Academic literature on the topic 'Elite swimming'

The ability to generate and control mental images is present in all of us, but it differs from person to person. Therefore, it is important to understand that imagery ability can be changed through training and experimentation, it is not a fixed ability (Cumming & Williams, 2012). The aim of this study is to compare imagery ability in elite, sub-elite and non-elite athletes in a sport which involves closed and continuous motor skills, such as swimming. 79 swimmers (male N = 37; female N = 42) at an average age of 17 took part in this study. In order to assess imagery ability, the Movement Imagery Questionnaire 3 was used, Portuguese version (Mendes et al., 2016). After analysis of the results, these show that in each and every imagery modality, the scores in the three groups differ significantly. In kinesthetic and external visual imagery the elite and sub-elite groups’ scores, although not statistically different from each other, are significantly higher than those of the non-elite group. In internal visual imagery, the differences between all the compared pairs of groups are statistically significant. The elite group got the highest scores, followed by the sub-elite group average scores and finally the non-elite group average scores. According to these results, the conclusion is that athletes with better performance show greater imagery ability and that apparently the external visual imagery proved to be the best intervention method among swimming athletes.

Abstract The aim of this study was to examine whether the intracyclic velocity variation (IVV) was lower in elite swimmers than in beginner swimmers at various velocities, and whether differences may be related to arm coordination. Seven elite and nine beginner male swimmers swam front crawl at four different swimming velocities (maximal velocity, 75%, 85%, and 95% of maximal swimming velocity). The index of arm coordination (IDC) was calculated as the lag time between the propulsive phases of each arm. IVV was determined from the coefficient of variation of horizontal velocity within one stroke cycle. IVV for elite swimmers was significantly lower (26%) than that for beginner swimmers at all swimming velocities . In contrast, the IDC was similar between elite and beginner swimmers. These data suggest that IVV is a strong predictor of the skill level for front crawl, and that elite swimmers have techniques to decrease IVV. However, the IDC does not contribute to IVV differences between elite and beginner swimmers.

Using the mental toughness framework of Jones, Hanton and Connaughton (2007), the authors interviewed thirteen highly-experienced swimming coaches in a two-part study to determine the specific mental toughness subcomponents present in mentally tough swimmers, and to examine the factors that led swimmers to develop mental toughness. Interviews were transcribed and analyzed using methods outlined by Creswell (2007). While confirming eleven of thirteen subcomponents of mental toughness previously identified by Jones et al. (2007), the participants identified (a) “coachability” and (b) “retaining psychological control on poor training days” as previously unidentified subcomponents of mental toughness. In the second part of the study, the authors identified six higher-order themes describing how both the coach and the swimmer acted to develop mental toughness in the swimmer. Implications for researchers, swimming coaches, and sport psychology consultants are discussed.

Background The majority of orthopaedic problems experienced by competitive swimmers are related to pain in the shoulder, low back, and knee. Three of 39 national swim team members were hampered in their performance due to lumbar disk herniation at an international competition in 2001. There has been no previous research into lumbar disk degeneration in elite competitive swimmers. Hypothesis Excessive competitive swimming activities accelerate lumbar disk degeneration. Study Design Case control study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods Fifty-six elite swimmers (high-load group, 35 men and 21 women; mean age, 19.6 years) and a control group of 38 university recreational level swimmers (low-load group, 24 men and 14 women; mean age, 21.1 years) were evaluated for lumbar disk degeneration using magnetic resonance imaging. We compared the prevalence of disk degeneration and the disk level between the 2 groups and further investigated the relationship among their symptoms, swimming styles, and disk degeneration. Results Thirty-eight (68%) elite swimmers and 11 (29%) controls had degenerated disks at various disk levels, and the prevalence was significantly greater in the elite swimmers (P = .0002). Comparison between the 2 groups of the prevalence of disk degeneration at each level revealed that the disk level of L5-S1 was significantly more frequently degenerated in the high-load group (P = .026). There was no significant relationship observed among the variables of low back pain symptoms, swimming strokes, and disk degeneration. Conclusion Excessive competitive swimming activities might exaggerate lumbar intervertebral disk degeneration, especially in the L5-S1 intervertebral segment. Keywords lumbar intervertebral disk; disk degeneration; swimming; sports

Twelve male 100-m freestyle swimmers were videotaped during the 1992 Olympic Games. Four cameras, two above water and two below, recorded the same stroke cycle of the swimmer at approximately the 40- to 45-m mark. The whole body and the recovering arms were digitized from the videotapes to recreate a complete stroke cycle. Body position variables and hand reaction forces (Schleihauf, 1979) were calculated. Swimmers were divided into elite and subelite groups based on their swimming velocity and were compared for differences in biomechanical variables. Elites used slightly lower hand forces while maintaining a higher propelling efficiency. Subelites had opposite rotations about the longitudinal axis of the body rather than symmetrical body roll. The elite swimmers were different from subelites in that their pulling patterns were more efficient and their body position was more streamlined. These variables assisted them in achieving faster swimming velocities without requiring higher propulsive forces.

Swimming performance is primarily judged on the overall time taken for a swimmer to complete a specified distance performing a stroke that complies with current regulations defined by the Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA), the International governing body of swimming. There are three contributing factors to this overall time; the start, free swimming and turns. The contribution of each of these factors is event dependent; for example, in a 50m event there are no turns, however, the start can be a significant contributor. To improve overall performance each of these components should be optimised in terms of skill and execution. This thesis details the research undertaken towards improving performance-related feedback in swimming. The research included collaboration with British Swimming, the national governing body for swimming in the U.K., to drive the requirements and direction of research. An evaluation of current methods of swimming analysis identified a capability gap in real-time, quantitative feedback. A number of components were developed to produce an integrated system for comprehensive swim performance analysis in all phases of the swim, i.e. starts, free swimming and turns. These components were developed to satisfy two types of stakeholder requirements. Firstly, the measurement requirements, i.e. what does the end user want to measure? Secondly, the process requirements, i.e. how would these measurements be achieved? The components developed in this research worked towards new technologies to facilitate a wider range of measurement parameters using automated methods as well as the application of technologies to facilitate the automation of current techniques. The development of the system is presented in detail and the application of these technologies is presented in case studies for starts, free swimming and turns. It was found that developed components were able to provide useful data indicating levels of performance in all aspects of swimming, i.e. starts, free swimming and turns. For the starts, an integrated solution of vision, force plate technology and a wireless iii node enabled greater insight into overall performance and quantitative measurements of performance to be captured. Force profiles could easily identify differences in swimmer ability or changes in technique. The analysis of free swimming was predominantly supported by the wireless sensor technology, whereby signal analysis was capable of automatically determining factors such as lap times variations within strokes. The turning phase was also characterised in acceleration space, allowing the phases of the turn to be individually assessed and their contribution to total turn time established. Each of the component technologies were not used in isolation but were supported by other synchronous data capture. In all cases a vision component was used to increase understanding of data outputs and provide a medium that coaches and athletes were comfortable with interpreting. The integrated, component based system has been developed and tested to prove its ability to produce useful, quantitative feedback information for swimmers. The individual components were found to be capable of providing greater insight into swimming performance, that has not been previously possible using the current state of the art techniques. Future work should look towards the fine-tuning of the prototype system into a useable solution for end users. This relies on the refinement of components and the development of an appropriate user interface to enable ease of data collection, analysis, presentation and interpretation.

Synchronized swimming (SS) is a sports discipline combining swimming, dancing and gymnastics. Synchronized Swimmers perform a choreography called routine consisting of elaborate moves in the water accompanied by music. Previous research investigating SS from a physiological perspective has mainly used figures or fractionated and/or simulated routine protocols during training, although the nature of sports leads to continuous very demanding exercises (~2-4 minutes) performed at increasingly higher levels of intensity with almost 50% of this time underwater. In addition, different from training, competition is a challenging situation which usually stimulates higher psycho-physiological responses in the participant. Current knowledge is thus limited as regards physiological responses in competitive elite SS. Therefore, the overall aim of this thesis is to study the physiological responses related to performance during the execution of competitive routines both during training and competitive sessions in elite synchronized swimmers. The thesis is based on three studies (Studies I – III); all of them use the same protocol with continuous cardiovascular monitoring during competitive routines, perceived exertion assessment after the executions, and blood lactate measurements (Studies I and III). Study I characterized the physiological responses in relation to performance during an official competition. In Study II the execution of the duets in both conditions –training and competitive session– was used to compare the athletes’ internal load in order to ascertain whether swimmers may achieve the competitive intensity during training sessions, and Study III was performed to investigate how immersion periods, with the concomitant bradycardic events, affect perceived exertion with both physiological (HR) and subjective perceptual markers (RPE). The current thesis demonstrates that cardiovascular responses during competition are characterized by intense anticipatory pre-activation and rapidly developing tachycardia up to maximal levels with interspersed periods of marked bradycardia during the exercise bouts performed in apnea (Studies I­III). Moderate blood lactate accumulation suggested the activation of the glycolytic metabolism in the exercising muscles and an adaptive metabolic response due to the specific training adaptations in this kind of athletes (Studies I and III). Furthermore, competitive routines were perceived as very to extremely intense by all swimmers, likely reflecting not only the absolute exercise demands but also their previous experience and expectations (Studies I – III). In Study II, the internal load (HR and RPE) imposed by SS duets performed during training was virtually identical to that elicited in a real competitive situation due to the effects of automaticity –embodied through the replication of the same movement sequence in practice–, and by the swimmers’ long-term adaptations to specific routine exercise and apnea. There was a strong positive relationship between RPE and the duration and / or frequency of bradycardic events during routines (Studies II – III). In fact, the frequency and duration of immersions, the magnitude of subsequent bradycardic events, the blood lactate concentration, and the HR recovery during competitive SS routines explained 62% RPE variance changes in perceived exertion, with cardiorespiratory factors providing a relatively greater neural input as compared to metabolic factors (Study III). Attending the relationships between physiological parameters and performance, the magnitude of anticipatory heart rate activation and bradycardic response explained 26% of variability in performance (Study I) supporting the concept that an augmented diving response was associated to higher performance in SS. However, in Study III the percentage of variance rose to 53% by adding the blood lactate concentration, the number of immersions and longest immersion time, and the lower mean time immersed during the routine. This could explain that best swimmers show a greater adaptation to breath holding and this would likely translate into a more efficient O2 conservation effect (Study III).

The past few decades have heralded a paradigm shift in the psychology, oncology, and trauma literature. This shift has involved a re-focusing of the empirical lens from the distress and pathology of traumatic experiences to a focus on growth and thriving in response to adversity or traumatic events. Multiple studies have identified that individuals recognise positive changes following their experiences of adversity to the extent that many individuals report development beyond their pre-trauma functioning. These positive changes have been broadly conceptualised as growth, a multidimensional concept, which typically involves an increased appreciation for life, more meaningful relationships, an increased sense of personal strength, a change in priorities, and a richer existential and spiritual awareness. Growth following adversity, or adversarial growth, is still relatively new in sport, and specifically elite sport, and accordingly the purpose of this doctoral research was to explore adversarial growth in elite athletes with a particular emphasis on the experiences of elite level swimmers. The research was grounded in a constructivist paradigm which assumes changing and sometimes conflicting social realities, and seeks to understand people's constructions of their lived experiences.

Elite swimmers can be distinguished from novice swimmers by freestyle stroke technique. Elite swimmers move through multiple coordination modes, increases in stroke lengths, stroke rates, and body roll allowing for a more symmetrical stroke and increased speed compared with novice swimmer during 100m freestyle. Coaches strive to improve swimmers’ performance by providing feedback about stroke technique, mostly from the pool deck where view of the full stroke cycle is obstructed by the water. Tools to assess swimming are often expensive and require extra training, which does not provide a pragmatic solution. A dryland rotational swimbench would provide a means to evaluate freestyle swimming. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the sensory motor system of elite and novice level swimmers by comparing kinematic, coordinative structures and spatial-temporal characteristics of freestyle stroke on a dryland swimbench with a rotational component. Thirty elite and novice collegiate and masters swimmers were instrumented with reflective markers bilaterally on the upper extremity and torso. A series of four ten second trials of freestyle sprint swimming were performed on the swimbench. Repeated measures were used for statistical analysis for comparison between and within groups. Bonferroni corrections were used as post-hoc analysis. Results indicated no significant difference between elite and novice swimmers’ sensory-motor system, kinematics or spatio-temporal systems on a rotational swimbench. Similarities could be accounted for by swimmers perceiving a novel task due to differences in sensory feedback, and mechanical limitations of the bench. It is noteworthy that catch-up/opposition coordination are more common than superposition which provides support for the swimbench providing a more similar representation to in water swimming.

Formal long-term athlete development programmes emerged at the turn of the century and, despite some fierce criticisms, have evolved significantly since their inception. The first generation of athletes to grow up with these systems are now coming of age. The purpose of this thesis was to track a population of adolescent school-level swimmers between the ages of 12 and 18 years over an 8-year period so as to assess their performance progression as they matured under these athlete development programmes. The first study aimed to track the performances of the sub-elite athletes at an annual international school championship and to compare their progression with those of both junior elite and elite-level swimmers. In addition to narrowing the gender gap, the records of the sub-elite swimmers have continued to improve. In contrast, both of these factors remained relatively stable for junior elite and elite-level swimmers over the same period. Swimming affords athletes the possibility of within-sport specialisation. This almost unique aspect of swimming led to the two investigations of the second study. Firstly, the paired stroke combinations preferred by swimmers were determined using Cohen’s Kappa tests in a cross-sectional design. Secondly, the stability in the event selection of each swimmer during their adolescent years was explored longitudinally. Both males (33.9±5.8%) and females (36.9±6.5%) preferred to swim the 50 and 100 m freestyle events together over any other paired stroke combination. The majority of swimmers preferred to specialise in specific stroke techniques over distance specialisms with breaststroke being the only stroke in which swimmers of both sexes chose to specialise early. Most notable was that females specialised earlier than males. Studies three (males, n = 446) and four (females, n = 514) utilised mixed linear modelling to determine the quadratic functions of the performance progressions of adolescent swimmers (between the ages of 12 and 19 y) in seven individual competition events. Males progressed at more than twice the rate of females (3.5 and 1.7% per year, respectively) in all strokes over this age range. This was likely due to the fact that females reach puberty before males. Thresholds of peak performance occurred between the ages of 18.5±0.1 y (50 m freestyle and the 200 m individual medley) and 19.8±0.1 y (100 m butterfly) for males, but between the wider range of 16.8±0.2 y (200 m individual medley) and 20.6±0.1 y (100 m butterfly) for females. Using an independent sample of Dutch Junior national swimmers (n = 13), the fifth and final study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of the models developed in studies three and four as both target setting and talent identification tools. This was achieved through a mixed-methods approach where quantitative and qualitative data confirmed the applicability of the models for adolescent swimmers of any skill level. This thesis demonstrates that sub-elite swimmers have probably benefitted from first generation athlete development models. Longitudinal modelling of their data provides a valuable platform from which all adolescent swimmers can be compared and used to inform the next generation of bespoke swimming-specific youth development programmes.

This thesis examined the benefits of physiological and performance testing of elite swimmers. The study considered the following research questions: the degree to which physiological and performance measures in training contribute to swimming performance; sources and magnitude of variability in testing, training and competition performance; the magnitudes of changes in test measures during routine training; and the reliability, validity and utility of miniaturised and automated smart sensor technology to monitor the stroke and performance times of swimmers in training. The experimental approach involved the retrospective analysis of five years of physiological and performance testing of elite level swimmers, the development of a new accelerometry-based smart sensor device to monitor swimmers in the pool, a cross-sectional study comparing the physiological and performance responses of swimmers of different levels, and the effects of an intensive 14-day training program on submaximal physiological and performance measures. Collectively, the outcomes of these studies provide a strong justification for the physiological and performance testing of elite swimmers, a quantitative framework for interpreting the magnitude of changes and differences in test scores and sources of variation, and highlight the potential utility of new smart sensor technology to automate the monitoring of a swimmer�s training performance. The first study (Chapter 2) characterises the changes and variability in test performance, physiological and anthropometric measures, and stroke mechanics of swimmers within and between seasons over their elite competitive career. Forty elite swimmers (24 male, 16 female) performed a 7 x 200-m incremental swimming step test several times each 6-month season (10 � 5 tests, spanning 0.5 to 6.0 y). Mixed linear modeling provided estimates of change in the mean and individual responses for measures based on submaximal performance (fixed 4-mM lactate), maximal performance (the seventh step), and lean mass (from skinfolds and body mass). Submaximal and maximal swim speed increased within each season from the pre to taper phase by ~2.2% for females and ~1.5% for males (95% confidence limits �1.0%), with variable contributions from stroke rate and stroke length. Most of the gains in speed were lost in the off-season, leaving a net average annual improvement of ~1.0% for females and ~0.6% for males (�1.0%). For submaximal and maximal speed, individual variation between phases was �2.2% and the typical measurement error was �0.8%. In conclusion, step test and anthropometric measures can be used to confidently monitor progressions in swimmers in an elite training program within and between seasons. The second study (Chapter 3) quantified the relationship between changes in test measures and changes in competition performance for individual elite swimmers. The primary question addressed was whether test measures could predict a swimmers performance at the major end-of-season competition. The same sample group as in Study 1 was examined. A 7 x 200-m incremental swimming step-test and anthropometry were conducted in up to four training phases each season. Correlations of changes in step-test and anthropometric measures between training phases between and within seasons, with changes in competition performance between seasons, were derived by repeated-measures mixed modeling and linear regression. Changes in competition performance were best tracked by changes in test measures between taper phases. The best single predictor of competition performance was skinfolds for females (r = -0.53). The best predictor from the step-test was stroke rate at 4-mM lactate (females, r = 0.46; males, r = 0.41); inclusion of the second-best step-test predictor in a multiple linear regression improved the correlations marginally (females, r =0.52 with speed in the seventh step included; males, r = 0.58 with peak lactate concentration included). Changes in test measures involving phases other than the taper provided weak and inconclusive correlations with changes in performance, possibly because the coaches and swimmers took corrective action when tests produced poor results. In conclusion, a combination of fitness and techniques factors are important for competitive performance. The step test is apparently a useful adjunct in a swimmer�s training preparation for tracking large changes in performance. These initial studies identified stroke mechanics as a major determinant of a swimmer�s performance. Chapter 4 details the development of a small tri-axial accelerometry-based smart sensor device (the Traqua) that enables continual monitoring of various performance/stroke characteristics in swimming. The initial focus was to develop a device that automated the detection of a swimmer�s movements, specifically lap times, stroke rate and stroke count. The Traqua consists of a tri-axial accelerometer packaged with a microprocessor, which attaches to the swimmer at the pelvis to monitor their whole body movements while swimming. This study established the failure/error rate in the first generation algorithms developed to detect the swimming-specific movements of stroke identification, laps (start, turn and finish), and strokes (stroke count and stroke rate) in a cohort of 21 elite and sub-elite swimmers. Movements were analysed across a range of swimming speeds for both freestyle and breaststroke. These initial algorithms were reasonably successful in correctly identifying the markers representing specific segments of a swimming lap in a range of swimmers across a spectrum of swimming speeds. The first iteration of the freestyle algorithm produced error-rates of 13% in detection of lap times, 5% for stroke rate, and 11% for stroke count. Subsequent improvements of the software reduced the error rate in lap and stroke detection. This improved software was used in the following two studies. The next study (Chapter 5) evaluated the reliability and validity of the Traqua against contemporary methods used for timing, stroke rate and stroke count determination. The subjects were 14 elite and 10 sub-elite club-level swimmers. Each swimmer was required to swim seven evenly paced 200-m efforts on a 5-min cycle, graded from easy to maximal. Swimmers completed the test using their main competitive stroke (21 freestyle, 3 breaststroke). Timing was compared for each 50-m lap and total 200-m time by electronic touch pads, video coding, a hand-held manual stopwatch, and the Traqua. Stroke count was compared for video coding, self-reported counting, and the Traqua, while the stroke rate was compared via video coding, hand-held stopwatch, and the Traqua. Retest trials were conducted under the same conditions 7 d following the first test. All data from the Traqua presented in this and the subsequent studies were visually inspected for errors in the automated algorithms, where the algorithms had either failed to correctly identify the start, turn, finish or individual strokes and corrected prior to analysis. The standard error of the estimate for each of the timing methods for total 200 m was compared with the criterion electronic timing. These standard errors were as follows: Traqua (0.64 s; 90% confidence limits 0.60 � 0.69 s), Video (0.52 s; 0.49 � 0.55 s); Manual (0.63 s; 0.59 � 0.67 s). Broken down by 50-m laps, the standard error of the estimate for the Traqua compared with the electronic timing for freestyle only was: 1st 50-m 0.35 s; 2nd and 3rd 50-m 0.13 s; 4th 50-m 0.65 s. When compared with the criterion video-coding determination, the error for the stroke count was substantially lower for the Traqua (0.6 strokes.50 m-1; 0.5 � 0.6 strokes.50 m-1) compared to the self-reported measure (2.3 strokes.50 m-1; 2.5 � 2.9 strokes.50 m-1). However, the error for stroke rate was similar between the Traqua (1.5 strokes.min-1; 1.4 � 1.6 strokes.min-1) and the manual stopwatch (1.8 strokes.min-1; 1.7 � 1.9 strokes.min-1). The typical error of measurement of the Traqua was 1.99 s for 200-m time, 1.1 strokes.min-1 for stroke rate, and 1.1 strokes.50 m-1 for stroke count. In conclusion, the Traqua is comparable in accuracy to current methods for determining time and stroke rate, and better than current methods for stroke count. A substantial source of error in the Traqua timing was additional noise in the detection of the start and finish. The Traqua is probably useful for monitoring of routine training but electronic timing and video are preferred for racing and time trials. Having established the reliability and validity of the Traqua, Chapter 6 addressed the ability to discriminate the pattern of pacing between different levels of swimmers in the 7 x 200-m incremental step test. This study also sought to quantify the differences in pacing between senior and junior swimmers. Eleven senior elite swimmers (5 female, 6 male) and 10 competitive junior swimmers (3 female, 7 male) participated in this study. Each swimmer was required to swim seven evenly paced 200-m freestyle efforts on a 5-min cycle, graded from easy to maximal. The Traqua was used to measure time, stroke rate and stroke count. The senior swimmers were better able to descend in each of the 200-m efforts. Overall the senior swimmers were ~2-3 s per 50 m faster than the junior swimmers. Both groups were fastest in the first 50-m lap with the push start. The senior swimmers then descended the 50- m time for each of the subsequent laps, getting ~0.5 s faster per lap, with the final lap the fastest. In contrast, the junior swimmers swam a similar time for each of the subsequent laps. The junior swimmers were marginally more variable in their times (coefficient of variation: ~2%) compared with the senior swimmers (~1.8%). In comparison to junior swimmers, the senior swimmers in this study were faster, adopted a more uniform negative split strategy to pacing within a 200-m effort, and were more consistent in reproducing submaximal and maximal swimming speeds. The final study (Chapter 7) analysed the effect of 14-d of intensive training on the reproducibility of submaximal swimming performance in elite swimmers. Submaximal physiological and performance testing is widely used in swimming and other individual sports but the variability in test measures, and the effects of fatigue, during intensive training have surprisingly not been quantified systematically. Seven elite swimmers (3 male and 4 female) participated in an intensive 14-d training camp one month prior to the National championships. The aim of the study was to characterise the intra-session, daily and training block variability of submaximal swimming time, physiological and stroke characteristics in elite swimmers. The swimmers performed a specified submaximal 200-m effort in most sessions, after the warm-up and at the end of the session for both morning and afternoon sessions. During the efforts, swimming time and stroke mechanics were measured and physiological measures were recorded immediately on completion. The Traqua was worn by all swimmers in every training session. Mixed linear modeling was used to provide estimates of changes in the mean and individual responses (within-athlete variation as a coefficient of variation) for all measures. The swimmers were moderately slower (1.4%; �1.4%) over the 14-d training camp. The mean submaximal 200-m effort was very likely to be faster (0.7%; confidence limits �0.7%) in the afternoon compared with the morning session. The females were more variable in their submaximal performance times (CV=2.6%) than the male swimmers (1.7%). Blood lactate concentration was almost certainly lower (-23%; �10%) following higher volume in the previous session; however a higher intensity workout the previous session almost certainly leads to higher lactate (21%; �15%) in the current session. Considered together, these results indicate that the 200-m submaximal test is useful in monitoring submaximal physiological and performance measures and the negative effects of cumulative fatigue. In conclusion, changes in the physiological and performance measures derived from the poolbased progressive incremental step test are moderately correlated with changes in end-ofviii. season competition performance. The magnitudes of changes and differences in test measures between phases within a season, from season to season, and between males and females, established in this study can be applied to similar elite level swimmers preparing for major competition. The quantification of typical error of the same measures demonstrates that coaches and scientists can distinguish real and worthwhile improvements using the 7 x 200-m step test. Continual pool-based monitoring with the automated smart sensor Traqua device may provide more accurate and detailed information about a swimmer�s training adaptation than current fitness tests and monitoring methods. Finally, submaximal testing in trained swimmers is useful in monitoring progress in physiological and performance measures, and the impact of cumulative fatigue during an intensive period of training. Collectively, the outcomes of these studies indicate that routine physiological and performance testing can provide measurable benefits for elite swimmers and their coaches.

Introdução: A respiração é um importante processo fisiológico, onde a musculatura inspiratória tem papel fundamental no desempenho de atletas nadadores. O aumento da resistência e força muscular inspiratória, adquiridos a partir do treinamento, tem sido associado a um melhor desempenho em diversas modalidades esportivas. Sendo assim, os objetivos deste estudo foram: descrever parâmetros de função pulmonar, teste de desempenho, espessura do diafragma e metaborreflexo muscular, suas correlações entre os nadadores de elite e suas especificidades nas modalidades de natação e analisar o efeito de um programa de doze semanas de treinamento muscular inspiratório(TMI), avaliando parâmetros de função pulmonar, espessura do diafragma e teste de desempenho em nadadores de elite. Desenho dos Estudos: Estudo transversal e quase experimento Métodos: 24 nadadores de elite, 16 homens e 8 mulheres, com idade (18±2 anos) entre velocistas, meio-fundistas e fundistas foram selecionados para mensuração de pressões inspiratórias, espessura de diafragma por ultrassonografia, testes de funções pulmonares, metaborreflexo inspiratório e número de respirações durante o teste. Os dados foram comparados entre os diferentes tipos de nadadores e suas diferentes provas natatórias. Para avaliar o efeito do Treinamento muscular inspiratório(TMI), foram recrutados 12 nadadores de elite. Os nadadores realizaram o TMI durante 12 semanas e foram repetidos os testes após TMI, a fim de averiguar as possíveis diminuição nos tempos nas provas de 50m e 200m, na espessura do diafragma e nos testes de função pulmonar. Resultados: O metaboreflexo muscular inspiratório não foi ativado durante 60% da pressão inspiratória máxima nos atletas. Os nadadores apresentaram força do volume expirado no 1s (VEF1s) e capacidade vital observada (CVF) superiores às estimativas de indivíduos não treinados; e as pressões respiratórias máximas (PI e PE) se correlacionaram com VEF1s e CVF destes atletas. Além disso, foi observado que, no teste de 50 metros, o menor número de respirações estava associado a uma maior pressão inspiratória, maior CVF e uma maior espessura diafragmática na posição deitada. Os velocistas apresentavam uma capacidade vital e a espessura do diafragma maior quando comparados a meio-fundistas e fundistas. Diferenças significativas foram observadas na avaliação após o TMI: aumento da capacidade funcional (p ≤0,005); aumento do VEF1s (p =0,019); e aumento do volume corrente (p ≤0,004). O TMI não alterou significativamente a espessura do diafragma. Também foi observada diminuição no número de respirações durante o teste de 50m após o TMI (p≤ 0,002). Já na avaliação do tempo de prova, não foram observadas diferenças após o treinamento. Conclusão: O TMI parece melhorar parâmetros de função pulmonar, o que foi evidenciado pelo menor número de respirações durante o teste de desempenho na prova de 50m de atletas submetidos ao TMI. A fadiga inspiratória (metaborreflexo inspiratório) não foi ativada durante 60% da carga da PIMáx dos nadadores. Nossos achados sugerem que o diafragma e os músculos inspiratórios acessórios podem ser relacionados com a melhora de desempenho de nadadores. Portanto, o treinamento muscular inspiratório poderia ser um recurso ergogênico útil a ser usado em modalidades esportivas, como parte importante a ser acrescentada no treinamento de atletas de elite em períodos pré-competitivos.
Introduction: Breathing is an important physiological process, where the inspiratory muscles has a fundamental role in the performance of swimmers. Increased endurance and muscle strength, acquired from training, has been associated with better performance in several sports. Thus, the objectives of this study were to describe pulmonary function parameters, performance testing, and thickness of the diaphragm muscle metaboreflex, their correlations among elite swimmers and their specificities in terms of swimming and analyze the effect of a twelve-week program inspiratory muscle training (IMT) evaluated pulmonary function parameters, thickness of the diaphragm and test performance in elite swimmers. Study Design: Cross-sectional study and experiment almost. Methods: 24 elite swimmers, 16 men and 8 women, aged (18 ± 2 years), between sprinters and distance runners, and runners were selected for measurement of airway pressures, diaphragm thickness by ultrasound, pulmonary function tests, inspiratory metaboreflex and number of breaths during the test. Data were compared between the different types of swimming, and different their swim tests. To evaluate the effect of inspiratory muscle training (IMT), 12 elite swimmers were recruited. The swimmers performed IMT for 12 weeks and the tests were repeated after TMI, to ascertain the possible decrease in time in the 50m and 200m evidence, the thickness of the diaphragm and lung function tests. Results: The inspiratory muscle metaboreflex was not activated for 60% of maximal inspiratory pressure in athletes. The swimmers showed strength of expiratory volume in 1s (VEF1s) and higher observed vital capacity (FVC) estimates of untrained subjects; and maximal respiratory pressures (PI and PE) correlated with FVC and VEF1s these athletes. Furthermore, it was observed that in the 50-meter test, the minimum number of breaths were associated with a higher inspiratory pressure and higher FVC increased diaphragm thickness in the lying position. The sprinters had a vital capacity and increased diaphragm thickness as compared to the middle and bottom runners. Significant differences were observed in the evaluation after the TMI: increased functional capacity (p ≤0,005); VEF1s increased (p = 0.019); and increased tidal volume (p ≤0,004). The IMT did not significantly alter the thickness of the diaphragm. Was also observed decrease in the number of breaths during the test 50m after IMT (p ≤ 0.002). Already at the time of trial, no differences were observed after training. Conclusion: The TMI seems to improve pulmonary function parameters, which was evidenced by the lower number of breaths during the performance test in the test of 50m of athletes submitted to TMI. The inspiratory fatigue (inspiratory metaboreflex) was not activated for 60% of the burden of MIP swimmers. Our findings suggest that diaphragm and accessory inspiratory muscles may be related to the improved performance of swimmers. Therefore, inspiratory muscle training, could be a useful ergogenic aid to be used in sports as important to be added in elite athletes training at periods of pre-competitive.

Swimming is often hailed as an ideal activity because of the acknowledged benefits of exercise for those both in health and with disease. Therefore the spectrum of swimmers covers those individuals undertaking aerobic exercise as part of a healthy lifestyle, people suffering and rehabilitating from chronic conditions, such as cardiovascular disease and musculoskeletal disorders, and the committed and disciplined elite swimmer with high performance goals. Sports physicians should be familiar with these differing motivations and be able to adapt advice and treatment to each of these population groups. Unusually for a sport, there is a general consensus that everyone should develop the ability to swim for the enhancement of water safety....

This chapter considers how the Resistance to President Donald J. Trump and the current Republican majorities in the US House and Senate has coalesced over the last year and what the prospects are that it will bring about fundamental political change, including a major electoral reversal in 2018 and 2020. To do so, it places the Resistance in the context of three recent dramatic changes in American politics: the intense, ongoing, and asymmetric polarization of the two major parties; the reorientation of American politics around issues of race and immigration; and the declining responsiveness of political elites to the views of the nonaffluent in an age of skyrocketing inequality. The Resistance is a reflection of these powerful tides, but it is also swimming against them. The question is whether it will be able to turn back these tides, which ultimately threaten our democracy itself.

The principal response of the global community to the threats against biodiversity has been the establishment of strictly protected areas, exemplified by the National Park System of the United States. In such areas, consumptive uses are banned and wild nature is allowed to exist in untrammeled form. Nonconsumptive recreational uses—such as sightseeing, hiking, swimming, boating, and camping—are permitted but are regulated as to place and time and number of participants. In the tropical forest realm, however, protected nature preserves are in a state of crisis. A number of tropical parks have already been degraded almost beyond redemption; others face severe threats of many kinds with little capacity to resist. The final bulwark erected to shield tropical nature from extinction is collapsing. The predictable and unpredictable ecological processes likely to affect the future ability of protected rain forest areas to retain their full biodiversity are examined in chapter 3. While the potential impact of ecological processes could be severe, they are amenable to technical solutions and could be solved given sufficient resources and knowledge. A far more immediate and significant threat is posed by human activities. Indeed, the crisis of parks in the tropics results primarily from increasing human pressure on all unexploited natural resources, aggravated by ineffective protection. Pressure on parks is exerted on local, regional, and national scales, usually taking the form of illegal land appropriation or resource extraction. The attack on tropical parks is being pressed by four main classes of actors: local and displaced populations of agriculturalists and extractors, governments, resource-robbing elites, and (in a few cases) indigenous forest-dwelling populations. In this chapter, we discuss the root causes of the actions of each of these groups and of the institutional failure that results in ineffective enforcement of park legislation. many common themes, regardless of the geographic area to which they pertained, and one theme in particular stood out: despite legal status and the presence of conservation officers, protected areas are not safe from illegal appropriation and exploitation. Our perception is that the threat to tropical parks is not widely appreciated.

Abstract Human’s motion and its mechanisms had become interesting in the last years, where the medecine’s field search for rehabilitation methods for handicapped persons. Other fields, like sport sciences, professional or military world, search to distinguish profiles and ways to train them with specific purposes. Besides, recent findings in neuroscience try to describe these mechanisms from an organic point of view. Until now, different researchs had given a model about control motor that describes how the union between the senses’s information allows adaptable movements. One of this sense is the proprioception, the sense which has a quite big factor in the orientation and position of the body, its members and joints. For this reason, research for new strategies to explore proprioception and improve the theories of human motion could be done by three different vias. At first, the sense is analysed in a case-study where three groups of persons are compared in a controlled enviroment with three experimental tasks. The subjects belong to each group by the kind of sport they do: sedentary, normal sportsmen (e.g. athletics, swimming) and martial sportmen (e.g. karate, judo). They are compared thinking about the following hypothesis: “Martial Sportmen have a better proprioception than of the other groups’s subjects: It could be due to the type of exercises they do in their sports as empirically, a contact sportsman shows significantly superior motor skills to the members of the other two groups. The second via are records from encephalogram (EEG) while the experimental tasks are doing. These records are analised a posteriori with a set of processing algorithms to extract characteristics about brain’s activity of the proprioception and motion control. 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