Walker, Katherine De Rome, Nikul Amin, Miljyot Singh Sangha, and Wytske Fokkens. "Sleep in elite swimmers: prevalence of sleepiness, obstructive sleep apnoea and poor sleep quality." BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine 5, no. 1 (December 2019): e000673. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2019-000673.

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ObjectivesLimited data suggest that swimmers might be affected by poor quality of sleep significantly. The aim was to explore the prevalence of sleep disturbances in swimmers and possible link between rhinitis and sleep disturbance.MethodsStudy 1 was an observational case–control, questionnaire-based study involving 157 elite and non-elite swimmers, 36 non-swimming athletes and 50 controls. In study 2, we measured sleep quality and duration using actigraphy in 20 elite swimmers. We also looked for presence of sleep-disordered breathing using overnight pulse oximetry monitor.ResultsIn study 1, we observed a significant difference in prevalence of excessive daytime sleepiness between groups of elite swimmers and controls. Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) scores do not suggest that quality of sleep in group of swimmers is impaired. In study 2, we found that prevalence of obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) in elite swimmers defined as oxygen desaturation index ≥5 was 30%. Analysis of actigraphy data revealed that on nights prior to training days, ‘going to’ bed time was significantly earlier and total sleep time was significantly reduced.ConclusionSwimmers and non-swimming athletes suffer significantly more with excessive daytime sleepiness than healthy controls. In elite swimmers, this is likely linked to high prevalence of OSA. PSQI scores do not suggest that quality of sleep in group of swimmers is impaired, but actigraphy shows great variations between sleep pattern preceding training and rest day. This seems to be associated with early-morning sessions which can be a disruptive element of weekly sleep patterns.

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Mujika, Inigo, Jean-Claude Chatard, Thierry Busso, André Geyssant, Frédéric Barale, and Lucien Lacoste. "Effects of Training on Performance in Competitive Swimming." Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology 20, no. 4 (December 1, 1995): 395–406. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/h95-031.

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The relationships between the mean intensity of a training season, training volume and frequency, and the variations in performance were studied in a group of 18 elite swimmers. Additionally, differences between the swimmers who improved their personal record of the previous year during the follow-up training season (G1R, n = 8) and those who did not (GNI, n = 10) were investigated. The improvement in performance during the follow-up season was significantly correlated with the mean intensity of the training season (r = 0.69, p < 0.01), but not with training volume or frequency. The performance improvement during the follow-up season was negatively related to the initial performance level (r = 0.90, p < 0.01). The decline in performance during detraining from the previous year was less for the GIR than for the GNI (6.21 ± 2.30% vs. 9.79 ± 2.18%, p < 0.01). The present findings suggest that training intensity is the key factor in performance improvement in a group of elite swimmers. Factors such as previous detraining and initial performance level could jeopardize success in spite of a good adaptation to training. Key words: intensity, detraining, dry land training, blood lactate, exercise

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Hue, Olivier, Sophie Antoine-Jonville, Olivier Galy, and Stephen Blonc. "Anthropometric and Physiological Characteristics in Young Afro-Caribbean Swimmers: A Preliminary Study." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 8, no. 3 (May 2013): 271–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.8.3.271.

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The authors investigated the anthropometric and physiological characteristics of young Guadeloupian competitive swimmers in relation to swimming performance and compared the abilities of these children with those of the young white swimmers reported in the literature. All 2004 competitive swimmers between 10 and 14 y old (126 children, 61 boys and 65 girls, 12.0 ± 1.3 y) from Guadeloupe underwent anthropometric measurements and physiological and performance testing. Six boys on the French national swimming team are referred to hereafter as the 2011 elite subgroup. Anthropometric parameters, a jump-and-reach test, glide, and estimated aerobic power (eVO2max) were assessed in terms of swimming-performance analysis through a 400-m test. This study demonstrated that the Guadeloupian swimmers had more body fat than most age-matched white swimmers but had very poor hydrostatic lift; they had higher peak jump height and they swam as well as their white counterparts. The variability in 400-m performance between subjects was best described by glide, age, and eVO2max. Compared with the group of boys with the same age, the 2011 elite subgroup was significantly better for arm span, peak jump height, glide, and 400-m and 15-m performances. Further research is needed to investigate motor organization and energy cost of swimming in Afro-Caribbean swimmers.

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Formosa, Danielle P., Mark Gregory Leigh Sayers, and Brendan Burkett. "Backstroke Swimming: Exploring Gender Differences in Passive Drag and Instantaneous Net Drag Force." Journal of Applied Biomechanics 29, no. 6 (December 2013): 662–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jab.29.6.662.

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This study explored and quantified gender differences in passive drag and instantaneous net drag force profile for elite backstroke swimmers (FINA points 938 ± 71). Nine female and ten male backstroke swimmers completed eight maximum speed trials. During the passive drag condition participants were towed at the speed achieved within the maximum effort backstroke swimming trials, while holding a supine stationary streamline position. The remaining trials, swimmers performed their natural swimming stroke, while attached to an assisted towing device. Male participant’s passive (P< .001) and mean net drag force (P< .001) were significantly higher compared with female participants. In addition, there were no significant differences by gender between either the minimum or maximum net drag forces produced during the left and right arm strokes. Instantaneous net drag force profiles demonstrated differences within and between individuals and genders. The swimmers who recorded the fastest speed also recorded the smallest difference in net drag force fluctuations. The instantaneous net drag force profile within elite backstroke swimming provides further insight into stroke technique of this sport.

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Rothschild, Jeffrey, and George H. Crocker. "Effects of a 2-km Swim on Markers of Cycling Performance in Elite Age-Group Triathletes." Sports 7, no. 4 (April 5, 2019): 82. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sports7040082.

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The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a 2-km swim on markers of subsequent cycling performance in well-trained, age-group triathletes. Fifteen participants (10 males, five females, 38.3 ± 8.4 years) performed two progressive cycling tests between two and ten days apart, one of which was immediately following a 2-km swim (33.7 ± 4.1 min). Cycling power at 4-mM blood lactate concentration decreased after swimming by an average of 3.8% (p = 0.03, 95% CI −7.7, 0.2%), while heart rate during submaximal cycling (220 W for males, 150 W for females) increased by an average of 4.0% (p = 0.02, 95% CI 1.7, 9.7%), compared to cycling without prior swimming. Maximal oxygen consumption decreased by an average of 4.0% (p = 0.01, 95% CI −6.5, −1.4%), and peak power decreased by an average of 4.5% (p < 0.01, 95% CI −7.3, −2.3%) after swimming, compared to cycling without prior swimming. Results from this study suggest that markers of submaximal and maximal cycling are impaired following a 2-km swim.

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Staniak, Zbigniew, Krzysztof Buśko, Michał Górski, and Anna Pastuszak. "Accelerometer profile of motion of the pelvic girdle in breaststroke swimming." Journal of Human Kinetics 52, no. 1 (September 1, 2016): 147–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/hukin-2016-0002.

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Abstract The aim of the study was to develop a method for measurement and analysis of kinematics of the pelvic girdle movement in breaststroke swimming to support training of technical skills. The measurements were performed in five elite breaststroke swimmers. A recording device for triaxial accelerations and triaxial rotational angular velocity was mounted on the dorsal part of the pelvic girdle of the athlete. The task of the athlete was to swim one length of the 50 m swimming pool with the intensity similar to competition. From the consecutive cycles of swimming motion, we developed individual mean graphical and numerical profiles of the kinematics of the pelvic girdle movement within the average cycle. Mean basic values of the characteristics were compared with the values documented in the literature obtained by means of the video analysis or using the method of measurement of the velocity of the unwound rope. The comparison revealed that the results in the group studied were very similar to the results obtained using other methods and were typical of elite athletes. Analysis of the motion profiles for the pelvic girdle in breaststroke swimmers indicated that the results obtained reflected individual technique of performing individual phases of swimming cycles. The proposed measurement method, presentation and analysis of the profile of the pelvic girdle motion in breaststroke swimming represents a good tool for fast and effective biomechanical evaluation of motion technique components.

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Verrelli, Cristiano Maria, Cristian Romagnoli, Roxanne Jackson, Ivo Ferretti, Giuseppe Annino, and Vincenzo Bonaiuto. "Phi-Bonacci Butterfly Stroke Numbers to Assess Self-Similarity in Elite Swimmers." Mathematics 9, no. 13 (July 1, 2021): 1545. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/math9131545.

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A harmonically self-similar temporal partition, which turns out to be subtly exhibited by elite swimmers at middle distance pace, is formally defined for one of the most technically advanced swimming strokes—the butterfly. This partition relies on the generalized Fibonacci sequence and the golden ratio. Quantitative indices, named ϕ-bonacci butterfly stroke numbers, are proposed to assess such an aforementioned hidden time-harmonic and self-similar structure. An experimental validation on seven international-level swimmers and two national-level swimmers was included. The results of this paper accordingly extend the previous findings in the literature regarding human walking and running at a comfortable speed and front crawl swimming strokes at a middle/long distance pace.

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Olivier, Nicolas, and Frédéric N. Daussin. "Relationships Between Isokinetic Shoulder Evaluation and Fitness Characteristics of Elite French Female Water-Polo Players." Journal of Human Kinetics 64, no. 1 (October 15, 2018): 5–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/hukin-2017-0181.

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Abstract Swimming and throwing are involved in water-polo player performance. These movements have a common biomechanical basis in the use of the internal shoulder rotation and adductor muscles. The aim of the study was to evaluate the relationship between shoulder isokinetic evaluation and throwing velocity as well as swimming performance in female water-polo players. Fifteen high level water-polo players completed two isokinetic shoulder evaluations to determine peak torque of shoulder rotators of the dominant shoulder (concentric and eccentric movements at an angular velocity of 60°·s-1 and concentric movements at an angular velocity of 240°·s-1) and shoulder extensors of both arms (concentric movements at an angular velocity of 60°·s-1 and 240°·s-1). Throwing velocity was measured using a radar gun placed 5 m behind the goal post. Front crawl swimming velocity was determined at 25 m, 100 m and 400 m distances. Concentric peak torque at 60°·s-1 and 240°·s-1 of internal rotators and eccentric peak torque at 60°·s-1 of external rotators were predictors of throwing velocity. The best model to explain the relationship between isokinetic evaluations and throwing velocity was obtained with concentric IR peak torque at 60°·s-1 and eccentric ER peak torque at 60°·s-1 (r2 = 0.52, p = 0.012). Relative total work done and peak torque of shoulder extensors were predictors of 25 m swimming velocity. Shoulder isokinetic evaluations correlate significantly with swimming performance and throwing velocity of female water-polo players. The results may help coaches to develop new strategies such as eccentric dry land training programs to increase both shoulder external rotators strength and throwing velocity.

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Endre, László. "A testedzés és az asztma kapcsolata." Orvosi Hetilap 157, no. 26 (June 2016): 1019–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/650.2016.30449.

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An article was published in the Lancet in 1935 about the therapy of asthmatic patients, using a special breathing exercise (the authors used a control group, too). Swimming, as a complementary therapy for asthmatic children, was first recommended in 1968, by authors from the United States. In Hungary, regular swimming training for asthmatic children is in use since August, 1981. As the result of this exercise, the physical fitness of asthmatic children (using this method regularly for years) increased dramatically, and it is much better compared to that found in the non asthmatic, non swimming children of the same age group. Their asthma medication requirement decreased, and the severity of their disease moderated considerably. On the other hand, asthma is not a rarity even among elite athletes. It is most frequent in the endurance sports (for example in Northern Europe among cross-country skiers its prevalence is between 14–54%, among long distance runners 15–24%, and among swimmers 13–44%). The possible reason is related to the fact that elite athletes inspirate 200 liter air per minutum (mostly through their mouth). The air pollution and the allergens can penetrate in their lower respiratory tract. The air causes cooling and drying of the mucosa of their airways and, as a consequence, mediators liberate which produce oedema of the mucosa, and bronchoconstriction. Beta-2-receptor agonists inhalation can prevent (or decrease significantly) this phenomenon. These agents are used regularly by elite athletes, too. The non-medical possibilities for prevention include wearing a special mask, frequent ventilation of the swimming pool’s air, consumption of omega-3-fatty acid, and inhalation of dry salt (very small, and very clear sodiumchloride particles). Orv. Hetil., 2016, 157(26), 1019–1027.

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Mooney, Robert, Gavin Corley, Alan Godfrey, Leo Quinlan, and Gearóid ÓLaighin. "Inertial Sensor Technology for Elite Swimming Performance Analysis: A Systematic Review." Sensors 16, no. 1 (December 25, 2015): 18. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s16010018.

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James, Daniel A., Brendan Burkett, and David V. Thiel. "An unobtrusive swimming monitoring system for recreational and elite performance monitoring." Procedia Engineering 13 (2011): 113–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2011.05.060.

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Vaz, João R., Bjørn Harald Olstad, Jan Cabri, Per-Ludvik Kjendlie, Pedro Pezarat-Correia, and François Hug. "Muscle coordination during breaststroke swimming: Comparison between elite swimmers and beginners." Journal of Sports Sciences 34, no. 20 (February 15, 2016): 1941–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1143109.

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MAUGER, ALEXIS R., JOSHUA NEULOH, and PAUL C. CASTLE. "Analysis of Pacing Strategy Selection in Elite 400-m Freestyle Swimming." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 44, no. 11 (November 2012): 2205–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e3182604b84.

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Griffin, A., and V. B. Unnithan. "PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INTENSE SWIMMING COMPETITION ON ELITE FEMALE SWIMMERS 1617." Medicine &amp Science in Sports &amp Exercise 29, Supplement (May 1997): 285. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005768-199705001-01616.

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Nortje, J. "Views of elite swimmers on achieving swimming excellence in South Africa." South African Journal of Sports Medicine 17, no. 2 (May 13, 2018): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/5079.

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Rechichi, C., A. Lyttle, M. Doyle, and T. Polglaze. "Swimming velocity patterns in elite women’s water polo: a case study." International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport 5, no. 3 (December 2005): 139–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/24748668.2005.11868344.

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Solana-Tramunt, Mònica, Jose Morales, Bernat Buscà, Marina Carbonell, and Lara Rodríguez-Zamora. "Heart-Rate Variability in Elite Synchronized Swimmers." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 14, no. 4 (April 1, 2019): 464–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2018-0538.

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Purpose: To determine whether heart-rate variability (HRV) was correlated with other training-load and training-tolerance markers for monitoring the effect of a training session on elite synchronized swimmers. Methods: The authors recorded the resting HRV of 12 elite swimmers (mean age = 21.5 [3.5] y) 3 times over 1 wk with a cadence of 48 h prior to the 2015 World Swimming Championships. They continuously monitored heart rate and obtained salivary cortisol (SC) samples before and after the last training session of the week. The authors measured capillary blood lactate (La) 2, 4, and 8 min after the last training session and monitored recovery HRV. They assessed rating of perceived exertion (RPE) over the entire session and tested the association between the highest La concentration (Lapeak), SC, and RPE and relative changes (Δ%) in the natural logarithm of the root-mean-square successive difference of intervals (LnRMSSD). The authors also calculated the smallest worthwhile change of the averaged pre and post LnRMSSD measurements. Results: There were periods of pronounced bradycardia (60.5 [16.7] beats/min) during training exercises corresponding to apneic exercise. The magnitude-based inferences showed nonclinically meaningful changes of LnRMSSD. Lapeak (6.8 [2.7] mmol/L) correlated positively with Δ%LnRMSSD and Δ%SC (r = .89, P = .001 and r = .61, P = .04, respectively). Conclusions: There was no change in LnRMSSD and Lapeak, Δ%SC, and RPE indicated reduced sympathetic activation and positive adaptation to the stress imposed by the session. Isolated HRV assessment may reveal a controversial interpretation of autonomic nervous system status or the training tolerance in elite synchronized swimming athletes due to the influence of the diving response.

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Vasic, Ana, Marko Djurovic, Dejan Madic, and Tomislav Okicic. "Differences in Split Times between the Elite Breaststroke Swimmers." Journal of Anthropology of Sport and Physical Education 5, no. 2 (April 16, 2021): 9–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.26773/jaspe.210402.

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The aim of this research was to determine the differences between the finalists and semifinalists of the 2019 World Championships in the 100 m breaststroke. The total sample of subjects included in the study consisted of 23 male participants of the 2019 World Swimming Championships, who were divided into two groups. The first group consisted of finalists (24.75 ± 1.58 years; n = 8), and the second group of semifinalists (25.00 ± 3.38 years; n = 15). The results are taken from the official website of the International Swimming Federation (FINA). The variables analyzed in this study are: Split 1 - first passing time of the 100 m breaststroke, Split 2 - second passing time of the 100 m breaststroke, T100 - total time of the 100 m breaststroke. All data were processed by statistical analysis one‐way ANOVA. The results of the research showed that there are no statistically significant differences between the final and semifinal groups in any of the examined variables, but there are evident numerical differences that are more pronounced in the Split 2 (F = 2.063; p = .166). Based on these results, it can be concluded that swimmers who excel in their abilities in the other 50 m of the race, or achieve better times in this segment of the race, will achieve a better final result.

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Gonjo, Tomohiro, Ola Eriksrud, Filip Papoutsis, and Bjørn Harald Olstad. "Relationships between a Load-velocity Profile and Sprint Performance in Butterfly Swimming." International Journal of Sports Medicine 41, no. 07 (February 14, 2020): 461–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/a-1103-2114.

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AbstractThe purpose of this study was to establish the relationships between 50 m sprint swimming performance and variables acquired from a swimming load-velocity profile established by semi-tethered butterfly swimming. Twelve male elite swimmers participated in the present study and performed 50 m sprint and semi-tethered butterfly swimming with different loads. The mean velocity among all upper-limb cycles was obtained from the 50 m swimming (race velocity), and maximum load and velocity were predicted from the load-velocity profile established by the semi-tethered swimming test. There was a very large correlation (r=0.885, p<0.01) and a high intra-class correlation (0.844, p<0.001) between the race velocity and the predicted maximum velocity. Significant correlations were also observed between the predicted maximum load and the 50 m time as well as the race velocity (r=− 0.624 and 0.556, respectively, both p<0.05), which imply that an ability to achieve a large tethered swimming force is associated with 50 m butterfly performance. These results indicate that the load-velocity profile is a useful tool for predicting and assessing sprint butterfly swimming performance.

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Sacilotto, Gina B. D., Nick Ball, and Bruce R. Mason. "A Biomechanical Review of the Techniques Used to Estimate or Measure Resistive Forces in Swimming." Journal of Applied Biomechanics 30, no. 1 (February 2014): 119–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jab.2013-0046.

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Resistive or drag forces encountered during free swimming greatly influence the swim performance of elite competitive swimmers. The benefits in understanding the factors which affect the drag encountered will enhance performance within the sport. However, the current techniques used to experimentally measure or estimate drag values are questioned for their consistency, therefore limiting investigations in these factors. This paper aims to further understand how the resistive forces in swimming are measured and calculated. All techniques outlined demonstrate both strengths and weaknesses in the overall assessment of free swimming. By reviewing all techniques in this area, the reader should be able to select which one is best depending on what researchers want to gain from the testing.

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Skorski, Sabrina, Naroa Etxebarria, and Kevin G. Thompson. "Breaking the Myth That Relay Swimming Is Faster Than Individual Swimming." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 11, no. 3 (April 2016): 410–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2014-0577.

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Purpose:To investigate if swimming performance is better in a relay race than in the corresponding individual race.Methods:The authors analyzed 166 elite male swimmers from 15 nations in the same competition (downloaded from www.swimrankings.net). Of 778 observed races, 144 were Olympic Games performances (2000, 2004, 2012), with the remaining 634 performed in national or international competitions. The races were 100-m (n = 436) and 200-m (n = 342) freestyle events. Relay performance times for the 2nd–4th swimmers were adjusted (+ 0.73 s) to allow for the “flying start.”Results:Without any adjustment, mean individual relay performances were significantly faster for the first 50 m and overall time in the 100-m events. Furthermore, the first 100 m of the 200-m relay was significantly faster (P > .001). During relays, swimmers competing in 1st position did not show any difference compared with their corresponding individual performance (P > .16). However, swimmers competing in 2nd–4th relay-team positions demonstrated significantly faster times in the 100-m (P < .001) and first half of the 200-m relays than in their individual events (P < .001, ES: 0.28–1.77). However, when finishing times for 2nd–4th relay team positions were adjusted for the flying start no differences were detected between relay and individual race performance for any event or split time (P > .17).Conclusion:Highly trained swimmers do not swim (or turn) faster in relay events than in their individual races. Relay exchange times account for the difference observed in individual vs relay performance.

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Paciência, Inês, Ana Rodolfo, Leonor Leão, Diana Silva, João Cavaleiro Rufo, Francisca Mendes, Patrícia Padrão, et al. "Effects of Exercise on the Skin Epithelial Barrier of Young Elite Athletes-Swimming Comparatively to Non-Water Sports Training Session." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 2 (January 14, 2021): 653. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020653.

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The benefits of swimming have been extensively assessed. However, swimming pools contain chlorine and other irritating chemicals that may induce contact dermatitis. To evaluate the effect of a swimming training session on transepidermal water loss (TWEL) in swimmers compared to football players, elite swimmers and football players were invited to participate (58 athletes) in the study, where TEWL was measured before, immediately after, and 30 min after a 2 h training session. The probe was held on the dorsum of the hand, volar forearm, and on the antecubital flexure for 1 min. The volar forearm, antecubital flexure, and hand dorsum showed a significant increase in TEWL in swimmers in both measurements after training compared to baseline (p < 0.001). In football players, an increase in TEWL was observed on the hands’ dorsum between baseline and after training measurements. The variations on TEWL levels before and immediately after the training session were higher among swimmers on the volar forearm (p = 0.002) and antecubital flexure (p = 0.019). Our findings support the effect of the training environment—swimming pool versus outdoor sports—on the skin barrier function, with an increase of transepidermal water loss immediately after exercise. Exposure to a swimming pool environment in a 2 h training session may lead to changes in skin barrier function.

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Pla, Robin, Arthur Leroy, Romain Massal, Maxime Bellami, Fatima Kaillani, Philippe Hellard, Jean-François Toussaint, and Adrien Sedeaud. "Bayesian approach to quantify morphological impact on performance in international elite freestyle swimming." BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine 5, no. 1 (October 2019): e000543. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2019-000543.

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ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to quantify the impact of morphological characteristics on freestyle swimming performance by event and gender.DesignHeight, mass, body mass index (BMI) and speed data were collected for the top 100 international male and female swimmers from 50 to 1500 m freestyle events for the 2000–2014 seasons.MethodsSeveral Bayesian hierarchical regressions were performed on race speed with height, mass and BMI as predictors. Posterior probability distributions were computed using Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithms.ResultsRegression results exhibited relationships between morphology and performance for both genders and all race distances. Height was always positively correlated with speed with a 95% probability. Conversely, mass plays a different role according to the context. Heavier profiles seem favourable on sprint distances, whereas mass becomes a handicap as distance increases. Male and female swimmers present several differences on the influence of morphology on speed, particularly about the mass. Best morphological profiles are associated with a gain of speed of 0.7%–3.0% for men and 1%–6% for women, depending on race distance. BMI has been investigated as a predictor of race speed but appears as weakly informative in this context.ConclusionMorphological indicators such as height and mass strongly contribute to swimming performance from sprint to distance events, and this contribution is quantified for each race distance. These profiles may help swimming federations to detect athletes and drive them to compete in specific distances according to their morphology.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Elite swimming'

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