Journal articles on the topic 'Elite paralympic athletes'
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Pensgaard, Anne Marte, Glyn C. Roberts, and Holger Ursin. "Motivational Factors and Coping Strategies of Norwegian Paralympic and Olympic Winter Sport Athletes." Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 16, no. 3 (July 1999): 238–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/apaq.16.3.238.
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This study aimed to compare individual and situational motivational factors and the use of coping strategies among elite athletes with and without physical disabilities. Participants were Norwegian athletes from the 1994 Winter Olympics (n = 69) and Paralympics (n = 30) at Lillehammer. Quantitative data came from questions concerning expectations and satisfactions, and three instruments (Perception of Success Questionnaire, Perceived Motivational Climate Questionnaire, and the COPE Inventory). Qualitative data came from interviews. MANOVA analyses revealed that Paralympic and Olympic athletes had similar motivational profiles, but the Paralympic athletes perceived a more mastery-oriented climate, F(1, 98) = 12.6, p < .001. Both groups used similar types of coping strategies, except that Olympic athletes employed more redefinition and growth strategies, F(1, 97) = 6.72, p < .01. Paralympic athletes were also significantly more satisfied with effort and results. Paralympic and Olympic athletes were significantly different on only 4 of 11 variables.
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Pensgaard, Anne Marte, Tom Henning Oevreboe, and Andreas Ivarsson. "Mental health among elite athletes in Norway during a selected period of the COVID-19 pandemic." BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine 7, no. 1 (February 2021): e001025. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2020-001025.
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ObjectiveTo investigate the prevalence of mental health problems and satisfaction with life among different groups of elite athletes during a selected period of the COVID-19 pandemic and examine how COVID-19 related consequences were associated with these variables.DesignCross-sectional data collection during a selected period of the COVID-19 pandemic in Norway.Participants378 elite athletes, mean age 26.86 (range 18–59), 159 females and 219 males, divided into Olympic-level and Paralympic-level athletes (n=194) and elite and semielite athletes (n=184).Main outcome measuresHopkins Symptoms Check List − 10; symptoms of anxiety and depression; Bergen Insomnia Scale; Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire Short; Canadian Problem Gambling Index and Satisfaction with Life Scale. In addition, we included specific COVID-19 questions (eg, financial concern, keeping daily routines, perceived coping and motivation).ResultsSymptoms of insomnia (38.3%) and depression (22.3%) were most prevalent within the sample. Symptoms of eating disorders more prevalent among female athletes (8.8% vs 1.4%) while symptoms of gambling problems were higher among male athletes (8.6% vs 1.3%). Olympic and Paralympic athletes reported lower levels of anxiety and depression symptoms than elite and semielite athletes. Financial concerns were associated with an increased risk of mental health problems, while daily routines and perception of coping were associated with less mental health problems and higher satisfaction with life.ConclusionSymptoms of insomnia and depression were the two most common mental health problems reported during this selected phase of the COVID-19 pandemic. Elite and semielite athletes reported financial concerns as a risk factor for mental health problems at a larger degree than Olympic and Paralympic athletes.
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Harrington, Shana E., Sean McQueeney, and Marcus Fearing. "Understanding Injury and Injury Prevention in Para Sport Athletes." Journal of Sport Rehabilitation 30, no. 7 (September 1, 2021): 1053–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsr.2020-0477.
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Context: Training loads, injury, and injury prevention in the Para sports population has not been well established. Objective: The purpose of this study was to survey elite-level swimming, cycling, and athletic Para sport athletes in the United States who were competing in the 2016 US Paralympic trials to better understand common injuries among athletes in each sport and to determine whether injury prevention programs were being utilized. Design: Cross-sectional, survey study. Setting: The 2016 US Paralympic trials for swimming, cycling, and athletics. Participants: Athletes who competed in swimming, cycling, and/or athletics at the 2016 US Paralympic trials (N = 144; 83 males and 61 females). Main Outcome Measures: Participants completed electronic survey using Qualtrics XM (Qualtrics, Provo, UT) with questions pertaining to average number of hours trained per week, number of cross-training hours performed each week, descriptive information regarding sport-related injuries, pain, whether athletes received treatment for injuries, and descriptive information regarding whether the athletes had participated in an injury prevention program. Results: Over 64% of respondents reported training greater than or equal to 11 hours per week, and 45% of athletes reported spending greater than or equal to 6 hours per week cross-training. Forty-two percent of athletes reported currently having pain with 34% reporting missing a competition because of injury. Only 24% of respondents reported having participated in an injury prevention program. Conclusions: Many Para sport athletes train at similar durations as able-bodied counterparts and have pain that interferes with their ability to train and compete, however, only a small percentage consistently perform injury prevention programs.
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Derman, Wayne, Phoebe Runciman, Esme Jordaan, Martin Schwellnus, Cheri Blauwet, Nick Webborn, Jan Lexell, et al. "High incidence of injuries at the Pyeongchang 2018 Paralympic Winter Games: a prospective cohort study of 6804 athlete days." British Journal of Sports Medicine 54, no. 1 (February 22, 2019): 38–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-100170.
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ObjectiveTo describe the epidemiology of sports injury at the Pyeongchang 2018 Paralympic Winter Games.Methods567 athletes from 49 countries were monitored daily for 12 days over the Pyeongchang 2018 Paralympic Winter Games (6804 athlete days). Injury data were obtained daily from teams with their own medical support (41 teams and 557 athletes) and teams without their own medical support (8 teams and 10 athletes) through two electronic data capturing systems.Results112 of 567 athletes (19.8%) reported a total of 142 injuries, with an injury incidence rate (IR) of 20.9 per 1000 athlete days (95% CI 17.4 to 25.0). The highest IR was reported for para snowboard (IR of 40.5 per 1000 athlete days [95% CI 28.5 to 57.5]; p<0.02), particularly in the lower limb and head/face/neck anatomical areas. Across all sports at the Games, acute traumatic injuries (IR of 16.2 per 1000 athlete days [95% CI 13.2 to 19.8]) and injuries to the shoulder/arm/elbow complex (IR of 5.7 per 1000 athlete days [95% CI 4.2 to 7.8]) were most common. However, most injuries (78.9%) did not require time loss.ConclusionThe new Paralympic Winter Games sport of Para snowboard requires attention to implement actions that will reduce injury risk. The shoulder was the most injured single joint—a consistent finding in elite para sport.
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Newsome, Laura J., J. P. Barfield, David N. Sallee, Emanuel B. John, and Laurie A. Malone. "Accelerometry and Muscle Fatigue in Elite Paralympic Athletes." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 48 (May 2016): 847. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000487537.98556.07.
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Wolbring, Gregor, and Brian Martin. "Analysis of the Coverage of Paratriathlon and Paratriathletes in Canadian Newspapers." Sports 6, no. 3 (August 29, 2018): 87. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sports6030087.
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From recreational to elite levels, sport has many benefits for disabled people. At the same time, it is acknowledged that there is a trickle-down problem from para-elite sport to sport participation of disabled people, in general. Newspapers are one form of media that sets agendas and influences public opinion. Many studies have highlighted problematic aspects of parasport and para-athlete coverage in newspapers. Paratriathlon was one of two new events added to the Paralympics in Rio 2016, which increased its visibility in the public domain. We investigated the coverage of paratriathlon and paratriathletes in 300 Canadian newspapers using the ProQuest database Canadian Newsstream as a source, and utilizing a descriptive quantitative and a qualitative thematic content analysis. The main themes evident in the reporting on paratriathlon and paratriathletes, in the three hundred Canadian newspapers we covered, were the supercrip imagery of the para-athlete, personal stories mostly linked to the supercrip imagery, and the theme of able-bodied athletes in juxtaposition to the para-athletes. Using the lens of the four legacy goals of the International Paralympic Committee, we conclude that our findings are detrimental to the fulfillment of the four legacy goals.
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Silva, Marilia Magno e., James Bilzon, Edison Duarte, Jose Gorla, and Roberto Vital. "Sport Injuries in Elite Paralympic Swimmers With Visual Impairment." Journal of Athletic Training 48, no. 4 (July 1, 2013): 493–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-48.4.07.
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Context: Visually impaired athletes sustain overuse injuries in the lower limbs, but the pattern of injuries may vary according to the sport. The characteristics of sports injuries in visually impaired swimmers are unknown. Objective: To determine the characteristics and epidemiologic measures (prevalence, clinical incidence, and incidence rate) of sports injuries in visually impaired elite national swimmers and to assess differences among visual classes and between sexes. Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Setting: International Paralympic competitions held between 2004 and 2008. Patients or Other Participants: Twenty-eight elite, visually impaired swimmers (19 males, 9 females) from the Brazilian Paralympic Team participated in this study. Twelve were visual class S11 (blind swimmers), 12 were S12 (low-vision swimmers), and 4 were S13 (low-vision swimmers). Intervention(s): A standardized report form was used to collect data during 5 competitions. This was endorsed by 2 Brazilian sports governing bodies. Main Outcome Measures: The characteristics, prevalence, clinical incidence, and incidence rate of injuries were calculated. Results: Eighteen athletes reported 41 sports injuries, with a prevalence of 64%, clinical incidence of 1.5 injuries per athlete, and an incidence rate of 0.3 injuries per athlete per competition. Overuse injuries (80%) were more frequent than traumatic injuries (20%). The clinical incidence and prevalence varied according to sex and visual class, but no statistical differences were observed (P > .05). The highest proportion of injuries was in the trunk (46.34%), followed by the upper limbs (34.15%). The shoulders (29.27%) were most affected, followed by the thoracic (21.95%) and lumbar spine (17.07%). Spasm (36.59%) was the most frequent diagnosis, followed by tendinopathy (26.83%). Conclusions: Visually impaired swimmers had a relatively high proportion of overuse injuries, predominantly associated with muscle spasm in the spine and tendinopathy in the shoulders. No differences were apparent in injury prevalence and clinical incidence among visual classes or between sexes.
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Aitchison, Beth, Andrew Soundy, Paul Martin, Alison Rushton, and Nicola R. Heneghan. "Lived experiences of social support in Paralympic swimmers: A protocol for a qualitative study." BMJ Open 10, no. 9 (September 2020): e039953. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-039953.
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IntroductionOver the past decade, there has been an increase in awareness of and investment into disability sport as a result of the ‘Paralympic Movement’. The provision of personal and professional support to elite athletes is important for the well-being and success of the athlete, with various studies advocating a holistic approach to performance enhancement. However, little is known about social support experiences in elite para-swimming. Swimming is a popular Paralympic sport and the British para swimmers have been very successful in recent years, most recently winning 47 medals at Rio 2016. This study will be the first to explore the lived experiences of British Paralympic swimmers with respect to the personal and professional support available, perceived use of the support network and the influence it has on well-being and performance.Methods and analysisA hermeneutic phenomenological study will be undertaken using a subtle-realist paradigmatic view. A purposive sample of British Paralympic swimmers will be recruited to enable exploration of social support experiences. In-depth semistructured interviews will explore participants’ experiences of being an elite para-athlete, their support network, the social support available and how they perceive it relates to their well-being and performance. Strategies including reflexivity and member checking will be used to ensure trustworthiness. Data will be analysed following the Framework Method; a seven-stage process used for qualitative data analysis.Ethics and disseminationThis study has ethical approval (ERN_20–0344) granted by the University of Birmingham in April 2020. The findings of this study will be published in a peer-reviewed journal and disseminated to key stakeholders in elite para-sport to inform support services and improve athlete well-being and performance.
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Marín-González, Fabián Humberto, Iago Portela-Pino, Juan Pedro Fuentes-García, and María José Martínez-Patiño. "Relationship between Sports and Personal Variables and the Competitive Anxiety of Colombian Elite Athletes of Olympic and Paralympic Sports." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 13 (June 24, 2022): 7791. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19137791.
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Background: Anxiety is one of the most complex and the most studied constructs in psychology, and it is extremely frequent in high-level sportsmen and women. The main goal was to study the influence of sex, age, type of sport, sport modality, other professional occupation, and competitive level on the competitive anxiety symptoms and self-confidence of elite athletes. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out with Colombian elite athletes who were members of the “Support to the Excellence Coldeportes Athlete” program. The total population studied included 334 Colombian elite athletes: mean age 27.10 ± 6.57 years old with 13.66 ± 6.37 years practicing his/her sports modality. The precompetitive anxiety symptoms of the participants were assessed using the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory—2R (CSAI-2R). Results: Men showed higher levels of self-confidence than women. Younger athletes had a higher cognitive and somatic anxiety. The athletes of individual sports had a higher mean somatic anxiety than those of collective sports. The higher-level athletes had lower values of cognitive and somatic anxiety and higher levels of self-confidence. Finally, the values of anxiety symptoms positively correlated with each other, and negatively correlated with self-confidence. Conclusion: Individualised psychological intervention programs adapted to elite athletes are needed, considering the divergent results found in various variables of scientific interest.
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Barfield, JP, Laura Newsome, David Sallee, Emmanuel John, Laurie Malone, and Chris Frames. "EMG Assessment of Muscle Fatigue in Elite Paralympic Athletes." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 47 (May 2015): 419–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000477574.25228.c8.
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Starczewski, Michal, Piotr Zmijewski, and Andrzej Klusiewicz. "Validity of Performance Assessment Methods in Elite Paracanoeists." Journal of Human Kinetics 81, no. 1 (January 28, 2022): 269–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/hukin-2021-0074.
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Abstract The problem of valid and reliable research methods in paralympic sports seems of great significance, thus the aim of this study was to evaluate the validity of the Wingate test (WAnT) in assessment of anaerobic performance in elite paracanoeists competing in 200 m races. Seven paralympic athletes (32.6 ± 7.76 years), medal winners and finalists of the Paralympic Games, World and European Championships, as well as World Cups were examined. The evaluations were conducted during a competition which was held at the paralympic distance of 200 m, and included the WAnT for upper limbs and the anaerobic threshold test (ATT). Correlations of selected indices of mechanical work and power in the WAnT, as well as anaerobic threshold (AT) power, with the time recorded during the competition were used to determine indices which affected paracanoeing performance. The results indicated strong negative correlations with time achieved in the competition between peak power and total work in the WAnT, and AT power (R = -0.796 p = 0.032; R = -0.882 p = 0.009; R = -0.900 p < 0.001, respectively). The research confirmed the validity of the WAnT for the upper limbs to assess the performance level of paracanoeists. It may be concluded that the WAnT and ATT may be used for monitoring performance during the paralympic 200 m race.
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Curran, Sarah A., and Laurent Frossard. "Biomechanical analyses of the performance of Paralympians: from foundation to elite level." Prosthetics and Orthotics International 36, no. 3 (August 22, 2012): 380–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0309364612453257.
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A biomechanical analysis of sports performance provides an objective method of determining performance of a particular sporting technique. In particular, it aims to add to the understanding of the mechanisms influencing performance, characterization of athletes and provide insights into injury predisposition. While the performance in sport of able-bodied athletes is well recognized in the literature, less information and understanding are known on the complexity, constraints and demands placed on the body of an individual with a disability. This article provides a dialogue that outlines scientific issues of the performance analysis of multi-level athletes with a disability, including Paralympians. Four integrated themes are explored, the first of which focuses on how biomechanics can contribute to the understanding of sports performance in athletes with a disability and how it may be used as an evidence-based tool. This latter point questions the potential for a possible cultural shift led by the emergence of user-friendly instruments. The second theme briefly discusses the role of reliability of sports performance and addresses the debate of two-dimensional and three-dimensional analyses. The third theme addresses key biomechanical parameters and provides guidance to clinicians and coaches on the approaches adopted using the biomechanical/sports performance analysis for an athlete with a disability starting out, to the emerging and elite Paralympian. For completeness of this discourse, the final theme is based on the controversial issues on the role of assisted devices, and the inclusion of Paralympians into able-bodied sport. All combined, this dialogue highlights the intricate relationship between biomechanics and training of individuals with a disability. Furthermore, it illustrates the complexity of modern training of athletes, which can only lead to a better appreciation of the performances to be delivered in the London 2012 Paralympic Games. Clinical relevance Biomechanical analysis can play a fundamental role in optimizing the performance of an athlete with a disability. Clinicians should be aware and understand the mechanisms that may influence performance and have an appreciation of the factors that may predispose such athletes to injury.
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Loturco, Irineu, Lucas A. Pereira, Ciro Winckler, Jaime R. Bragança, Roger A. da Fonseca, Ronaldo Kobal, Cesar C. Cal Abad, Katia Kitamura, Fabio Y. Nakamura, and Emerson Franchini. "Performance Changes of Elite Paralympic Judo Athletes During a Paralympic Games Cycle: A Case Study with the Brazilian National Team." Journal of Human Kinetics 60, no. 1 (December 28, 2017): 217–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/hukin-2017-0111.
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Abstract The aim of this study was to describe the variations in power performance of elite Paralympic judo athletes across three consecutive training cycles of preparation for the ParaPan American Games, the World Championship and the Paralympic Games. Eleven Paralympic judokas from the Brazilian National team participated in this study. They were repeatedly assessed using squat and countermovement jumps, mean propulsive power (MPP) in the jump-squat (JS), the bench press and prone bench pull at several moments of the preparation. Training supervision based on the optimum power zone (range of loads where power production is maximized) was provided in the final cycle, prior to the Paralympic Games. Magnitude-based inference was used to compare the repeated measurements of power performance. Lower and upper limb muscle power gradually increased throughout the cycles; however, the best results in all exercises were observed prior to the Paralympic Games, during which the team won four silver medals. As an illustration, prior to participation in the Paralympic Games the MPP in the JS was likely to very likely higher than prior to the World Championship (effect size [ES] = 0.77) and ParaPan American Games (ES = 0.53), and in January and March 2016 (ES = 0.98 and 0.92, respectively; months preceding the Paralympic Games). Power performance assessments can provide information about the evolution of Paralympic judokas, and training at the optimum power zone seems to constitute an effective method to improve lower and upper limb power in these athletes.
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Buysse, Jo Ann M., and Bria Borcherding. "Framing Gender and Disability: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Photographs From the 2008 Paralympic Games." International Journal of Sport Communication 3, no. 3 (September 2010): 308–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsc.3.3.308.
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DePauw’s (1997) theoretical construct of sport and how we view the body focuses on three socially constructed ideals of physicality, masculinity, and sexuality. Those who do not fit into these ideals are marginalized when it comes to sport participation and media coverage. In this study the authors examined photographs from 12 print newspapers in five countries during the 2008 Paralympic Games in Beijing to determine how Paralympic athletes were treated. They examined the number of photographs and the content of each to determine whether athletes with disabilities are portrayed as tokens who are marginalized or treated as elite athletes. The findings support DePauw’s construct and point to gender and disability differences and hierarchy in print-media photographs.
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Fairbairn, Jessica R., and Kellie C. Huxel Bliven. "Incidence of Shoulder Injury in Elite Wheelchair Athletes Differ Between Sports: A Critically Appraised Topic." Journal of Sport Rehabilitation 28, no. 3 (March 1, 2019): 294–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jsr.2017-0360.
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Clinical Scenario: Until recently, injury epidemiology data on elite Paralympic athletes were limited. Current data suggest high rates of shoulder injury in wheelchair athletes. Differences in shoulder injury rates between sports have not been reported in this population. Clinical Question: Is the incidence of shoulder injury in elite wheelchair athletes different between sports? Summary of Key Findings: Shoulder injury rates are high in elite wheelchair athletes, particularly in sports such as field events and fencing that require a stable base (eg, trunk, core control) from which to perform. Wheelchair racing requires repetitive motions that contribute to shoulder injuries, but rates are lower than field sports and fencing. Wheelchair curling and sledge hockey have low shoulder injury risk. Clinical Bottom Line: Shoulder injury rates vary based on sport in elite wheelchair athletes. In addition to incorporating shoulder complex specific rehabilitation for overuse shoulder injuries, clinicians should focus on core and trunk stabilization in elite wheelchair athletes competing in sports, such as field events and fencing. Strength of Recommendation: Grade C evidence exists that reports shoulder injury rates among elite wheelchair athletes differ based on sport participation.
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Swartz, Leslie, Xanthe Hunt, Jason Bantjes, Brian Hainline, and Claudia L. Reardon. "Mental health symptoms and disorders in Paralympic athletes: a narrative review." British Journal of Sports Medicine 53, no. 12 (May 16, 2019): 737–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2019-100731.
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ObjectivesThis narrative review summarises the literature on the mental health of Paralympic athletes, explores possible reasons for the paucity of research in this area and suggests directions for future research.MethodsA systematic search of PubMed, PsycINFO, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, and Cochrane databases was conducted using search terms related to disability, sport and mental health.ResultsThe search yielded 665 publications. Of these, 129 were duplicates, resulting in 536 publications identified for initial screening. A total of 72 publications were to be relevant at initial screening. Only seven publications addressed Paralympic athletes specifically. Of these papers, three included measures of depression and three included measures of anxiety. In the studies that were not concerned with mental health symptoms or disorders, the focus of enquiry included identity and self, stress, and well-being.ConclusionMost of the studies reviewed are small in scale, and there are almost no comparative data on Paralympic versus Olympic athletes. There is a paucity of data on rates of mental health symptoms and disorders in this population and the factors that might contribute to poor mental health among elite athletes with disabilities. We propose that stereotypes about people with disabilities—and the disability rights movement’s rightful reaction to these stereotypes—have created barriers to mental health research among Paralympic athletes. There is a need for enquiry into the differential stressors experienced by Paralympic athletes, including trauma, transition out of sport, sport and personhood, and the potential for disability sport to promote psychological health.
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Braye, Stuart, Tom Gibbons, and Kevin Dixon. "Disability ‘Rights’ or ‘Wrongs’? The Claims of the International Paralympic Committee, the London 2012 Paralympics and Disability Rights in the UK." Sociological Research Online 18, no. 3 (August 2013): 164–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.5153/sro.3118.
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A central aspect of the vision of the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) is that the Paralympic Movement is a vehicle for achieving ‘a more equitable society’ (IPC 2012a). Building upon the findings of an online survey conducted with disabled activists prior to the London 2012 Paralympic Games ( Braye, Dixon and Gibbons 2012 ), in this short essay we argue that whilst this vision is commendable, the Paralympics has limited impact on the everyday lives of disabled people in the UK. Whilst there was evidence of support for the IPC's view that the 2012 Games would be a positive vehicle for improving equality, there were also protests by disabled activists suggesting some disabled people saw the Games in more critical terms. Despite claims that the Paralympic Games has raised awareness of disabled athletes and wider equality issues for disabled people, such a view is not shared by many disability activists some of whom have controversially used the Games as a vehicle to highlight inequalities. It is concluded that the IPC are distinctively positioned to address disability issues as they relate to a unique and elite sports enclave and perhaps ought to restrain from seeing themselves as anything more until they have opened a dialogue with disability activists.
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Martin, Jeffrey J., Laurie A. Malone, and James C. Hilyer. "Personality and Mood in Women’s Paralympic Basketball Champions." Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology 5, no. 3 (September 2011): 197–210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.5.3.197.
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Research on elite female athletes with disabilities is extremely rare. Therefore, using the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (Cattell, Cattell, & Cattell, 1993) and Profile of Mood States (Droppleman, Lorr, & McNair, 1992), we examined differences between the top 12 athletes comprising the gold medal winning 2004 USA women’s Paralympic basketball team and 13 athletes attending the selection camp who did not make the team. Multivariate analysis of variance with follow-up tests revealed that athletes who made the Paralympic team scored higher on tough-mindedness (M = 5.7 vs. 4.3) and lower in anxiety (M = 5.6 vs. 7.8). For mood state, the Paralympians scored higher in vigor (M = 19.5 vs. 14.8) and lower in depressed mood (M = 3.9 vs. 6.7) and confusion (M = 5.5 vs. 7.5). The effect sizes were large (e.g., Cohen’s d = 0.91 - 1.69) for all five results.
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Håkansson, Anders, Karin Moesch, Caroline Jönsson, and Göran Kenttä. "Potentially Prolonged Psychological Distress from Postponed Olympic and Paralympic Games during COVID-19—Career Uncertainty in Elite Athletes." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 1 (December 22, 2020): 2. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010002.
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The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has had a significant impact on the world of sports due to periods of home quarantine, bans against public gatherings, travel restrictions, and a large number of postponed or canceled major sporting events. The literature hitherto is sparse, but early indications display signs of psychological impact on elite athletes due to the pandemic. However, beyond acute effects from lockdown and short-term interrupted athletic seasons, the postponed and still uncertain Olympic and Paralympic Games may represent a major career insecurity to many athletes world-wide, and may lead to severe changes to everyday lives and potentially prolonged psychological distress. Given the long-term perspective of these changes, researchers and stakeholders should address mental health and long-term job insecurity in athletes, including a specific focus on those with small financial margins, such as many female athletes, parasports athletes, athletes in smaller sports, and athletes from developing countries. Implications and the need for research are discussed.
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Gouttebarge, Vincent, Abhinav Bindra, Cheri Blauwet, Niccolo Campriani, Alan Currie, Lars Engebretsen, Brian Hainline, et al. "International Olympic Committee (IOC) Sport Mental Health Assessment Tool 1 (SMHAT-1) and Sport Mental Health Recognition Tool 1 (SMHRT-1): towards better support of athletes’ mental health." British Journal of Sports Medicine 55, no. 1 (September 18, 2020): 30–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2020-102411.
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ObjectivesTo develop an assessment and recognition tool to identify elite athletes at risk for mental health symptoms and disorders.MethodsWe conducted narrative and systematic reviews about mental health symptoms and disorders in active and former elite athletes. The views of active and former elite athletes (N=360) on mental health symptoms in elite sports were retrieved through an electronic questionnaire. Our group identified the objective(s), target group(s) and approach of the mental health tools. For the assessment tool, we undertook a modified Delphi consensus process and used existing validated screening instruments. Both tools were compiled during two 2-day meeting. We also explored the appropriateness and preliminary reliability and validity of the assessment tool.Sport Mental Health Assessment Tool 1 and Sport Mental Health Recognition Tool 1The International Olympic Committee Sport Mental Health Assessment Tool 1 (SMHAT-1) was developed for sports medicine physicians and other licensed/registered health professionals to assess elite athletes (defined as professional, Olympic, Paralympic or collegiate level; aged 16 years and older) potentially at risk for or already experiencing mental health symptoms and disorders. The SMHAT-1 consists of: (i) triage with an athlete-specific screening tool, (ii) six subsequent disorder-specific screening tools and (iii) a clinical assessment (and related management) by a sports medicine physician or licensed/registered mental health professional (eg, psychiatrist and psychologist). The International Olympic Committee Sport Mental Health Recognition Tool 1 (SMHRT-1) was developed for athletes and their entourage (eg, friends, fellow athletes, family and coaches).ConclusionThe SMHAT-1 and SMHRT-1 enable that mental health symptoms and disorders in elite athletes are recognised earlier than they otherwise would. These tools should facilitate the timely referral of those athletes in need for appropriate support and treatment.
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Molik, Bartosz, Natalia Morgulec-Adamowicz, Andrzej Kosmol, Krzysztof Perkowski, Grzegorz Bednarczuk, Waldemar Skowroński, Miguel Angel Gomez, Krzysztof Koc, Izabela Rutkowska, and Robert J. Szyman. "Game Performance Evaluation in Male Goalball Players." Journal of Human Kinetics 48, no. 1 (December 1, 2015): 43–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/hukin-2015-0090.
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AbstractGoalball is a Paralympic sport exclusively for athletes who are visually impaired and blind. The aims of this study were twofold: to describe game performance of elite male goalball players based upon the degree of visual impairment, and to determine if game performance was related to anthropometric characteristics of elite male goalball players. The study sample consisted of 44 male goalball athletes. A total of 38 games were recorded during the Summer Paralympic Games in London 2012. Observations were reported using the Game Efficiency Sheet for Goalball. Additional anthropometric measurements included body mass (kg), body height (cm), the arm span (cm) and length of the body in the defensive position (cm). The results differentiating both groups showed that the players with total blindness obtained higher means than the players with visual impairment for game indicators such as the sum of defense (p = 0.03) and the sum of good defense (p = 0.04). The players with visual impairment obtained higher results than those with total blindness for attack efficiency (p = 0.04), the sum of penalty defenses (p = 0.01), and fouls (p = 0.01). The study showed that athletes with blindness demonstrated higher game performance in defence. However, athletes with visual impairment presented higher efficiency in offensive actions. The analyses confirmed that body mass, body height, the arm span and length of the body in the defensive position did not differentiate players’ performance at the elite level.
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Dehghansai, Nima, Daniel Spedale, Melissa J. Wilson, and Joseph Baker. "Comparing Developmental Trajectories of Elite Able-Bodied and Wheelchair Basketball Players." Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 37, no. 3 (July 1, 2020): 338–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/apaq.2019-0104.
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Little is known about the factors influencing Paralympic athletes’ journey to expertise and whether these athletes have trajectories similar to those of their able-bodied (AB) peers. The purpose of this project was to compare the developmental trajectories of wheelchair and AB basketball players. A total of 150 participants completed the Developmental History of Athletes Questionnaire. Results revealed that while AB athletes reached early career milestones at a significantly younger age, athletes with congenital impairments reached midcareer milestones at similar ages to AB athletes. In addition, athletes with acquired impairments were able to reach key late-career performance milestones (i.e., national and international debuts) at a similar age to the other two groups. The findings from this study suggest complex developmental pathways that may not be reflected in current developmental models. Therefore, the authors suggest that scientists and practitioners be cognizant of context-specific needs when providing training recommendations.
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Stephenson, Ben T., Christof A. Leicht, Keith Tolfrey, and Victoria L. Goosey-Tolfrey. "A Multifactorial Assessment of Elite Paratriathletes’ Response to 2 Weeks of Intensified Training." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 14, no. 7 (August 1, 2019): 911–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2018-0838.
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Purpose: In able-bodied athletes, several hormonal, immunological, and psychological parameters are commonly assessed in response to intensified training due to their potential relationship to acute fatigue and training/nontraining stress. This has yet to be studied in Paralympic athletes. Methods: A total of 10 elite paratriathletes were studied for 5 wk around a 14-d overseas training camp whereby training load was 137% of precamp levels. Athletes provided 6 saliva samples (1 precamp, 4 during camp, and 1 postcamp) for cortisol, testosterone, and secretory immunoglobulin A; weekly psychological questionnaires (Profile of Mood State [POMS] and Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes [RESTQ-Sport]); and daily resting heart rate and subjective wellness measures including sleep quality and quantity. Results: There was no significant change in salivary cortisol, testosterone, cortisol:testosterone ratio, or secretory immunoglobulin A during intensified training (P ≥ .090). Likewise, there was no meaningful change in resting heart rate or subjective wellness measures (P ≥ .079). Subjective sleep quality and quantity increased during intensified training (P ≤ .003). There was no significant effect on any POMS subscale other than lower anger (P = .049), whereas there was greater general recovery and lower sport and general stress from RESTQ-Sport (P ≤ .015). Conclusions: There was little to no change in parameters commonly associated with the fatigued state, which may relate to the training-camp setting minimizing external life stresses and the careful management of training loads from coaches. This is the first evidence of such responses in Paralympic athletes.
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Heneghan, Nicola R., Esther Collacott, Paul Martin, Simon Spencer, and Alison Rushton. "Lumbosacral injuries in elite Paralympic athletes with limb deficiency: a retrospective analysis of patient records." BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine 7, no. 1 (January 2021): e001001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2020-001001.
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BackgroundCompared to injury data in able-bodied athletes, relatively little literature exists for Paralympic athletes. Injury data underpins the design and evaluation of injury prevention strategies in elite sport. The aim of this study was to investigate frequency, characteristics and management of lumbosacral injuries in elite athletes with limb deficiency.MethodsA retrospective analysis of injuries in elite athletes with limb deficiency (2008 to 2017) was conducted using available data extracted from The English Institute of Sport (EIS) clinical records. Eligibility criteria: funded athletes, eligible for EIS physiotherapy support with full or partial limb deficiency. Data were analysed descriptively using frequencies.ResultsA total of 107 injuries from 32 athletes were included. Participants comprised 18 men (59%), from 9 sports, with mean age for index injuries of 27 years (range 18 to 38 years) and 15 with congenital limb deficiency (47%). Average number of index injuries for congenital and traumatic limb deficient groups were 13 and 19, respectively. Where injury onset was recorded (n=79), half of injuries occurred during training (40%, n=43). Arthrogenic structures accounted for 32.7% of injuries, myogenic 26.2%, with neurogenic, discogenic and osteogenic each <5%. The number of treatments delivered in each injury episode ranged from 1 to 43, with symptom resolution taking 2 to 439 days.ConclusionElite athletes with limb deficiency experience lumbosacral injuries predominantly involving muscles and joints. While consistency and accuracy of data recording limits definitive conclusions, findings highlight the importance of precision in recording injury data as part of surveillance to enable implementation of effective injury prevention strategies.
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Powis, Ben, and Jessica Louise Macbeth. "“We know who is a cheat and who is not. But what can you do?”: Athletes’ perspectives on classification in visually impaired sport." International Review for the Sociology of Sport 55, no. 5 (February 3, 2019): 588–602. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1012690218825209.
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Classification in disability sport is an issue mired in controversy. Much of the recent public scrutiny of classification systems and processes has been directed towards to the Paralympics, the showcase global disability sport event. But this is not just a Paralympic issue; the controversy of classification pervades disability sport at all levels. Using an embodied approach to disability sport, this article reveals how classification is experienced and regarded by visually impaired football and cricket players. We present findings from two qualitative research projects: one with the England Cricket Team between 2014 and 2016 and one with both grassroots and elite footballers in 2017. Our research reveals significant commonalities in the players’ experiences of classification, including: a lack of faith in a classification system which does not adequately capture the diversity of visual impairment; visual impairment classes as social identifiers; rumour and gossip about intentional misrepresentation. The experiences of these visually impaired athletes add an important perspective and original contribution to the current literature on classification which, until now, has focused entirely on the Paralympic context.
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Burns, Lauren, Juanita Ruth Weissensteiner, and Marc Cohen. "Lifestyles and mindsets of Olympic, Paralympic and world champions: is an integrated approach the key to elite performance?" British Journal of Sports Medicine 53, no. 13 (October 23, 2018): 818–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-099217.
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ObjectivesThe holy grail of any nation in the global sporting race is to better understand, replicate and sustain podium winning performances on the world stage. International sporting bodies advocate a holistic approach to the athletic profile and environmental and system-level factors required for world-class sporting performance, yet key lifestyle, relational, training and performance practices are commonly overlooked. We aimed to explore the contribution, interplay, and impact of lifestyle and psychological factors among a sample of world-class, champion athletes.MethodsOpen-ended, semistructured face-to-face interviews were conducted with 10 World, Olympic and Paralympic Champion athletes that covered their sporting development and athletic profile including their mindset, training and competition practices, along with lifestyle and other key factors to which they attributed their success. A thematic approach guided by grounded theory principles, was employed to source and analyse their perspectives and experiences and determine common themes.ResultsFour dominant and overlapping themes emerged: psychological attributes, interpersonal relationships, performance strategies and lifestyle practices. All athletes attributed their success to psychological rather than physical factors, and the vast majority relied on mental rehearsal skills and recovery practices.ConclusionThe athletic profile and support required to reach and sustain podium-level performance is multidimensional, integrated and individualised and psychological factors are paramount. Championship performance is likely to occur at the intersection of psychological prowess, interpersonal support, effective performance strategies and lifestyle. An integrated approach inclusive of these dimensions can be used to guide athlete development and support at both an individual level and a collective level.
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Jackson-Brown, Carolyn. "Borrowing Brands to Create a Brand: The Commercial Mediation of Paralympic Athletes." Communication & Sport 8, no. 4-5 (January 9, 2020): 507–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2167479519896542.
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A transformational shift in recognition for Paralympic athletes occurred when media representations of disability were dramatically reframed for the UK’s coverage of the London 2012 Paralympic Games. The success of that media coverage was consolidated and built upon for Rio 2016 and has been attributed in huge part to the success of the marketing. Drawing on interviews with the key decision makers, conducted shortly after Channel 4’s historic 2012 Paralympic media coverage, my empirical material illuminates how the process of changing perceptions relied heavily on branded meanings. Alongside the unorthodox visual portrayals, partnerships with familiar brands were felt to be necessary to help resonate normal feelings for digital consumers and reinforce mainstream cultural acceptance. It was not enough to just change televisual representations of para-sports bodies and saturate the TV/online schedule with elite status programming, the producers knew they needed to use meanings associated with commodified brands to reassure the public as well. This study is based on corporate internal documentation as well as interviews with executive and creative decision makers working for the UK’s Paralympic broadcaster, Channel 4. It reveals a production practice that is not normally associated with bringing marginalised groups to the mainstream media attention.
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Prieto, Jaime, and Juan L. Paramio-Salcines. "THE UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES AND ITS EFFECTS ON THE PROMOTION OF ELITE DISABILITY SPORT: A WORLDWIDE ANALYSIS." Age of Human Rights Journal, no. 10 (June 18, 2018): 119–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.17561/tahrj.n10.6.
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Little attention has been focused on the analysis of the interrelation between disability and elite disability sport from the human rights perspective as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) demands of those countries that ratified this global regulation. More than a decade since its promulgation in December 2006, the United Nations itself and a plethora of authors recognises that disability in general and disability sport by extension has not yet been seen as a human rights issue in many countries, principally in developing countries. This paper is divided into four main parts. First, academic literature in relation to disability, human rights policy and sport at elite level is explored. Second, it examines the active role of the International Paralympic Committee, regarded as a major advocate for the rights of the sport promotion of athletes with disabilities, to implement the Convention by the organisation of sports events for Paralympic athletes worldwide at all levels of the sport development continuum. Third, it explains the methods and data collection followed in the study and the following section presents results of the analysis. Finally, it draws an international scenario that might be valuable in informing academics, institutions and professionals to promote elite disability sport from the human rights perspective.
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Mastro, James V., Allen W. Burton, Marjorie Rosendahl, and Claudine Sherrill. "Attitudes of Elite Athletes with Impairments Toward One Another: A Hierarchy of Preference." Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 13, no. 2 (April 1996): 197–210. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/apaq.13.2.197.
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Hierarchies of preference by elite athletes with impairments toward other athletes with impairments were examined by administering the Athletes With Impairments Attitude Survey (AWIAS) to 138 members of the United States Disabled Sports Team as they were traveling to the 1992 Paralympic Games. The AWIAS uses 12 statements concerning social and sport relationships to measure social distance from a particular impairment group. Five groups of athletes participated—athletes with amputations, cerebral palsy, dwarfism or les autres, paraplegia or quadriplegia, and visual impairment—with each participant filling out a separate survey for the four impairment groups other than his or her own. For all groups combined, the participants’ responses toward other impairment groups, ordered from most to least favorable attitudes, were amputations, les autres, para/quadriplegia, visual impairment, and cerebral palsy. The preference hierarchies for individual groups were very similar to this overall pattern.
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McNamara, Alice, Rachel Harris, and Clare Minahan. "‘That time of the month’ … for the biggest event of your career! Perception of menstrual cycle on performance of Australian athletes training for the 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games." BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine 8, no. 2 (April 2022): e001300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2021-001300.
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ObjectiveThis study explored the perceived effect of the menstrual cycle (MC) on the performance of Australian female athletes, preparing for the Tokyo Olympic and/or Paralympic Games.Methods195 female athletes, nominated by 24 National Sporting Organisations as preparing for the Tokyo Olympic and/or Paralympic Games, completed an online questionnaire (‘MCq perceptions’). The MCq perceptions investigated menstrual symptoms, hormonal contraceptive (HC) use and a preferred competition window within the MC.ResultsTwo-thirds (65.6%) athletes reported that their MC affected their performance; in training (65.6%) compared with competition (58.0%).Aesthetic-sport athletes were most likely to perceive their performance to be affected by their MC (RR=1.40) compared with endurance (RR=0.88) and strength-sport (RR=1.04) athletes. Athletes experiencing three or more symptoms were twice as likely to identify as affected. Athletes who reported pain (RR=1.89) or the use of analgesia (RR=1.45) were more likely to identify as affected by their MC.A preferred competition window was identified by athletes as ‘just after your period’ (41.5%). For athletes not using HC, this window was identified by 53.7%.ConclusionIn Australia, elite-female athletes perceive their MC to affect their performance, and many have a preferred performance window. Performance-focused strategies should be created for ‘affected’ athletes, aiming to provide these athletes with education, and where appropriate, control over predictability, timing and symptoms of their MC.
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Gutiérrez-Santiago, Alfonso, Iván Prieto-Lage, Arturo Martín, and Carlos Ayán. "Sport Injuries in Elite Paralympic Judokas: Findings From the 2018 World Championship." Journal of Physical Activity and Health 17, no. 11 (November 1, 2020): 1162–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2020-0149.
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Background: To provide information regarding injury incidence, injury pattern, and associated injury risk factors in elite Paralympic judokas. Methods: Participants in this observational research were elite judokas taking part in the IBSA 2018 World Judo Championship. The entire championship was videotaped, and all injuries were prospectively documented using an all-complaints definition. Results: The tournament featured 267 judokas, (B1 = 58; B2 = 105; B3 = 104). The injury proportion was estimated at 18.9 injuries/100 fighters (B1 = 13.8; B2 = 22.3; B3 = 18.5). A total of 745 athletic exposures were registered. The overall injury rate was 68.5 (95% CI, 52.5–89.2); 62.5 (95% CI, 32–122.3); 79.6 (95% CI, 53.8–17.8); and 61.2 (95% CI, 40–93.5) for the total sample, B1, B2, and B3 judokas, respectively. When only injuries resulting in medical attention were analyzed, the overall injury rate was calculated to be 22.8 (95% CI, 14.3–36.5), and the injury proportion was estimated at 6.3 injuries/100 fighters. No significant differences were found for sex, weight, and visual class regarding injury proportion and injury rates. Conclusion: Paralympic judokas show a high injury rate. However, when only injuries that needed medical attention were taken into account, the proportion of athletes injured was low. The degree of visual impairment was not considered as an injury risk factor.
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Paz, Ângelo de Almeida, Felipe José Aidar, Dihogo Gama de Matos, Raphael Fabrício de Souza, Marzo Edir da Silva-Grigoletto, Roland van den Tillaar, Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo, et al. "Comparison of Post-Exercise Hypotension Responses in Paralympic Powerlifting Athletes after Completing Two Bench Press Training Intensities." Medicina 56, no. 4 (April 1, 2020): 156. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/medicina56040156.
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Background and objective: Post-exercise hypotension, the reduction of blood pressure after a bout of exercise, is of great clinical relevance. Resistance exercise training is considered an important contribution to exercise training programs for hypertensive individuals and athletes. In this context, post-exercise hypotension could be clinically relevant because it would maintain blood pressure of hypertensive individuals transiently at lower levels during day-time intervals, when blood pressure is typically at its highest levels. The aim of this study was to compare the post-exercise cardiovascular effects on Paralympic powerlifting athletes of two typical high-intensity resistance-training sessions, using either five sets of five bench press repetitions at 90% 1 repetition maximum (1RM) or five sets of three bench press repetitions at 95% 1RM. Materials and Methods: Ten national-level Paralympic weightlifting athletes (age: 26.1 ± 6.9 years; body mass: 76.8 ± 17.4 kg) completed the two resistance-training sessions, one week apart, in a random order. Results: Compared with baseline values, a reduction of 5–9% in systolic blood pressure was observed after 90% and 95% of 1RM at 20–50 min post-exercise. Furthermore, myocardial oxygen volume and double product were only significantly increased immediately after and 5 min post-exercise, while the heart rate was significantly elevated after the resistance training but decreased to baseline level by 50 min after training for both training conditions. Conclusions: A hypotensive response can be expected in elite Paralympic powerlifting athletes after typical high-intensity type resistance-training sessions.
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Resende, Marcelo de Aquino, Roberta Barreto Vasconcelos Resende, Gracielle Costa Reis, Layanne de Oliveira Barros, Madson Rodrigo Silva Bezerra, Dihogo Gama de Matos, Anderson Carlos Marçal, et al. "The Influence of Warm-Up on Body Temperature and Strength Performance in Brazilian National-Level Paralympic Powerlifting Athletes." Medicina 56, no. 10 (October 14, 2020): 538. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/medicina56100538.
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Background and Objectives: The effects of warm-up in athletic success have gained strong attention in recent studies. There is, however, a wide gap in awareness of the warm-up process to be followed, especially in Paralympic powerlifting (PP) athletes. This study aimed to analyze different types of warm-up on the physical performance of PP athletes. Materials and Methods: The sample consisted of 12 elite Brazilian PP male athletes (age, 24.14 ± 6.21 years; bodyweight, 81.67 ± 17.36 kg). The athletes performed maximum isometric force (MIF), rate of force development (RFD), and speed test (Vmax) in three different methods of warm-up. Tympanic temperature was used to estimate the central body temperature. Results: A significant difference was observed for MIF in the without warm-up (WW) condition in relation to the traditional warm-up (TW) and stretching warm-up (SW) (p = 0.005, η2p = 0.454, high effect). On the contrary, no significant differences were observed in RFD, fatigue index (FI) and time in the different types of warm up (p > 0.05). Furthermore, no significant differences were observed in relation to the maximum repetition (p = 0.121, η2p = 0.275, medium effect) or the maximum speed (p = 0.712, η2p = 0.033, low effect) between the different types of warm up. In relation to temperature, significant differences were found for the TW in relation to the “before” and “after” conditions. In addition, differences were found between WW in the “after” condition and SW. In addition, WW demonstrated a significant difference in relation to TW in the “10 min later” condition (F = 26.87, p = 0.05, η2p = 0.710, high effect). Conclusions: The different types of warm-up methods did not seem to provide significant differences in the force indicators in elite PP athletes.
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Frossard, Laurent A., Alison O’Riordan, and James Smeathers. "Performance of elite seated discus throwers in F30s classes: part I: does whole body positioning matter?" Prosthetics and Orthotics International 37, no. 3 (October 29, 2012): 183–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0309364612458685.
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Background: Studies on the relationship between performance and design of the throwing frame have been limited and therefore require further investigation. Objectives: The specific objectives were to provide benchmark information about performance and whole body positioning of male athletes in F30s classes. Study Design: Descriptive analysis. Methods: A total of 48 attempts performed by 12 stationary discus throwers in F33 and F34 classes during seated discus throwing event of 2002 International Paralympic Committee Athletics World Championships were analysed in this study. The whole body positioning included overall throwing posture (i.e. number of points of contact between the thrower and the frame, body position, throwing orientation and throwing side) and lower limb placements (i.e. seating arrangements, points of contact on the both feet, type of attachment of both legs and feet). Results: Three (25%), five (42%), one (8%) and three (25%) athletes used from three to six points of contact, respectively. Seven (58%) and five (42%) athletes threw from a standing or a seated position, respectively. A straddle, a stool or a chair was used by six (50%), four (33%) or two (17%) throwers, respectively. Conclusions: This study provides key information for a better understanding of the interaction between throwing technique of elite seated throwers and their throwing frame. Clinical relevance This study aimed at improving the understanding of the relationship between athletic performance and the design of the throwing frame for seated discus throwers, with a particular emphasis on the description of whole body positioning. This knowledge is particularly important in the current debate around general principles underlying the design of throwing frames and classification of athletes with a disability, including those with lower limb amputation.
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Marcolin, Giuseppe, Nicola Petrone, Michael Benazzato, Francesco Bettella, Angela Gottardi, Luigi Salmaso, Livio Corain, Alfredo Musumeci, Stefano Masiero, and Antonio Paoli. "Personalized Tests in Paralympic Athletes: Aerobic and Anaerobic Performance Profile of Elite Wheelchair Rugby Players." Journal of Personalized Medicine 10, no. 3 (September 9, 2020): 118. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jpm10030118.
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In Paralympic sports, the goal of functional classifications is to minimize the impact of impairment on the outcome of the competition. The present cross-sectional study aimed to investigate aerobic and anaerobic personalized tests in Paralympic athletes and to correlate them with the classification of the international wheelchair rugby federation (IWRF). Sixteen elite players of the Italian wheelchair rugby team volunteered for the study. Aerobic (incremental test to exhaustion) and anaerobic (Wingate 30s all-out test, 5 and 10-meter sprint test, shuttle test, isometric test) sport-performance measurements were correlated singularly or grouped (Z scores) with the classification point. Moreover, a multivariate permutation-based ranking analysis investigated possible differences in the overall level of performance among the adjacent classified groups of players, considering the scores of each test. A statistically significant correlation between the performance parameters and the IWRF functional classification considering both aerobic and anaerobic personalized tests was detected (0.58 ≤ r ≤ 0.88; 0.0260 ≤ p ≤ 0.0001). The multivariate permutation-based ranking analysis showed differences only for the low-pointers versus mid-pointers (p = 0.0195) and high-pointers (p = 0.0075). Although single performance parameters correlated with athletes’ classification point, results of the multivariate permutation-based ranking analysis seem to suggest considering only the most significant anaerobic and sport-specific performance parameters among athletes. These should be combined with the physical assessment and the qualitative observation, which are already part of the classification process to improve its effectiveness.
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Nolan, Lee, Benjamin L. Patritti, Laura Stana, and Sean M. Tweedy. "Is Increased Residual Shank Length a Competitive Advantage for Elite Transtibial Amputee Long Jumpers?" Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 28, no. 3 (July 2011): 267–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/apaq.28.3.267.
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The purpose of this study was to evaluate the extent to which residual shank length affects long jump performance of elite athletes with a unilateral transtibial amputation. Sixteen elite, male, long jumpers with a transtibial amputation were videoed while competing in major championships (World Championships 1998, 2002 and Paralympic Games, 2004). The approach, take-off, and landing of each athlete’s best jump was digitized to determine residual and intact shank lengths, jump distance, and horizontal and vertical velocity of center of mass at touchdown. Residual shank length ranged from 15 cm to 38 cm. There were weak, nonsignificant relationships between residual shank length and (a) distance jumped (r = 0.30), (b) horizontal velocity (r = 0.31), and vertical velocity (r = 0.05). Based on these results, residual shank length is not an important determinant of long jump performance, and it is therefore appropriate that all long jumpers with transtibial amputation compete in the same class. The relationship between residual shank length and key performance variables was stronger among athletes that jumped off their prosthetic leg (N = 5), and although this result must be interpreted cautiously, it indicates the need for further research.
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Steffen, Kathrin, Benjamin Clarsen, Hilde Gjelsvik, Lars Haugvad, Anu Koivisto-Mørk, Roald Bahr, and Hilde Moseby Berge. "Illness and injury among Norwegian Para athletes over five consecutive Paralympic Summer and Winter Games cycles: prevailing high illness burden on the road from 2012 to 2020." British Journal of Sports Medicine 56, no. 4 (October 4, 2021): 204–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2021-104489.
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ObjectiveTo describe the illness and injury pattern of Norwegian Para athletes over five consecutive Paralympic Summer and Winter Games cycles and to identify which health problems should be targeted in risk management plans with respect to impairment types.MethodsWe monitored athletes from 12 to 18 months prior to each Game using a weekly online questionnaire (Oslo Sports Trauma Research Center-H2 (OSTRC-H2)). We asked them to report all health problems they had experienced in the preceding 7 days, irrespective of their consequences on their sports participation or performance and whether they had sought medical attention.ResultsBetween 2011 and 2020, 94 candidate athletes were included in this monitoring programme and prepared to represent Norway; of these, 66 (71%) were finally selected for multiple Paralympic Games. The overall response rate to the weekly questionnaires was 87%. At any given time during the five observation cycles, 37% of the athletes (95% CI 36% to 38%) reported having at least one health problem. Athletes with neurological impairments (n=51) lost 10 days per year due to respiratory problems (95% CI 9 to 11) compared with 9 days (8-10) among those with musculoskeletal impairments (n=37). Gastrointestinal problems caused a time loss of on average 4 days per year in athletes with neurological impairments versus 1 day in athletes with musculoskeletal impairments (mean difference 2.7 days, 2.1–3.3). Musculoskeletal injuries generated a high burden for both athlete groups, in particular, to the elbow, shoulder and lumbosacral regions.ConclusionAt any given time, nearly two out of five elite Norwegian Para athletes reported at least one health problem. Respiratory tract and other infections; gastrointestinal problems, injuries to the shoulder, elbow and lumbosacral regions represented the greatest health burden. Our findings can help guide the allocation of clinical resources, which should include a broad network of medical specialists, together with dieticians and physiotherapists, to meet the health challenges in Para athletes.
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Bernardi, Marco, Maria Rosaria Squeo, Fabio Faiola, Federico Egidi, Vincenzo Castellano, and Yagesh Bhambhani. "Intensity And Energy Expenditure Of Sports In Elite Paralympic Athletes With Locomotor Disabilities." Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise 41 (May 2009): 227. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000355248.72841.6b.
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Flueck, Joelle Leonie, Samuel Mettler, and Claudio Perret. "Influence of Caffeine and Sodium Citrate Ingestion on 1,500-m Exercise Performance in Elite Wheelchair Athletes: A Pilot Study." International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism 24, no. 3 (June 2014): 296–304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2013-0127.
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The aim of this study was to investigate whether caffeine and/or sodium citrate have an ergogenic effect on the 1,500-m exercise performance in elite wheelchair athletes. A placebo-controlled, randomized, cross-over and double-blind study design was conducted with the four treatments placebo, caffeine, sodium citrate and the combination of caffeine and sodium citrate. Nine healthy, elite wheelchair-racing athletes (median: [min; max] age: 28 y [23; 54]; height: 173 cm [165; 188]; weight: 62.9 kg [48.9; 68.4], category T53/54) completed the study. All athletes were national team members, including several Paralympic Games, World and European Championship medalists. The athletes performed a 1,500-m time trial four times on a wheelchair training roller. Time to complete 1,500-m, pH, bicarbonate and sodium concentration as well as lactate concentration were measured. The time to complete 1,500-m was not significantly different between the four treatments (placebo: 170.6 s [141.7; 232.0]; caffeine: 179.5 s [134.8; 239.6]; sodium citrate: 178.3 s [136.4; 247.1]; combination: 177.6 s [136.1; 256.2]). However, pH and bicarbonate concentrations were significantly increased with sodium citrate ingestion compared with placebo. Moreover, maximal lactate concentrations were significantly higher in the caffeine and the combination treatment compared with placebo. The supplementation with sodium citrate and/or caffeine did not provide an ergogenic effect on the 1,500-m exercise performance in wheelchair elite athletes.
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Ohlert, Jeannine, Thea Rau, Bettina Rulofs, and Marc Allroggen. "Comparison of elite athletes’ sexual violence experiences in and outside sport." German Journal of Exercise and Sport Research 50, no. 4 (October 6, 2020): 435–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12662-020-00678-3.
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Abstract Background Research on the prevalence of sexual violence in sport mostly focuses on incidents of sexual violence that happen in the context of sport, but few studies are available that systematically target the lifetime prevalence of sexual violence in the athletes (as persons), combining experiences in sport and outside the sport system. The aim of the current study was thus to compare sexual violence experiences of elite athletes in Germany in sport with those outside sport. Methods The study was carried out in cooperation with the German Olympic and Paralympic Committee who contacted their registered elite athletes. In total, 1529 elite athletes took part in an online survey and answered questions regarding their sexual violence experiences first in the context of sport and afterwards outside the sport context. Results Results show that 54.2% of the athletes had experienced some form of sexual violence during their lifetime, 20.6% even a severe incident of sexual violence. Incidents happened more often outside sport than in sport, but 48% of the victims were affected in both areas of life, indicating a high overlap of victimization experiences. Conclusion One recommendation from our results is therefore to make even stronger efforts to protect young athletes from becoming a victim of sexual violence. In case a sport club has a person of trust in the club, it can be an important place for athletes with sexual violence experiences (no matter whether experienced inside or outside sport), so that they are being heard and helped.
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Aidar, Felipe J., Guacira S. Fraga, Márcio Getirana-Mota, Anderson Carlos Marçal, Jymmys L. Santos, Raphael Fabricio de Souza, Alexandre Reis Pires Ferreira, et al. "Effects of Ibuprofen Use on Lymphocyte Count and Oxidative Stress in Elite Paralympic Powerlifting." Biology 10, no. 10 (September 30, 2021): 986. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biology10100986.
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Background: Paralympic Powerlifting (PP) training tends to promote fatigue and oxidative stress. Objective: To analyze the effects of ibuprofen use on performance and oxidative stress in post-training PP athletes. Methodology: Ten national level PP athletes (age: 27.13 ± 5.57) were analyzed for oxidative stress in post-training. The study was carried out in three weeks, (1) familiarization and (2 and 3) evaluated the recovery with the use of a placebo (PLA) and ibuprofen (IBU), 800 mg. The Peak Torque (PT), Torque Development Rate (TDR), Fatigue Index (FI), reactive substances to thiobarbituric acid (TBARS) and sulfhydryl groups (SH) were evaluated. The training consisted of five sets of five repetitions (80–90%) 1-Repetition Maximum (1-RM) in the bench press. Results: The IBU showed a higher PT (24 and 48 h, p = 0.04, ɳ2 p = 0.39), a lower FI (24 h, p = 0.01, ɳ2p = 0.74) and an increased lymphocyte count (p < 0.001; ɳ2p = 4.36). There was no change in oxidative stress. Conclusions: The use of IBU provided improvements in strength and did not protect against oxidative stress.
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Gold, John R., and Margaret M. Gold. "Access for all: the rise of the Paralympic Games." Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health 127, no. 3 (May 2007): 133–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1466424007077348.
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The Paralympic, or Parallel, Games for athletes with disabilities have played a major role over the past half century in changing attitudes towards disability and accelerating the agenda for inclusion. This article charts their development from small beginnings as a competition for disabled ex-servicemen and women in England founded shortly after the Second World War to the present day ambulatory international festival of Summer and Winter Games organized in conjunction with the Olympic Games. The Paralympic Games trace their origins to the work of Dr (later Sir) Ludwig Guttmann at the National Spinal Injuries Unit at Stoke Mandeville Hospital in Buckinghamshire who used sport as an integral part of the treatment of paraplegic patients. A sports competition was held at the hospital to coincide with the Opening Ceremony of the London Games in July 1948. This became an annual event attracting the first international participation in 1952, after which it became the International Stoke Mandeville Games. From 1960 onwards attempts were made to hold every fourth Games in the Olympic host city. Despite initial success in staging the 1960 Games in Rome and the 1964 Games in Tokyo, subsequent host cities refused to host the competitions and alternative locations were found where a package of official support, finance and suitable venues could be assembled. In 1976, the scope of the Games was widened to accept other disabilities. From 1988 onwards, a process of convergence took place that saw the Paralympics brought into the central arena of the Olympics, both literally and figuratively. In the process they have embraced new sports, have encompassed a wider range of disabilities, and helped give credence to the belief that access to sport is available to all. The Paralympics also underline the change from sport as therapeutic competition to that of elite events that carry intrinsic prestige, with growing rivalry over medal tables. For the future, however, questions remain as to whether the current arrangements of separate but supposedly equal festivals assist the continuing development of the Paralympics or perpetuate difference.
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Beck, Owen N., and Alena M. Grabowski. "The biomechanics of the fastest sprinter with a unilateral transtibial amputation." Journal of Applied Physiology 124, no. 3 (March 1, 2018): 641–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00737.2017.
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People have debated whether athletes with transtibial amputations should compete with nonamputees in track events despite insufficient information regarding how the use of running-specific prostheses (RSPs) affect athletic performance. Thus, we sought to quantify the spatiotemporal variables, ground reaction forces, and spring-mass mechanics of the fastest athlete with a unilateral transtibial amputation using an RSP to reveal how he adapts his biomechanics to achieve elite running speeds. Accordingly, we measured ground reaction forces during treadmill running trials spanning 2.87 to 11.55 m/s of the current male International Paralympic Committee T44 100- and 200-m world record holder. To achieve faster running speeds, the present study’s athlete increased his affected leg (AL) step lengths ( P < 0.001) through longer contact lengths ( P < 0.001) and his unaffected leg (UL) step lengths ( P < 0.001) through longer contact lengths ( P < 0.001) and greater stance average vertical ground reaction forces ( P < 0.001). At faster running speeds, step time decreased for both legs ( P < 0.001) through shorter ground contact and aerial times ( P < 0.001). Unlike athletes with unilateral transtibial amputations, this athlete maintained constant AL and UL stiffness across running speeds ( P ≥ 0.569). Across speeds, AL step lengths were 8% longer ( P < 0.001) despite 16% lower AL stance average vertical ground reaction forces compared with the UL ( P < 0.001). The present study’s athlete exhibited biomechanics that differed from those of athletes with bilateral and without transtibial amputations. Overall, we present the biomechanics of the fastest athlete with a unilateral transtibial amputation, providing insight into the functional abilities of athletes with transtibial amputations using running-specific prostheses.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The present study’s athlete achieved the fastest treadmill running trial ever attained by an individual with a leg amputation (11.55 m/s). From 2.87 to 11.55 m/s, the present study’s athlete maintained constant affected and unaffected leg stiffness, which is atypical for athletes with unilateral transtibial amputations. Furthermore, the asymmetric vertical ground reaction forces of athletes with unilateral transtibial amputations during running may be the result of leg length discrepancies.
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Paulson, Thomas, and Victoria Goosey-Tolfrey. "Current Perspectives on Profiling and Enhancing Wheelchair Court Sport Performance." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 12, no. 3 (March 2017): 275–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2016-0231.
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Despite the growing interest in Paralympic sport, the evidence base for supporting elite wheelchair sport performance remains in its infancy when compared with able-bodied (AB) sport. Subsequently, current practice is often based on theory adapted from AB guidelines, with a heavy reliance on anecdotal evidence and practitioner experience. Many principles in training prescription and performance monitoring with wheelchair athletes are directly transferable from AB practice, including the periodization and tapering of athlete loads around competition, yet considerations for the physiological consequences of an athlete’s impairment and the interface between athlete and equipment are vital when targeting interventions to optimize in-competition performance. Researchers and practitioners are faced with the challenge of identifying and implementing reliable protocols that detect small but meaningful changes in impairment-specific physical capacities and on-court performance. Technologies to profile both linear and rotational on-court performance are an essential component of sport-science support to understand sport-specific movement profiles and prescribe training intensities. In addition, an individualized approach to the prescription of athlete training and optimization of the “wheelchair–user interface” is required, accounting for an athlete’s anthropometrics, sports classification, and positional role on court. In addition to enhancing physical capacities, interventions must focus on the integration of the athlete and his or her equipment, as well as techniques for limiting environmental influence on performance. Taken together, the optimization of wheelchair sport performance requires a multidisciplinary approach based on the individual requirements of each athlete.
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Santos Neto, Silvestre Cirilo dos, Virgílio Franceschi Neto, Flávia Da Cunha Bastos, Marcelo De Castro Haiachi, and Leonardo Mataruna-dos-Santos. "Brazilian medals’ plan." Revista Brasileira de Educação Física e Esporte 31, no. 3 (August 2, 2018): 709–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.11606/1807-5509201700030709.
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Brazil hosted the Olympic and Paralympic Games in 2016. After London 2012, the Ministry of Sport (Ministério do Esporte, ME) launched the Brazilian Medals’ Plan, which was only approved in 2013. It is a plan that seeks complementary support for teams and athletes that intend to compete in 2016. The objective of this article is to critically analyse the Brazilian Medals’ Plan through the lens of strategy. The guiding query of the project is how the Brazilian Medals’ Plan can be classified: as a strategic or an emergency plan. The method used is a narrative review via a critical analysis from the contextual point of view. A relationship was seen between the structuring of elite sports policy, continuity of the policy, and sporting success. In the document from the Ministry of Sport, it was not possible to identify what strategies are necessary to enter the Olympic “top ten” with the Brazilian Olympic Committee’s (Comitê Olímpico Brasileiro, COB) projection of obtaining 30 medals and the Paralympic target to reach the “top five” nations in the Games. It was concluded that the Brazilian Medals’ Plan 2016 is of an emergency nature, leaving the country without a long-term plan for elite sports.
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Kozina, Zhanneta, Maryna Lytovchenko, Danylo Safronov, Yurii Boichuk, Olena Chaika, Tatiana Shepelenko, Anton Polianskyi, Victor Protsevskiy, Lyudmila Peretyaha, and Maya Konnova. "Influence of Musculoskeletal System Dysfunction Degree on Psychophysiological Indicators of Paralympic Athletes." Sports 7, no. 3 (February 26, 2019): 55. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sports7030055.
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The purpose of the work was to identify the influence of functional class and degree of damage to extremities on psychophysiological indicators of Paralympians. The study involved 33 elite athletes with musculoskeletal system disorders of the 6 (n = 15) and 10 (n = 18) functional classes in table tennis, aged 21–25 years old. Parameters characteristic for determining the psychophysiological state and typological characteristics of the nervous system were analyzed with the help of computer programs for psychophysiological testing. We determined the latent time of simple and complex reactions in different testing modes. Dispersion analysis was also used. We applied single-factor multidimensional dispersion analysis: one-way analysis of variance and General Linear Model, Multivariate. The indicators of psychophysiological testing were applied as dependent variables. The values of the functional class of athletes were used as the independent variable. To study the influence of damage degree of the upper or lower extremities on psychophysiological indicators, the extremities damage degree was applied as an independent variable. The time in the Paralympic 6 functional class to reach the minimum signal exposure in feedback mode was significantly longer compared with the 10 Paralympic functional class (p < 0.05). Comparing psychophysiological indicators when Paralympians are divided into groups more differentiated than functional classes (that is, according to the nature of the disease or the degree of limb lesions), significant differences were found in all psychophysiological indicators between the athletes of different groups. The greatest impact on psychophysiological indicators was a lesion of the lower extremities. The training of Paralympians in table tennis should consider the reaction rate indicators. In addition, when improving the functional classification of Paralympians in table tennis, a more differentiated approach should be taken when considering their capabilities, including psychophysiological indicators. During training and functional classification of Paralympic athletes in table tennis, it is important to consider their functional class as well as the degree of damage to upper and lower extremities and the level of psychophysiological functioning.
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Mendonça, Tanise Pires, Felipe José Aidar, Dihogo Gama Matos, Raphael Fabrício Souza, Anderson Carlos Marçal, Paulo Francisco Almeida-Neto, Breno Guilherme Cabral, et al. "Force production and muscle activation during partial vs. full range of motion in Paralympic Powerlifting." PLOS ONE 16, no. 10 (October 13, 2021): e0257810. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257810.
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Paralympic Powerlifting is a sport in which the strength of the upper limbs is assessed through bench press performance in an adapted specific bench. It is therefore essential to optimize training methods to maximize this performance. The aim of the present study was to compare force production and muscle activation involved in partial vs. full range of motion (ROM) training in Paralympic Powerlifting. Twelve male athletes of elite national level in Paralympic Powerlifting participated in the study (28.60 ± 7.60 years of age, 71.80 ± 17.90 kg of body mass). The athletes performed five sets of 5RM (repetition maximum), either with 90% of 1RM in full ROM or with a load of 130% 1RM in partial ROM. All subjects underwent both exercise conditions in consecutive weeks. Order assignment in the first week was random and counterbalanced. Fatigue index (FI), Maximum Isometric Force (MIF), Time to MIF (Time) and rate of force development (RFD) were determined by a force sensor. Muscle thickness was obtained using ultrasound images. All measures were taken pre- and post-training. Additionally, electromyographic signal (EMG) was evaluated in the last set of each exercise condition. Post-exercise fatigue was higher with full ROM as well as loss of MIF. Full ROM also induced greater. EMG showed greater activation of the Clavicular portion and Sternal portion of pectoralis major muscle and lower in the anterior portion of deltoid muscle when full ROM was performed. Muscle thickness of the pectoralis major muscle increased post-exercise. We concluded that training with partial ROM enables higher workloads with lower loss of muscle function.
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Wood, A. G., J. B. Barker, M. J. Turner, and D. Sheffield. "Examining the effects of rational emotive behavior therapy on performance outcomes in elite paralympic athletes." Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports 28, no. 1 (July 13, 2017): 329–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/sms.12926.
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McKay, Alannah K. A., Trent Stellingwerff, Ella S. Smith, David T. Martin, Iñigo Mujika, Vicky L. Goosey-Tolfrey, Jeremy Sheppard, and Louise M. Burke. "Defining Training and Performance Caliber: A Participant Classification Framework." International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance 17, no. 2 (February 1, 2022): 317–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2021-0451.
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Throughout the sport-science and sports-medicine literature, the term “elite” subjects might be one of the most overused and ill-defined terms. Currently, there is no common perspective or terminology to characterize the caliber and training status of an individual or cohort. This paper presents a 6-tiered Participant Classification Framework whereby all individuals across a spectrum of exercise backgrounds and athletic abilities can be classified. The Participant Classification Framework uses training volume and performance metrics to classify a participant to one of the following: Tier 0: Sedentary; Tier 1: Recreationally Active; Tier 2: Trained/Developmental; Tier 3: Highly Trained/National Level; Tier 4: Elite/International Level; or Tier 5: World Class. We suggest the Participant Classification Framework can be used to classify participants both prospectively (as part of study participant recruitment) and retrospectively (during systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses). Discussion around how the Participant Classification Framework can be tailored toward different sports, athletes, and/or events has occurred, and sport-specific examples provided. Additional nuances such as depth of sport participation, nationality differences, and gender parity within a sport are all discussed. Finally, chronological age with reference to the junior and masters athlete, as well as the Paralympic athlete, and their inclusion within the Participant Classification Framework has also been considered. It is our intention that this framework be widely implemented to systematically classify participants in research featuring exercise, sport, performance, health, and/or fitness outcomes going forward, providing the much-needed uniformity to classification practices.
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Kim, Tae-Whan, Jae-Won Lee, Seoung-Ki Kang, Kyu-Yeon Chae, Sang-Hyup Choi, and Yong-Gwan Song. "A Feasibility Study of Kinematic Characteristics on the Upper Body According to the Shooting of Elite Disabled Archery Athletes." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 6 (March 14, 2021): 2962. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18062962.
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The purpose of this study is to compare and analyze the kinematic characteristics of the upper limb segments during the archery shooting of Paralympic Wheelchair Class archers (ARW2—second wheelchair class—paraplegia or comparable disability) and Paralympic Standing Class archers (ARST—standing archery class—loss of 25 points in the upper limbs or lower limbs), where archers are classified according to their disability grade among elite disabled archers. The participants of this study were selected as seven elite athletes with disabilities by the ARW2 (n = 4) and ARST (n = 3). The analysis variables were (1) the time required for each phase, (2) the angle of inclination of the body center, (3) the change of trajectory of body center, and (4) the change of the movement trajectory of the bow center by phase when performing six shots in total. The ARW2 group (drawing phase; M = 2.228 s, p < 0.05, holding phase; M = 4.414 s, p < 0.05) showed a longer time than the ARST group (drawing phase; M = 0.985 s, holding phase; M = 3.042 s), and the angle of the body did not show a significant difference between the two groups. Additionally, in the direction of the anteroposterior axis in the drawing phase, the change in the movement trajectory of the body center showed a more significant amount of change in the ARW2 group than in the ARST group, and the change in the movement trajectory of the bow center did not show a significant difference between the two groups.