Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Elite/professional sport'

The concepts of Athletic Identity (Brewer, Van Raalte, & Linder,1993) and identity (Erikson, 1950, 1968) both carry notions of having a clear sense of self definition. Applied practitioners in elite professional football settings (e.g. Holt & Dunn, 2004; Harwood, 2008; Nesti & Littlewood, 2010; Nesti, 2013) have championed the notion that individuals who possess a clear sense of self, (generally) cope with the demanding nature of first team football, and the daily challenges that arise from their chosen profession (i.e., injury, de-selection). Conversely, a small number of researchers have consistently argued that professional football club culture may not support the development of a clear sense of identity in (young) players, as it has been described as espousing notions of power, dominance, authority and insecurity (see e.g. Parker, 1995, 1996, 1998, 2001; Roderick, 2006, 2006a). The present thesis explores the role of identity, the impact of football club culture on its formation, and its importance in the career trajectory of youth team footballers. Across three distinct studies, this thesis explores the concepts of Athletic Identity, identity, and the creation of club culture within youth and professional football. Study one used a cross sectional approach, within and across levels of play along with distinct situational, demographic variables to assess any differentiating factors in Athletic Identity in 168 (N = 168) youth team footballers. Football club explained 30% of the variance in exclusivity among players (p = .022). Mean social identity was significantly higher for those players in the first year of their apprenticeship compared to the second year (p = .025). The range of variance for exclusivity amongst players suggested it was the cultural climate created at each individual football club that impacted this subscale of Athletic Identity. Study Two used a qualitative approach with the aim of critically exploring the perceptions of practitioners in relation to; ideal player characteristics, working practices, organisational culture and environmental conditions. These facets are influenced by practitioners within youth development programmes, all of which contribute to shaping a player’s identity (Erikson, 1968). A total of 19 youth development practitioners were interviewed during data collection. Practitioners provided an explicit and clear blueprint of the ideal player characteristics required for successful upward transition, including, self belief, dedication and self awareness, which are synonymous with notions of identity. Finally, Study three used a case study approach to critically examine how players’ experiences of a professional football environment and culture served to shape their identity and allows them to cope with critical moments. A Championship football club served as the case study in which 4 players were interviewed 3 times over the course of one season. Findings were represented as narrative stories of each player. Findings suggested that having a clear sense of identity provided players with a platform for resilience and perseverance throughout a range of critical moments. In summary, it is vital that appropriate internal (club) and external (affiliated organisations) strategies are developed and integrated into practice to ensure that players develop a clear sense of identity and meaning. It is essential that this transcends the professional football domain for players to have the best possible platform for career progression and career termination.

This study examined the applicability of the Sport Commitment Model for a group of elite, professional athletes. The model proposes that an athlete's commitment will increase as sport enjoyment, personal investments, social constraints, and involvement opportunities increase and will decrease with an increase in involvement opportunities. The influence of identification as an athlete, a determinant of commitment not included in the original model, was also examined. One hundred and eighty three professional football players from the Canadian Football League (CFL) (n = 121) and National Football League (NFL) (n = 69) participated in the study. Each subject completed a modified version of the original questionnaire developed to test the constructs in the Sport Commitment Model (Scanlan, Simons, Carpenter, Schmidt, & Keeler, 1993) during a team meeting. Internal consistency reliabilities for the final items in all seven scales were acceptable. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated marginal overall fit (AGFI = 0.757) demonstrating good construct validity and discriminant validity for each scale. Zero-order correlations between commitment and its predictor constructs were significant and in the hypothesized direction for all predictor constructs except social constraints. The correlation between commitment and social constraints was negative and nonsignificant. The simultaneous regression analysis results found the predictor constructs accounted for 38% of the variance in commitment. Identification uniquely accounted for the most variance followed by enjoyment, involvement alternatives, and involvement opportunities. Only personal investments and social constraints did not contribute a significant amount of unique variance to sport commitment. The importance and meaning of the relationships between commitment and its determinants for professional athletes are discussed, as well as directions for future research.

The issue of career transition in and out of sport has received increasing attention from researchers over the past three decades (e.g. Fortunato & Marchant, 1999; Lavallee, 2005; Park, 2012; Ryba, Stambulova & Ronkainen, 2016). However, there continues to be a paucity of research exploring the impact of ‘others’ on athletes’, or indeed former athletes’ transitional experiences. Therefore, an aim of this study was to provide a relational, emotional and socio-cultural analysis of former professional footballers’ multiple transitional experiences and, in particular, to how interactions and relationships with significant ‘others’ impacted upon their transitions. Data were collected through a series of in-depth, semi-structured, interviews with three participants alongside my own auto-ethnography. Throughout the study, the collection, analysis, and representation of data were features of an ongoing, reflexive, and iterative process (Tracy, 2013). Here, the analysis comprised of both emic and etic readings of the data which gave me the opportunity to explore emerging themes and issues in both future writings and in subsequent interviews (Sparkes & Smith, 2002). In keeping with my interpretive stance, the findings were principally understood in relation to Bauman’s (2012) liquid modernity, Crossley’s (2011) relational sociology, May’s (2013) sense of belonging, and Burkitt’s (2014a; 2014b) discussions of emotions and social relations. The work of Turner and Stets (2005) and Cooley (1964[1902) was also used to make sense of the emotions I experienced throughout my auto-ethnographic research. My analysis revealed that the participants understood their transitions through their interactions and relationships with a variety of significant others who played important roles in both decision-making and sense-making processes. Here, each transitional experience (both inside and outside of football) affected, and was affected by, the participants’ location in various networks of interaction. This was also evidenced in my own transition(s) as I approached the end of my playing days in (semi-) professional football where my emotions were also inextricably linked to my multiple identities and therefore multiple networks of social relations.

This thesis aimed to develop a deeper understanding of elite-level cricket umpires’ leg-before-wicket (LBW) decisions. The thesis analysed decisions from real professional cricket matches to determine whether umpires’ decisions were biased by contextual factors such as match format, expectations, or home team advantage. This thesis also investigated the explicit decision-making expertise and beliefs of cricket umpires through interviews with elite-level officials to develop a conceptual model of LBW decisions.

Study 1: The intraday reliability of the reactive strength index (RSI) calculated from a drop jump in professional men’s basketball. Purpose: To evaluate the reliability of the reactive strength index (RSI) and jump height (JH) performance from multiple drop heights with elite basketball players. Methods: Thirteen professional basketball players (mean ±SD: age 25.8 ± 3.5 y, height 1.96 ± 0.07 m, mass 94.8 ± 8.2 kg) completed 3 maximal drop jump attempts on to a jump mat at 4 randomly assigned box heights and 3 counter movement jump (CMJ) trials. Results: No statistical difference was observed between three trials for both the RSI and JH variable at all the tested drop heights. The RSI for drop jump heights from 20 cm resulted in a coefficient of variation (CV) = 3.1% and an intraclass correlation (ICCα) =0.96, 40 cm resulted in a CV = 3.0% and an ICCα = 0.95, 50 cm resulted in a CV = 2.1% and an ICCα = 0.99. The JH variable at the 40 cm drop jump height resulted in the highest reliability CV = 2.8% and an ICCα = 0.98. Conclusion: When assessing the RSI the 20, 40 and 50 cm drop heights are recommended with this population. When assessing large groups it appears that only one tria Study 2: Does session RPE relate with reactive strength qualities? A case study investigation within the National Basketball League This investigation aimed to establish the relationship between training loads derived from the sessional rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) and the reactive strength index (RSI) over a 27-week competitive season in elite basketball players. Fourteen professional male basketball players (26 ± 3.6 years; 95.8 ± 9.0 kg; 197.3 ± 7.3 cm) participated in this study. Training load data were modeled against the RSI over a 27-week competitive season with the use of a linear mixed model. The relationship between RSI and training load was only significantly different from baseline (Week 1) at Week 24 (p < 0.05) and Week 26 (p < 0.01). These primarily findings suggest that sRPE and RSI have a weak relationship, whilst the RSI does not appear to accurately reflect the changes in training load that occur during an in-season periodized training program in professional male basketball.

The purpose of this research was to explore the phenomenon of parenting in English elite youth football and provide a rich, detailed description and nuanced interpretation of parenting in this highly challenging and competitive culture. The research positioned parenting in youth sport as a dynamic, culturally-situated process, constituted through interaction with significant others. This allowed for an in-depth understanding of how parenting was experienced in elite youth football that included children s accounts of their interaction with parents. Using a phenomenological methodology, research was undertaken in three English professional football clubs to explore how parenting in elite youth football was experienced as lived. Parents of players registered to an elite youth football academy, players aged between 8 and 17 years and academy coaches participated in interviews. Participant observation was used to complement interview data. Embracing multi-perspectivalism (Kellner, 1995), multiple qualitative analytical techniques were used to explore data from different epistemological perspectives, providing sensitivity to the variation and subtlety of participants experiences. The findings from four empirical, qualitative research studies are presented. Firstly, an exploration of the experience of being a parent of an elite youth footballer described how parents were socialised into the academy culture, and experienced a change in identity and a heightened sense of responsibility to facilitate their child s football development. Secondly, an examination of elite youth footballers experience of interaction with their parents demonstrated how players experienced their body as an object to be scrutinised and assessed when watched by parents, experienced conflict with parents from within a power relation, and ascribed meaning to their interaction with parents in relation to their goal of becoming a successful academy footballer. Thirdly, an idiographic analysis of parents and players individual and dyadic experiences of parent-player interactions highlighted how relationships were constituted by; relations with other family members; an embodied sense of closeness; the temporal significance of football transitions; and gender and power relations. Finally, an analysis of coaches accounts of the parent-coach relationship in elite youth football demonstrated how parent-coach interactions occurred within an imbalanced power relation, which centred on establishing the rights to be responsible for player development. Together, these findings present a complex picture of parenting in elite youth football, as an embodied, temporal and culturally-situated experience, constituted through interaction and power relations between parents, players, coaches and academies. This research highlights the importance of conceptualising parenting in youth sport as a social, culturally-embedded process and supports the need to include children in research about issues that affect them. Extending this further, adopting a theoretical perspective that allows for the contextual power relations to be examined can further enhance understanding of parenting in youth sport. Finally, this research recommends that listening to and valuing the experiences of participants in the elite youth football culture, alongside open discussion and critical reflection upon academy practices, may have the greatest potential for enhancing the experiences of parents, players and coaches.

In-depth interviews were conducted with eight European life-long sport professionals who were former elite athletes and then successful coaches in team sports. The purpose of the interview was to explore the role and the evolution of imagery from athlete to coach and to also determine whether mental imagery was used in any way by these professional coaches for enhancing team unity. Analysis showed that all these exceptional performers had excellent imagery skills and they used imagery training to achieve their sport related goals. Practical implications for enhancing team unity through imagery are also presented.

Limited research data is available outlining the resistance training characteristics of elite football players. The aim of the first study (Chapter 3) was to compare approaches to calculating resistance training volume during 4 weeks of pre-season training in 23 English Premier League footballers. Volume was calculated using four different methods of quantification; Repetition volume (RV), Set Volume (SV), Volume Load (VL) and Maximum Dynamic Strength Volume Load (MDSVL). Overall there was a significant difference between resistance training volumes calculated by the different methods used to monitor resistance training load (P < 0.001). More specifically, significant differences were observed between RV and SV methods (P < 0.001), RV and MDSVL (P = 0.001), SV and VL (P = 0.010), SV and MDSVL (P = 0.033) and VL and MDSVL (P = 0.002). Only RV and VL methods were similar in the information they provided on training load (P = 0.411). While the lack of a gold standard measure of volume makes it is unclear which, if any, method represents the most accurate measure of volume the discrepancies between methodological approaches highlight that these different approaches are not directly transferable as strategies to monitor resistance training. The understanding of the differences between each method may therefore enable appropriate, situation specific, approaches to be designed and implemented for both practical and research purposes. The aim of the second study (Chapter 4) was to analyse the resistance training loads completed by an elite professional football team across a competitive season. Resistance training data was collected from 31 elite football players competing in the English Premier League over a 46 week period in the 2012-2013 season. A total of 1685 individual training observations were collected during the pre-season and in-season competition phases, with a median of 42 training sessions per player (range = 9 – 124). Training load data was separated into 7 blocks of 6 weeks for analysis. These periods included pre-season (6 weeks duration) and in-season (40 weeks duration) phases. Set volume was selected as a measure of total volume. Data was analysed using 3 separate linear mixed modelling analysis using the statistical software package R (Version 3.0.1). Weekly resistance training frequency (mean±SD) ranged from 1±1 to 2±1 sessions per week during the pre and in season phases. Significant differences in session frequency were seen between weeks 1-6 and weeks 7-12 (pre-season) (P ˂ 0.05), weeks 7-12 and weeks 13-18 (P ˂ 0.05), and weeks 7-12 and weeks 37-42 (P ˂ 0.05). Mean weekly training volume ranged from 18±16 to 30±24 sets.wk-1. The total training volume demonstrates a clear minimum during weeks 7-12. Significant differences in total training volume were also observed between weeks 1-6 and weeks 7-12 (pre-season) (P ˂ 0.01), weeks 7-12 and weeks 13-18 (P ˂ 0.05), and weeks 7-12 and weeks 19-24 (P ˂ 0.05). There was no significant difference in training intensity between weeks 1-6 (pre-season) and weeks 7-12. Training intensity during weeks 1-6 however was significantly lower than during weeks 13-18 (P ˂ 0.05), 19-24 (P ˂ 0.01), 25-30 (P ˂ 0.01), 31-36 (P ˂ 0.05), and 37-42 (P ˂ 0.01). Training intensity during weeks 7-12 was also significantly lower than during weeks 13-18 (P ˂ 0.01), 19-24 (P ˂ 0.05), 25-30 (P ˂ 0.05), 31-36 (P ˂ 0.05), and 37-42 (P ˂ 0.001). The findings would suggest that resistance training loading is limited during different periods of the season. This is predominantly as a consequence of low training frequency, potentially due to a high prevalence of competitive fixtures. The aim of the third study (Chapter 5) was to attempt to quantify the impact of resistance training completed by players, through evaluating the change in the lower body power outputs of an elite professional football team across a competitive season. Resistance training data was collected from 22 elite football players competing in the English Premier League over a 38 week period. A total of 246 individual power output observations were collected during the in-season competition phase. Power output of the lower body was assessed using a pneumatic resistance leg press machine with software and digital display (Keiser Sports Health Equipment Inc., Fresno, Ca). Data was analysed by means of linear mixed modelling analysis using the statistical software package R (Version 3.0.1). Power outputs ranged from 2200W to 4078W with a mean value of 3022±374W. Linear mixed effects show a significant effect of week on power output across the season (coefficient= 7.76W, p=0.0132). Specifically, when accounting for within player effects, power output increased 7.76W per week during the season. Individual weekly power coefficients ranged from +39.9W to -18.13W per week, thus indicating that the trend for increased power output across the season is not uniform for all the players. These data may suggest that lower body power performance is maintained or minimally enhanced over the course of a full competitive season in elite football players. Combined with the training load data previously examined in this thesis it can be concluded that whilst one resistance training session per week may be sufficient to avoid in season de-training or minimally improve power performance in elite football players, a frequency of two sessions per week may be necessary to obtain significant performance enhancements. In our fourth study (Chapter 6) we provide two case studies that outline and evaluate a structured approach to increasing resistance training loading with the primary goal of developing strength and power during the competitive season in elite football players. The purpose of our initial case was to examine a resistance training programme to enhance strength and power performance, alongside body composition during a period of rehabilitation from injury. The study intervention commenced following two weeks of recovery following the “Laterjet” surgical procedure. Initial assessments were performed for body composition via dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) (QDR Series Discovery A, Hologic Inc., Bedford, MA) and lower body power output via using a pneumatic resistance leg press machine with software and digital display (Keiser Sports Health Equipment Inc., Fresno, Ca). Assessments were repeated 8 weeks post-surgery, i.e. following 6 weeks of resistance training. The six-week intervention consisted of three strength training sessions per week for the initial 3 weeks, followed by 2 sessions per week for the subsequent 3 weeks. Training volume (number of sets) equalled a total of 20 sets total per session. Total increase in body mass over the intervention period equated to 5.4kg, of which 4.2 kg increase in lean mass and a 1.3 kg increase in fat mass. Peak power output increased by 21%. Power to weight ratio also increased by 4.4 %. These data illustrate that it is possible to increase physical performance when rapid short-term increase in resistance training load is completed. The purpose of our second case was to examine a resistance training programme to enhance both strength and power performance parameters during a full competitive season. The player plays as a goalkeeper, regularly playing for his club 1st team. Prior to the onset of this case study this player did not present with any current injuries. This season long intervention consisted of two phases of training. Phase 1 was 16 weeks in duration and represented the beginning to the mid-point of the season. During this phase the goal was to gradually and safely increase resistance training loading. Phase 2 was 20 weeks in duration and represented the mid-point to the end of the season. This phase represented a period of consistent high loading following the initial systematic increase in these variables.
Assessment data was collected at the beginning, mid-point and end of the 2013-14 season. The player was first assessed for body composition via DXA (QDR Series Discovery A, Hologic Inc., Bedford, MA). Secondly, lower body power output was assessed using a pneumatic resistance leg press machine with software and digital display (Keiser Sports Health Equipment Inc., Fresno, Ca). Finally, the player’s upper body strength was assessed via 6 repetition maximum assessments of the dumbell bench press and prone row. The player completed a mean weekly volume of 41±24 sets per week and a mean frequency of 2±1 sessions per week for the initial phase of the study. The player completed a greater mean weekly volume in the later phase of the season compared to the initial training period (65±28 set per week vs. 41±24 sets per week in the initial phase of the season). A greater mean session frequency was also associated with the second training phase (3±1 vs. 2±1 session per week). There was a total decrease in body mass over the initial intervention period of 4kg, of which 2.7kg decrease in fat mass and a further 0.9 kg decrease in lean mass. Over the second phase of the intervention there was a total increase in body mass of 1.2kg, of which 2.4kg increase in lean mass and 1.2kg decrease in fat mass. During the initial phase of training peak power output increased by 25%, whilst power to weight ratio increased by 30%. During the later phase peak power output increased by a further 9% whilst the power to weight ratio increased by a further 10%. Upper body pressing (Dumbell Bench press) and upper body pulling (Dumbell Prone pull) strength was also increased by 14% and 21% respectively during the initial phase and a further 19% and 24% respectively during the later phase of the season.

This project examines the medical management of pain and injury in British Olympic sport. By drawing upon the perspectives of health-care providers, it explores key developments such as the professionalisation, formalisation and bureaucratisation of sports medicine and the consequences of such developments on doctors' and physiotherapists' working practices, relationships with each other and on athlete care. A questionnaire about the backgrounds (e.g. the qualifications, experience and methods of recruitment and appointment) was sent to members of the British Olympic Association's Medical Committee and Physiotherapy Forum in November 2007 and in-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 14 doctors and 14 physiotherapists between January and June 2008. Data indicate that attempts to professionalise sports medicine into a medical speciality have created fragmentation and resistance among the various groups involved in athlete care at this level. Whilst clinicians were committed by multi-disciplinary practice overall, data reveal qualitative differences between practitioners who have established themselves within bureaucratic organisations such as the English Institute of Sport (EIS) compared to those who provide largely voluntary medical services via National Governing Bodies of Sport (NGBs). Thus, practitioners in positions of managerial authority were constrained to negotiate the underlying amateur values of numerous sports medicine staff at the same time as striving for a professional ethos. Processes of professionalisation have also impacted upon the inter-professional relations between doctors and physiotherapists and the social organisation of athlete-care. As a consequence of their work setting, clinicians were constrained to adhere to the performance-motivated demands of their athlete and coach clients over longer-term health concerns. Because of their greater orientation towards performance, physiotherapists were able to effectively "compete" with doctors in a number of practice contexts and so claim considerable professional autonomy. This project adds to the existing body of knowledge on the medical practices of sports medicine clinicians in elite level sport and demonstrates the heterogeneity within this area of practice. Furthermore, the thesis highlights the importance of understanding clinicians working practices as a consequence of their particular work setting.

L'intégration de jeux réduits au cours des séances d'entrainements de football assure la possibilité d'optimiser le contact avec les joueurs, d'augmenter l'efficacité des exercices et de réduire la durée totale d'entraînement grâce aux caractéristiques multi-factorielles de ces type d'efforts tactique, technique et physique (Dellal et al., 2008; Owen et al., 2004). Les jeux réduits ont été démontré comme des outils intéressant de motivation intrinsèque comparativement à un autre type d'entrainement générique ou d'autres formes d'exercices (course continue, interval-training) à charge de travail équivalente (Hill-Haas et al., 2009). Cette méthode d'entrainement est particulièrement bénéfique pour les joueurs de haut niveau qui ont un temps d'entrainement limité et ayant un grand nombre de période intenses. En partant de ces constats, l'objectif de cette thèse est d'apporter une revue de littérature complète sur l'utilisation des jeux réduits afin de cibler précisément leurs impacts physique, physiologique, technique et tactique sur des joueurs d'un niveau professionnel. Après avoir démontré et relevé l'importance du développement de la composante « technico-physique » à haut niveau, le premier objectif de cette thèse consiste à comparer s'il existe des différences technique, physique et physiologique selon les variations de surfaces de jeux utilisées (ARTICLE I). Après avoir comparé qu'il y avait bien des ressemblances mais également de forte différence selon les ratios par joueur utilisé (en mètre carré par joueur), nous avons analysé les différences tactique, physiques et techniques exactes lors de jeux à surfaces très réduites, moyennement réduites et des jeux à dimensions proche des conditions de matchs (SSGs vs. MSGs vs. LSGs, ARTICLE II). Les résultats de ces deux protocoles expérimentaux ont permis de fournir une trame permettant de mieux appréhender l'intégration des jeux réduits au sein de l'entraînement en la considérant comme un outil « intégré » de travail athlétique, notamment chez le footballeur professionnel. L'ARTICLE III a testé les effets de l'utilisation de SSG en démontrant qu'il est un outil de développement des performances athlétiques. En conclusion, bien que l'intérêt de l'utilisation des jeux réduits comme une forme de travail développant les qualités technicotactico- athlétiques » ait bien été démontré au sein de ce travail de thèse, l'auteur souligne le fait que les coaches doivent être très attentif dans la préparation, l'organisation, la planification et la mise en place des jeux réduits afin d'obtenir les résultats souhaités en relation avec les besoins du football moderne
Integrating the use of SSGs as part of the technical coaching programs within soccer training, ensures coaches have the opportunity to maximize their contact time with players, increase the efficiency of training and subsequently reduce the total training time due to their multifunctional nature (Dellal et al., 2008; Owen et al., 2004). SSGs have also been suggested to increase player motivation to train when compared to generic running intervals eliciting the same intrinsic loading (Hill-Haas et al., 2009). It is believed that this type of training is particularly beneficial for those elite players whom have limited training time as a result of intense fixture periods. In this context, the intention of this thesis is to draw from current literature in order to establish the key physical, physiological, technical and tactical demands imposed upon players at the elite professional level of the game. Having outlined and linked these specific demands and in turn highlighted key physical-technical components needed for physical performance development at the elite level, the primary aim of the thesis is to further develop the literature through identifying whether or not there are similar physiological and technical demands when comparing small vs. larger sided training games (Paper I). Having established if a link between the two game types exist, the literature will be progressed through the examination of SSGs, MSG and LSGs in order to evaluate the reliability and variation levels in physical and technical activities between these game formats (Paper II). Findings from the initial investigations within this thesis will be used to provide a framework for the use of more functional training (SSGs) as part of a training intervention aimed at improving physical performance in elite level players (Paper III). Finally, based on the findings of the studies within this thesis, the author will attempt to highlight the need for careful preparation, advanced planning and the successful implementation of SSGs to supplement the day to day training of modern day professional soccer players

Sprint cycling ability is a key determinant of road cycling performance, with many races designed specifically for sprinters. The ability to excel in the final sprint is relevant for both individual riders and teams. Despite the importance of sprints within professional road cycling, the characteristics of professional road sprints and sprinters have yet to be extensively described. Thus, the overall objective of the five research studies contained within this doctoral thesis was to describe road cycling sprint performance and improve the general understanding of the physical, technical and tactical factors associated with such performances. The first two descriptive field studies document the physical and physiological demand of sprint races during actual road cycling competitions. Specifically, Study 1 was designed to quantify the demands of sprinting in the male professional category. Seventeen competitions from six male professional cyclists (mean ± SD: age, 27.0 ± 3.8 y; height, 1.76 ± 0.03 m; weight, 71.7 ± 1.1 kg) who placed Top 5 in professional road races were analysed. Calibrated SRM power meters were used to monitor power output, cadence and heart rate. Data were averaged over the entire race, different durations prior to the sprint (60, 10, 5 and 1 min) and during the actual sprint. Variations in power during the final 10 min of the race were quantified using Exposure Variation Analysis. Power, cadence and heart rate were different between various phases of the race, increasing from 316 ± 43 W, 95 ± 4 rpm and 88 ± 3 % of maximal heart rate in the last 10 min to 487 ± 58 W, 102 ± 6 rpm and 96 ± 2 % of maximal heart rate in the last minute prior to the sprint. The peak power during the sprint was 17.4 ± 1.7 W∙kg-1. Exposure Variation Analysis revealed a significantly greater number of short duration and high intensity efforts in the final five minutes of the race, compared with the penultimate five minutes (p=0.01). These findings quantified the power output requirements associated with high level sprinting in men’s professional road cycling and highlighted the need for both aerobic and anaerobic fitness. In Study 2, the characteristics of successful road sprints in professional and under 23 y male cycling races were compared. As in Study 1, Study 2 also described the exercise intensity for the sprinters throughout final 10 min of the race. Nine successful (Top 3) sprints performed by a professional (PRO: 23 y, 1.76 m, 71.8 kg) and an under 23 (U23: 18 y, 1.67 m, 63.2 kg) cyclist sprinter were analysed in this study. No statisticaldifferences were found between PRO and U23 in the absolute peak power, mean power, duration and total work during the sprint (PRO: 1370 ± 51 W, 1120 ± 33 W, 14.5 ± 2.4 s, 16.2 ± 2.6 KJ; U23: 1318 ± 60 W, 1112 ± 68 W, 12.8 ± 1.1 s, 14.2 ± 1.4 KJ). However, the intensity of the race recorded in the last 10 min prior to the sprint was significantly higher in PRO compared with U23 (4.6 ± 0.3 and 3.7 ± 0.2 W·kg-1, respectively). Race duration, total elevation gain (TEG) and mean power were similar between PRO and U23. In conclusion, the physiological demands leading into road sprints (intensity of the last 10 min) were found to be higher in PRO compared to U23 races. Nevertheless, a similar sprint power output (> 2500 W·Ap-1 or > 15.5 W·kg-1 for approximately 14 s, with a peak power output > 3100 W·Ap-1 or > 19 W·kg-1; where Ap is Projected Frontal Area) indicates that sprint characteristics may be similar in PRO and U23. As a result of the findings observed in the first two studies of this thesis, Study 3 was designed to better understand the effects of variable and non-variable exercises that replicate the intensity of the final portion of road competitions on maximal sprint performance. In this laboratory trial, ten internationally competitive male cyclists (age, 20.1 ± 1.3 y; height, 1.81 ± 0.07 m weight, 69.5 ± 4.9 kg; and VO2max, 72.5 ± 4.4 ml·kg-1·min-1) performed a 12-s maximal sprint in a rested state and again following: i) 10 min of non-variable cycling, and ii) 10 min of variable cycling. Variable and non-variable trials were conducted in a randomized, crossover fashion. The intensity during the 10 min efforts gradually increased to replicate the pacing observed in final sections of cycling road races. During the variable cycling subjects performed short (2 s) accelerations at 80% of their peak sprint power, every 30 s. Mean power output, cadence and heart rate during the 10 min efforts were similar between conditions (5.3 ± 0.2 W∙kg-1, 102 ± 1 rpm, and 93 ± 3 %, respectively). Post exercise blood lactate concentration and perceived exertion immediately after exercise were also similar (8.3 ± 1.6 mmol∙L-1, 15.4 ± 1.3 (6-20 scale), respectively). Peak and mean power output and cadence during the subsequent maximal sprint were not significantly different between the three experimental conditions (p≥0.14). These results indicate that neither the variable nor the non-variable 10 min efforts performed within this study impaired the sprint performance in elite competitive cyclists. Due to the importance of the elevation gain variable in road cycling, the fourth study of this thesis was methodological and investigated the consistency of commercially available devices used to measure the TEG during races and training. This chapter was separated in two observational validation studies. Garmin (Forerunner 310XT, Edge 500 Edge 750 and Edge 800; with and without elevation correction) and SRM (Power Control 7) devices were used to measure TEG over a 15.7 km mountain climb performed on 6 separate occasions (6 devices; Study 4a) and during a 138 km cycling event (164 devices; Study 4b). TEG was significantly different between Garmin and SRM devices (p The final study of this thesis was an analysis of technical and tactical factors that influence sprint performance in professional competitions; particular focus was put on the TEG which was a factor identified as a potential cause of fatigue. More specifically, the subject of Study 5 was the highest international ranked professional male road sprint cyclist during the 2008-2011 seasons. Grand Tour sprint stages were classified as WON, LOST, or DROPPED from the front bunch prior to the sprint. Video of 31 stages were analysed for mean speed of the last km, sprint duration, position in the bunch and number of teammates at 60, 30, and 15 s remaining. Race distance, TEG and mean speed of 45 stages were determined. Head-to-head performances against the 2nd to 5th most successful professional sprint cyclists were also reviewed. Within the 52 Grand Tour sprint stages the subject started, he WON 30 (58%), LOST 15 (29%), was DROPPED in 6 (12%) and had one crash. Position in the bunch was closer to the front and the number of team members was significantly higher in WON compared to LOST at 60, 30 and 15 s remaining (p In conclusion, the general findings of this thesis were as follows: as expected, exercise intensity significantly increases in the last 10 min of relatively flat road races; there is a significantly greater number of short duration and high intensity efforts in the final 5 min of competitive road cycling races when compared with the penultimate 5 min; sprint duration and peak power output does not differ between PRO and U23 races and is approximately 13 s and 17 W∙kg-1, respectively; the physiological demands in the 10 min before the sprint are higher in PRO compared to U23 races; neither a variable nor a non-variable 10 min lead up effort appears to impair the sprint performance of elite competitive cyclists; measurements of elevation gain are consistent within devices of the same brand, but differed between brands or when different settings were used; and technical and tactical aspects of road sprinting are related to performance outcomes.

The physical and technical requirements of a range of small-sided football (soccer) games (SSGs) have previously been examined in order to compare their requirements to competitive match play. SSGs are used to combine the technical, tactical and physical components of normal match play in training in order to make the training sessions specific to football. However, most previous research has focused on youth players and it is known that the playing patterns, and thus session outcomes, are different for elite players. Consequently, research examining elite players is required in order to improve our understanding of the use of SSGs in professional football. The present body of research was implemented to investigate the physical, physiological and perceptual demands of SSGs (3v3 [i.e. three players on each of two teams], 6v6 and 8v8) over an entire season’s training and compare these demands to match play in twenty-three players of different playing position from an Australian A-League club. During match play the team adopted a modern 1-4-2-3-1 formation. The physical comparison included the following measurements: total distance (m), distance covered in high velocity running (speed > 4.16 m·s-1), total sprint distance (where speed > 6.93 m·s-1), number of repeated sprints efforts (≥3 sprints with <30-s inter-sprint recoveries), number of sub-maximal accelerations (acceleration > 1.79 m·s-2) and number of maximal accelerations (acceleration > 2.79 m·s-2). These were measured with the use of Global Positioning Systems. The physiological load was characterised as the mean heart rate expressed as a percentage of maximum heart rate (% HRmax), measured using heart rate monitors. Perceptual comparisons were made using each player’s Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) using the modified Foster model (0-10 scale). Significant differences were found among SSGs and match play in regards to physical variables, with SSGs eliciting a greater physical demand on players when compared to match play, for all variables except sprint distances. Furthermore, there were numerous large and moderate effect sizes discovered among playing positions, with wide midfielders and fullbacks typically producing the greatest number of high velocity runs, covering greater sprint distances and performing more repeated sprint efforts (RSE) during SSGs and match play. Central midfielders were found to cover the greater total distance and perform more sub-maximal accelerations, which would suggest they cover the greatest amount of distance at a moderate intensity. Finally, it was found that SSGs play a vital role in position specific training in football (with the addition of goalkeepers) and suggests that the demands on players are relative to match play. Although, additional drills are required to perform a greater number of high intensity efforts.

Elitidrottssponsring är ett kraftfullt marknadsföringsverktyg som företag använder sig av för att generera intresse, engagemang och lönsamhet, där allt mer idag sker i snabbt utvecklande digitala miljöer. Tidigare forskning har identifierat fem steg som utgör sponsringsprocessen, men det har däremot inte beskrivits hur den allt mer påverkande digitala kommunikationen påverkar elitidrottssponsorer i sponsringsprocessen. Syftet med studien är att beskriva hur elitidrottssponsorer påverkas av digital kommunikation i arbetet med sponsringsprocessen. För att uppnå detta har en kvalitativ forskningsmetod med en tolkande analys tillämpats. Studiens teoretiska ramverk baseras på sponsringsprocessens delar, och digital kommunikation. Empirimaterialet är insamlat från semistrukturerade intervjuer med representanter från fyra företag som sponsrar elitidrott. Studien visar att företagen arbetar systematiskt i sponsringsprocessen, som i allt högre grad präglas av digital kommunikation. Uttryck och omfattning på hur digital kommunikation påverkar arbetet varierar under sponsringsprocessen, men bidrar generellt med ökad affärsmässighet. Sponsringsprocessens inledande målsättning, primärt kopplat till högre krav på ROI och stärkt varumärke att kommunicera digitalt, genomsyrar beslut som fattas under processen. Företag påverkas som mest av digital kommunikation i sponsorförvärvet- och implementeringen, då arbetsstrategier anpassas till ökad konkurrens på marknaden och utveckling av användandet av nya digitala kommunikationsplattformar, såsom sociala medier. Digital kommunikation präglar även analys av centrala parametrar i sponsringsprocessen, främst kopplat till budgetering och utvärdering. Slutligen rapporteras vikten av att balansera kundcentrering och analog verkan, med ett tillvaratagande och utvecklande av strategier för digital kommunikation. Studiens implikationer främjas av att en modell som integrerar digital kommunikation i sponsringsprocessen presenteras.
Elite sports sponsorship is a powerful marketing tool that companies use to generate interest, engagement and profitability. Today, a revolutionizing big part of it takes place in rapidly developing digital environments. Previous research has identified five parts that constitute the sponsorship process, but it has not been described how digital communication affects elite sports sponsors in the sponsorship process. The purpose of the study is to describe how companies sponsoring elite athletes are influenced by digital communication when working in the sponsorship process. To achieve this, a qualitative research method with an interpretive analysis has been used. The theoretical framework is based on the sponsorship process, and digital communication. The empirical material is collected from semi-structured interviews with elite sport sponsors. The study shows that companies work systematically in the sponsorship process, which is increasingly influenced by digital communication. The expression of and extent to which digital communication influences varies during the sponsorship process, but overall, it contributes with increased commercialism. The initiating goal setting, mainly connected to higher demands on ROI and a strong brand to communicate digitally, perpetuates the decisions during the process. Companies are mostly influenced by digital communication in the sponsorship acquisition and implementation, as they adapt to increased competition and develop the use of digital communication platforms, such as social media. Digital communication also characterizes how companies analyze key figures, mainly in budgeting and evaluation. Finally, the importance of balancing customer centricity and operating analogically, with using and developing a strategy for digital communication is reported. The implications of the study are furthered by presenting a model integrating digital communication in the sponsorship process.

Introduction: Futsal, is a five-a-side team sport, which has experienced a significant global growth, as well as in Portugal. Portugal currently has about 57000 federated futsal players. Due to the increase in the competitiveness in futsal and the increasing number of players, injury burden sustained by these players has become more relevant. However, there has been little research on the typology of injuries in elite futsal in Portugal. Aim: To describe and characterize injuries sustained by elite Portuguese futsal players. Methodology: This is a prospective and descriptive epidemiological study of injuries sustained by elite players in the 2019-2020 season of the Portuguese futsal league (Liga Placard), before COVID-19 confinement. A total of 167 players from 9 elite male futsal teams from the Portuguese championship were monitored during the season. The international consensus guidelines for injury surveillance in football was used as part of the study for data collection, procedures, and terminology. Results: A total of 136 injuries were recorded. The overall injury incidence was 4,57 injuries per 1000h of total exposure (training and match). Moderate injuries were the most frequent. Injuries often involved the lower extremity (83,8%) followed by the head and trunk (8,8%) and the upper limb (7,4%). The groin (18,4%), thigh (16,9%), knee (18,4%) and ankle (15,4%) were the most affected body locations. Wingers were the players that registered the most injuries with a total of 43 injuries (46,7%) followed by lastmen with 15 injuries (16,3%) and keepers with 14 injuries (15,2%). Conclusion: The results of this study showed that the injury rate in futsal is high, and athletes are more prone to be injured by non-contact trauma and during training sessions. Injury rate during games was higher than during training sessions. In this study, wingers were the players with a highest injury rate. The most affected body locations were groin, thigh, knee and ankle. Additionally, sprains and muscle injuries are the most common type of injuries amongst Portuguese elite futsal players.
Introdução: O futsal é uma modalidade coletiva com cinco jogadores, que teve um crescimento significativo a nível mundial, assim como em Portugal. Portugal conta atualmente com cerca de 57000 praticantes federados de futsal. Com o aumento da competitividade do futsal e o crescente número de jogadores, o impacto das lesões nestes atletas tornou-se mais relevante. No entanto, existe pouca investigação sobre a tipologia das lesões no futsal de elite em Portugal. Objetivo: O objetivo deste estudo foi descrever a epidemiologia das lesões sofridas em jogadores de futsal de elite na temporada 2019-2020. Metodologia: Este é um estudo epidemiológico descritivo e prospectivo de lesões sofridas por jogadores de elite na temporada 2019-2020 da liga de futsal de Portugal (Liga Placard) antes do confinamento por COVID-19. Ao longo da temporada foram acompanhados 167 jogadores de futsal masculino, pertencentes a 9 equipas de elite do campeonato português. As diretrizes do consenso internacional para vigilância de lesões no futebol foram usadas como parte do estudo para recolha de dados, procedimentos e terminologia. Resultados: Foram registadas um total de 136 lesões durante a época 2019-2020. A incidência geral de lesões foi de 4,57 lesões por 1000h de exposição total (treino e jogo). As lesões com severidade moderada foram as mais frequentes. As lesões mais observadas foram as que envolviam os membros inferiores (83,8%), seguido da cabeça e tronco (8,8%) e dos membros superiores (7,4%). A região inguinal (18,4%), a coxa (16,9%), o joelho (18,4%) e a tibio-társica (15,4%) foram as localizações corporais mais acometidas. Os alas foram os jogadores que mais sofreram lesões com um total de 43 lesões (46,7%), seguidos dos fixos com 15 lesões (16,3%) e dos guarda-redes com 14 lesões (15,2%). Conclusão: Os resultados deste estudo mostraram que o índice de lesões no futsal é elevado e as lesões ocorrem principalmente por traumas sem contato direto e durante as sessões de treino. A taxa de lesões verificada durante os jogos foi superior a taxa de lesões que ocorre durante as sessões de treino. Neste estudo em particular, os alas foram os jogadores com maior índice de lesões. As localizações corporais mais afetadas foram virilha, coxa, joelho e tibiotársica. Os entorses da tibiotársica e as lesões musculares são o tipo de lesão mais comuns entre os jogadores de futsal de elite portugueses.
Mestrado em Fisioterapia

Despite increased female participation in sport, there remains an under-representation of women in sport leadership positions, particularly at the elite level (e.g., Acosta & Carpenter, 2010; Cameron, 1996; Hartmann-Tews & Pfister, 2003; McKay, 1997; Robertson, 2010). Researchers have identified barriers that have inhibited women’s progression to elite-level roles. Little is known, however, about the pathways or experiences of women who do advance to elite-level positions. The primary aim of this dissertation research was to explore how women overcome societal, organisational, familial, and personal barriers to obtain employment as elite-level coaches, officials (referees, umpires), and administrators (managers, directors, executives).

博士
臺北市立大學
競技運動訓練研究所
108
Previous: Thestudies have been reported athletes have superior performance on a task measuring attention and sensorimotor abilities. However, how does the type of sports training shapes cognitive profile and whether the age effect on veteran professional athletes have slower aging trajectories still unknown. Methods:In this study, we recruit a total of 105 participants with specialized in badminton sports, volleyball sports, who all represented of Taiwan compete at international events and healthy adult controls who did not receive any regular sports training. Of which, veteran professional athletes (former badminton player and volleyball player) were also recruited. All participants were asked to fill out the questionnaire before performing the cognitive assessments to acquire the training background and demographic information. We are then using cognitive testing to measure spatial attention, sensory memory, cognitive flexibility, motor inhibition, and attention networks. Results: In the young group, between-group comparison showed athlete had better performance on sensory memory, attention shifts, response stopping, and alerting a network of attention than controls. Specifically, volleyball player has superior performance on iconic memory, stopping the behavior and alerting attention, whereas badminton player outperforms control group on iconic memory, alerting attention and basic processing speed. Moreover, we did not observe any between-group differences in visual-spatial attention with a change detection paradigm. The results suggest that athletes have a slower decay rate of human sensory memory and better attention shifts between different tasks. Team player displays better cognitive abilities than individual sports, which may due to different training modalities and sports features that involve a more complex cognitive process. Particularly, Between-group comparison showed that young badminton player has better performance on orienting and conflict monitoring network, indicating that young badminton player had better ability to direct attention towards sensory input and to resolve conflicts between responses. Specifically, young badminton player had better performance on different cue-target conditions than elderly badminton player, further, speed-accuracy confirmed that younger group have higher efficiency in processing different cue information. Overall, elderly veteran professional athletes showed no significant difference among this cognitive ability, and typically have worsened performance than young adult athletes. Conclusion:Our findings may reflect the type of sports training reshape cognitive skills in team/individual sports expertise. Age effect on cognitive declines still observable even experienced high-intensity training while young. We end with discussed some limitations regarding both sample size and the definition of top sport expertise.

Orientação: Luís Fernandes Monteiro
OBJECTIVES: To analyze the effects of detraining (inactivity due to pregnancy) and training of an elite female athlete of Judo in (1) Body composition, bone mass and bone mineral density (BMD); (2) Cardiorespiratory capacity (VO2max); (3) Different ways of strength manifestation in upper and lower limbs; (4) Physiological parameters of heart rate and lactic anaerobic capacity; and (5) Neuromuscular parameters of speed, power, strength and rate force development. METHOD: A female judoka from the light weight category (≤48 kg) and finalist at the Olympic Games Beijing 2008, performed several tests on four different occasions; Two months before the Olympic Games (1st Moment), after pregnancy and in a period of inactivity (2nd Moment - 2010), after 12 months, when she came back to training (3rd Moment - 2011) and after 12 months of retraining (4th Moment - 2012). We also considered in this study, as a reference for comparing with the studied athlete (Score-Z), the performance results of National Team (N=12) (VO2máx measured on treadmill and Body Composition using DEXA) and International Teams (N=7) (Bench Press and Rowing tests using Isocontrol 5.1, SJ, CMJ and RJ using ISONET 500 Force Platform and a Specific Judo Test - Coptest). RESULTS: After an inactivity period (pregnancy), maximal oxygen uptake (VO2máx) decreased by 15%, BMD decreased by 11%, maximum strength decreased by 29%, as well as a significant decrease in the remaining variables studied. After 12 and 24 months of retraining, significant and rapid improvements were seen. For most of the parameters, the athlete approached the pre-Olympic levels. About maximum strength and aerobic and anaerobic capacity, the athlete surpassed the pre-Olympic levels with significant increases. Concerning the parameters of power and rate force development, there were no improvements and on the other hand, the athlete was not able to return to the pre-Olympic level of 2008. CONCLUSIONS: These results show that detraining (pregnancy) in an elite athlete can be pronounced, with rapid improvements after retraining. The impact of detraining on body composition, aerobic and anaerobic capacity, strength, power and rate force development emphasizes the need for training stops to be limited to short periods in an elite athlete. Any interruption should include, if possible, 'maintenance training'. That way any decrements in those physiological and neuromuscular parameters associated with performance in judo bouts will be minimized.
OBJETIVOS: Examinar os efeitos do destreino (inatividade devido a uma gravidez) e treino de uma atleta feminina de elite de Judo (1) Na composição corporal, massa óssea e densidade mineral óssea; (2) Na capacidade cardiorrespiratória (VO2máx); (3) Nas diferentes formas de manifestação de força dos membros superiores e inferiores; (4) Nos parâmeros fisiológicos de FC e a capacidade anaeróbia lática; e (5) nos parâmetros neuromusculares de velocidade, potência, força e TPF. MÉTODO: Uma atleta feminina da categoria de ≤48 kg, e finalista nos Jogos Olímpicos de Pequim 2008, levou a cabo um conjunto de avaliações em quatro ocasiões distintas; dois meses antes dos Jogos Olímpicos de Pequim (1º Momento), após a gravidez e num período de inatividade (2º Momento – 2010), após 12 meses de regresso ao treino (3º Momento – 2011) e depois mais 12 meses de treino (4º Momento - 2012). Foram ainda considerados neste estudo os resultados do desempenho de uma amostra da Seleção Nacional (N=12) (VO2máx medido em passadeira e a Composição Corporal através do DEXA) e de uma amostra de uma Seleção Internacional (N=7) (Supino, Remada, através do Isocontrol 5.1; SJ, CMJ e RJ através de uma Plataforma de Forças ISONET 500 e um Teste específico de Judo – Coptest), como referência para comparação com a atleta em estudo (Score-Z). RESULTADOS: Após o período de inatividade (gravidez), a captação de consumo máximo de oxigénio (VO2máx) diminuiu 15%, a DMO decresceu 11%, a força máxima diminuiu 29%, assim como se verificou uma diminuição significativa nas restantes variáveis estudadas. Após 12 e 24 meses de regresso ao treino, melhorias significativas e rápidas foram vistos. Para a maioria dos parâmetros, a atleta aproximou-se dos níveis pré-olímpicos. Para a força máxima e para a capacidade aeróbia e anaeróbia a atleta ultrapassou os níveis pré-olímpicos com acréscimos significativos. Não se verificaram melhorias e pelo contrário, a atleta não conseguiu regressar ao nível pré-olímpico de 2008 nos parâmetros de potência e TPF. CONCLUSÕES: Estes resultados mostram que o destreino (gravidez) numa atleta de elite pode ser pronunciado, com melhorias rápidas após o regresso ao treino. O impacto do destreino na composição corporal, na capacidade aeróbia e anaeróbia, na força, na potência e na TPF enfatiza a necessidade de paragens de treino que devem ser limitadas a períodos curtos num atleta de elite. Qualquer interrupção deve, se possível, incluir «treino em manutenção». Deste modo quaisquer diminuições nesses parâmetros fisiológicos e neuromusculares associados com o desempenho nos combates de Judo será minimizado.

 Considering the large financial investment made by broadcasters and sponsors in the game of rugby union recently, the nature of elite rugby as a spectacle is of great interest to these parties as well as the game's administrators. What style of play characterises international rugby Test matches? Are they exhibitions of the best that rugby has to offer, characterised by an exciting, expansive and inherently risky style of play? Or do their participants reflect a defensive, no -mistakes, safety -first attitude borne of the weight of national expectations and the spectre of losing a high -profile and financially rewarding position in the national team? Is an expansive style of play conducive to winning Test matches? Which national teams exhibited expansive styles of play in their respective international competitions in 1998? 

Studies have been conducted using notational analysis to identify and measure indicators of a team's willingness to play expansive rugby (Carter and Potter, cited in Ackford,1995c; Thomas, cited in Ackford, 1997c). Honan (1996) has identified two indicators of a team's use of an expansive game style. Firstly, the attack ratio calculates number of general play passes (discounting scrumhalf passes) divided by the number of general play kicks. The second indicator counts the number of passes per attack. Eight games from the 1998 Five Nations Championship and all six games of the 1998 Tri- Nations series were analysed. The total number of passes, kicks, runs, successful runs, tries, penalties, conversions and phases were recorded. From this data, each team's attack ratio, number of passes per attack, successful run percentage and run -kick ratio were calculated. 

Two further indicators of a team's style of play were taken and measured from Thomas' study (Ackford, 1997c). These were the percentage of total points scored as tries and the time in the match that these tries were scored. Results revealed that, in their respective international competitions, England (336%), France (345%) and Scotland (304%) had higher attack ratios than New Zealand (257%), South Africa (203%) and Australia (150%). New Zealand, out of the eight countries analysed, had the highest number of passes per attack with 1.64 (and did not win a game in the Tri-Nations series) while Australia had the lowest number of passes per attack with 1.18. 

These results would appear to indicate that the 1998 Tri-Nations series exhibited less expansive rugby than was evidenced in all of the 1998 Five Nations games played by England and Scotland and the majority of games played by France. This suggests either a more effective defensive contribution in 1998 Tri-Nations matches or a greater willingness to attack with the ball -in -hand on the part of England, Scotland and France. In light of England's performances against Australia and South Africa in late 1998 and Scotland's winning of the 1999 Five Nations Championship, this data might have proved a useful predictor of these countries' intended tactical direction.  

Yes
Research evidence suggests that professional players across a variety of sports may be at greater risk of developing addictions and other mental illnesses than the general population, both during and post-career. In this paper, we report findings from a larger project on the experiences of career transition in UK professional footballers that provide some insight into this. Using an Interpretative Phenomenological approach, four ex-professional footballers who were attending the Sporting Chance Clinic for help with problems concerning alcohol and gambling were interviewed in depth about their experiences. Focussing on issues the players perceived to be relevant to their addictions, the data were analysed thematically, drawing on Van Manen’s phenomenological method, and individual case histories were also produced. The analysis suggested that club culture was key to understanding the players’ difficulties; a harsh, unsupportive psychological environment combined with expectations of manliness resulted in a culture of silence in the face of personal difficulties. Relationships within the culture of pro-football were fraught with anxiety and distrust, leaving the players feeling unable and unwilling to disclose their problems and feeling used and unvalued by their managers. The lack of supportive relationships in their clubs also resulted in loneliness and social withdrawal for the participants. We conclude with a number of recommendations for the governing bodies in professional football, clubs and individual players.

碩士
稻江科技暨管理學院
動畫遊戲設計學系碩士班
107
This study is based on Ajzen's "Planning Behavior Theory" (TPB). SEM is used to analyze the relationship between behavioral ideas and outcome evaluation, attitudes, subjective norms, behavioral control perceptions, and behavioral orientations. The conclusions and recommendations of the research can provide reference for the marketing strategy of Taiwan's major international e-sports competition. And this study will verify the product of the belief and outcome evaluation, the product of the normative belief and the compliance motivation, the product of the control belief and the perceived strength, the attitude, and the subjective norm in the "China's excellent e-sports players' transitional professional behavioral tendency model". Behavioral control perception, behavioral tendency, and their influence on each other.