Journal articles: 'Egypt History Old Kingdom'

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Strudwick, N., and N. Kanawati. "Governmental Reforms in Old Kingdom Egypt." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 71 (1985): 29. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3821669.

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Strudwick, N. "Book Review: Governmental Reforms in Old Kingdom Egypt." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 71, no. 1_suppl (August 1988): 29–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/030751338507101s19.

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Gautschy, Rita, Michael E. Habicht, Francesco M. Galassi, Daniela Rutica, Frank J. Rühli, and Rainer Hannig. "A New Astronomically Based Chronological Model for the Egyptian Old Kingdom." Journal of Egyptian History 10, no. 2 (November 17, 2017): 69–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18741665-12340035.

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Abstract A recently discovered inscription on an ancient Egyptian ointment jar mentions the heliacal rising of Sirius. In the time of the early Pharaohs, this specific astronomical event marked the beginning of the Egyptian New Year and originally the annual return of the Nile flood, making it of great ritual importance. Since the Egyptian civil calendar of 365 days permanently shifted one day in four years in comparison to the stars due to the lack of intercalation, the connection of a date from the Egyptian civil calendar with the heliacal rising of Sothis is vitally important for the reconstruction of chronology. The new Sothis date from the Old Kingdom (3rd–6th Dynasties) in combination with other astronomical data and radiocarbon dating re-calibrates the chronology of ancient Egypt and consequently the dating of the Pyramids. A chronological model for Dynasties 3 to 6 constructed on the basis of calculated astronomical data and contemporaneously documented year dates of Pharaohs is presented.

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Kanawati, Naguib, and Nigel Strudwick. "The Administration of Egypt in the Old Kingdom: The Highest Titles and Their Holders." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 78 (1992): 326. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3822094.

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Willems, Harco. "“Cylinder seals for the lower classes”." Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 145, no. 2 (November 2, 2018): 187–204. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/zaes-2018-0017.

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Summary Egyptologists have paid much attention to inscribed administrative seals and their impressions. By contrast, the so-called figure seals, which render no or hardly any text, but instead use icons and signs inspired on hieroglyphs which however yield no coherent sense, have received far less attention. Usually this material is related to the lower strata of society. According to current interpretations, it is rooted in the Egyptian culture of the later Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period. The phenomenon would be a corollary of the decreasing prominence of central state authority in this era. Proceeding from a number of recent early Old Kingdom finds from al-Shaykh Saʽīd/Wādī Zabaydā, the present article argues that a) figure seals were continually in use from the late Predynastic until the late Old Kingdom and b) different from what is commonly assumed, stamp seals were in existence long before the late Old Kingdom. The article challenges the relationship between these object categories and developments specifically in late Old Kingdom Egypt.

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Bardoňová, Martina. "Changing Concept of the Royal Grain Management in Egypt (2600-1650 BC)." Archiv orientální 89, no. 1 (June 22, 2021): 35–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.47979/aror.j.89.1.35-61.

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The present study concerns a longue durée evolution of the ancient Egyptian Snw.ty from the time of its foundation during the Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom (ca 2600–1650 BC). During this time, Snw.ty was the apex of the royal grain management as an important royal tool and intermediary between the producers and receivers of the grain. The objective of this study is to determine how Snw.ty was used during this time and how its operations transformed with respect to changing royal administration and policies. The analysis is based on observation of term’s use transformations which might be indicative of its changing sense, as found in written documents referring to both Snw.ty and related Snw.wt installations.

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Trigger, Bruce G., Sally B. Johnson, and Alan B. Lloyd. "The Cobra Goddess of Ancient Egypt: Predynastic, Early Dynastic, and Old Kingdom Periods." International Journal of African Historical Studies 25, no. 1 (1992): 149. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/220156.

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Gayar, El Sayed El, and M. P. Jones. "A Possible Source of Copper Ore Fragments Found at the Old Kingdom Town of Buhen." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 75, no. 1 (August 1989): 31–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/030751338907500104.

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An archaeological investigation of the Old Kingdom town of Buhen in 1962 revealed an ancient copper ‘factory’, some copper ore fragments from which have been examined by modern analytical methods. The results show that the main copper-bearing mineral in the ore is malachite but this has been extensively altered (in situ) to the green copper chloride, atacamite. The ore also contains a very high proportion of gold. The mineralogy of the ‘Buhen’ ore has been compared with known copper ores from Egypt and Northern Sudan. These other ores either do not match the Buhen specimens or they occur very long distances from the town. The only mining activity close to Buhen was at the gold mines of Kush, some of which were on the Nile immediately up-stream of the town and were worked in Middle Kingdom times. No mineralogical details of the Kush ores are known but it is possible in view of their location, and also because of the high proportion of gold found in the Buhen specimens, that it was the Kush ores which were used, in the Old Kingdom, for the extraction of copper.

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Eyre, C. J. "The Water Regime for Orchards and Plantations in Pharaonic Egypt." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 80, no. 1 (December 1994): 57–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/030751339408000106.

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Plantation agriculture differed from annual arable farming because of the need for investment in land development and for a perennial water supply. The typical orchard, a small walled plot containing a standing water source, is widely attested in the textual and pictorial record at all periods of Egyptian history. Differences in water management between plantation and seasonal crop cultivation are important for the history of irrigation and water control in ancient Egypt. Changes in the terminology for types of land in the New Kingdom may reflect the development of large-scale plantation agriculture in the Fayum and the Delta, which implies the use of seasonal, canal-fed rather than basin flooding of the land. It may also reflect the expansion of fully-controlled basin irrigation into previously under-developed areas. In appearance, organization, working practices, and economic role, the individual orchard changed little between the Old Kingdom and the Roman period. However, the development of plantation districts and the associated habits of water control provide a model for land development in general during the pharaonic period, and the basis for perennial irrigation in the post-pharaonic period.

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Díaz Hernández, Roberto A. "The Egyptian Temple as a Place to House Collections (from the Old Kingdom to the Late Period)." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 103, no. 1 (June 2017): 3–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0307513317714393.

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As did Greek and Roman temples, Egyptian temples preserved collections of valuable objects or nouophores, i.e. ‘bearers of meaning’ (I). Two main types of nouophores can be distinguished in Egyptian temples (II): statues displayed in the temple (III), and ritual objects of costly materials stored in special chambers (IV). An examination of these collections suggests that the Egyptian temple functioned as an institution to collect and preserve the cultural heritage of ancient Egypt (V).

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Schorsch, Deborah. "Precious-Metal Polychromy in Egypt in the time of Tutankhamun." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 87, no. 1 (December 2001): 55–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/030751330108700106.

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Gold and silver appear in Egypt at least as early as the Predynastic Period, and remained thereafter in use for the manufacture of ritual and funerary objects and personal possessions. On occasion, the ancient metalworker or his patron would choose to combine them in the manufacture of an objet de vertu: a jewel, a vessel, a royal coffin. The earliest uses of gold and silver, and electrum—a naturally occuring alloy of the two—together can be described as random, as the juxtapositions appear to have no meaning in terms of relative monetary value or visual design, and to have no colouristic or symbolic associations. During the Old Kingdom there appear the first objects that use precious metals systematically for their contrasting colours, a practice that becomes more widespread in the Middle Kingdom. The greatest sophistication in the use of precious metals can be documented during the second half of the Eighteenth Dynasty, particularly in the time of Tutankhamun, when gold—including alloys that are reddish or have been intentionally coloured red—silver and electrum, were used together also to exploit their inherent colours and to evoke symbolic meaning.

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Zakai, Avihu. "The Gospel of Reformation: the Origins of the Great Puritan Migration." Journal of Ecclesiastical History 37, no. 4 (October 1986): 584–602. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022046900022041.

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They [the Puritans] drew in a sea of matter, by applying all things unto their own company, which are any where spoken concerning divine favours and benefits bestowed upon the old commonwealth of Israel: concluding that as Israel was delivered out of Egypt, so they spiritually out of the Egypt of this world's servile thraldom unto sin and superstition; as Israel was to root out the idolatrous nations, and to plant instead of them a people which feared God; so the same Lord's good will and pleasure was now, that these new Israelites should under the conduct of other Joshuas, Samsons and Gideons, perform a work no less miraculous in casting out violently the wicked from the earth, and establishing the kingdom of Christ with perfect liberty.

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Kanawati, Naguib. "Book Review: The Administration of Egypt in the Old Kingdom: The Highest Titles and their Holders." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 78, no. 1 (October 1992): 326–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/030751339207800133.

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Temple, Robert. "The prehistory of panspermia: astrophysical or metaphysical?" International Journal of Astrobiology 6, no. 2 (March 30, 2007): 169–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1473550407003692.

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AbstractThe panspermia theory has antecedents which go back to the Old Kingdom in Egypt, and which are also found in early Hinduism, the philosophy of the Greek pre-Socratic philosopher Anaxagoras, and amongst the Jewish and Christian Gnostics. It is remarkable how explicit some of these early sources are in suggesting that the entire cosmos is full of seeds, and that life on earth originated from them. Here, a survey is undertaken of all these early beliefs, in order to present a pre-history to these conceptions and show that such ideas appear to be as old as civilization itself.

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Jirásková, Lucie. "Stone Offering Tables of the Early Dynasty Period and the Old Kingdom Reconsidered." Archiv orientální 81, no. 2 (September 12, 2013): 125–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.47979/aror.j.81.2.125-148.

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The article presents a particular group of objects – stone offering tables – uncovered in the mastaba AS 54 at Abusir South (Egypt) during the excavations of the Czech Institute of Egyptology, and on the basis of their classification reconsiders the so far published material of the same kind. Among the group of stone tables which represent common types that are to be found in publications of previous excavations, a peculiar piece was reconstructed from the fragments that were brought to light in the Spring season, 2010. The unusual features clearly visible on the lower part can be regarded as a kind of support for a stand that has not been considered for stone tables so far. Such a hypothesis was supported by another piece of a stone table that was documented a year later and bore the same feature. Moreover, another piece of an offering table found at the royal necropolis of Abusir seems to bear traces of a similar depression. Based on the new material, the author presents the available types of stone offering tables, interprets their construction possibilities and further historical development implications. The results of the analysis point to a well organized system of stone table production and general knowledge of the craftsmen who created them.

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BAREKET, ELINOAR. "The head of the Jews (ra'is al-yahud) in Fatimid Egypt: a re-evaluation." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 67, no. 2 (June 2004): 185–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0041977x04000138.

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The debate concerning the Head of the Jews (ra'is al-yahud) in the Fatimid kingdom, which has interested researchers since the late nineteenth century, has yet to reach a final conclusion. Today's researchers usually argue that this position was established in Egypt at the end of the eleventh century with the final fall of the Palestinian Yeshiva; prior to this the Head of the Jews was the gaon of Palestine, appointed by the Fatimid Imam. More recently a new argument has emerged, re-embracing the approach of J. Mann, who argued that the position of the Head of the Jews was established at the beginning of Fatimid rule (late tenth century), and the person to hold the position was a Jewish courtier from the field of finance or medicine, appointed by the Imam to be the supreme leader for all Jews in the Fatimid kingdom: Rabbanites, Karaites and Samaritans. This old–new notion is yet to be clearly proven. Such views are mainly supported by circumstantial analysis of logical arguments that arise from the Geniza documents, without real written proof, but the Geniza is known for surprises and it is possible that we will soon find unequivocal proof to show that the Head of the Jews in the Fatimid kingdom was indeed a Jewish courtier appointed by the Imam, since the beginning of the Fatimid rule over Egypt, Palestine and Syria at the end of the tenth century.

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Claes, Wouter, Christopher J. Davey, and Stan Hendrickx. "An Early Dynastic Crucible from the Settlement of Elkab (Upper Egypt)." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 105, no. 1 (June 2019): 29–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0307513319885098.

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During excavations in the spring of 2015 in the settlement of Elkab, a complete and almost intact crucible was discovered on the floor level of a Second Dynasty building. This article describes the crucible and its archaeological context, it explores the design of the crucible in comparison with contemporary crucibles of a corresponding style and it foreshadows the character of on-going research. The crucible has the shape depicted in Old Kingdom tomb metal-working scenes. Its profile became the hieroglyphic ideogram denoting metal-workers implying it was an iconic implement, although this is currently the only example of this kind of crucible from Egypt. Indeed, this is the earliest complete crucible for melting copper yet found anywhere.

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Bárta, Miroslav, Veronika Dulíková, Radek Mařík, and Matej Cibuľa. "Modelling the Dynamics of Ancient Egyptian State During the Old Kingdom Period: Hidden Markov Models and Social Network Analysis." Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 149, no. 1 (June 1, 2022): 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/zaes-2020-0017.

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Summary The present study aims to outline new, more adjusted approaches of research addressing social complexity of past societies. In doing so, we use varied evidence to detect major ‘leap events’ in the history of ancient Egypt which were reflected by the state administration and its fluctuating complexity. The archaeological and inscriptional evidence shows that crucial changes in history had a non-linear, punctuated character. To reveal their true character, newly developed mathematical models have been applied. The analyses of early complex civilisations have made a noticeable progress recently. The current scholarship pays significant attention to a processual approach, description of the dynamics and its interpretation against the specific background formed by varied datasets originating from disciplines such as archaeology, history, art history, philology or environmental sciences to name but a few of the most relevant ones. Within this context, Old Kingdom Egypt evidence is reassessed using specific methods of analysis and interpretation. The ancient Egyptian Old Kingdom (2592–2120 BC), one of the earliest territorial states on this planet, is still frequently considered to be a homogenous continuum of isolated historical events manifested in various forms of architecture, art or religion. Some recent studies applied to its study put emphasis on a non-linear, ‘punctuated approach’ which appears to provide some new important perspectives on this traditional problem. The application of modern mathematical methods based on Hidden Markov Models and Social Network Analysis significantly changes this view. These methods have the potential to detail a vivid, heterogenous process of historical progress as a punctuated equilibria model, as a non-linear system with changing dynamics of its development in time. In this process, human agency, the rise and fluctuation of complexity and particular strategies of different social groups played significant roles and can be detected with the help of impartial approaches. The emerging picture can be used not only to describe the evolution of a past society but also for comparative purposes when studying the dynamics of past or present societies.

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Wright, Mary, and Dennis Pardee. "Literary Sources for the History of Palestine and Syria: Contacts between Egypt and Syro-Palestine during the Old Kingdom." Biblical Archaeologist 51, no. 3 (September 1988): 143–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3210065.

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Fetisov, Archpriest Timofey. "Sacred history of the Old Testament biblical state: Religious and political context." Issues of Theology 3, no. 4 (2021): 517–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/spbu28.2021.405.

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The article is devoted to the consideration of the place and role of the political factor as an instrument of Divine Providence, realized in the Sacred history of the biblical state. The exodus from Egypt became a manifestation of the supernatural political power of God. The Decalogue was not only a religious and ethical code, but also the actual constitution of the Hebrew state. Fulfillment of the Ten Commandments, brought down by Moses, and obedience to God went beyond the scope of religious duty, being a means of realizing national identity and citizenship. The establishment of the institution of the kingdom in Israel was the development of the idea of a theocracy, in which the monarch was assigned the sacred function of an intermediary between God and the people, and the keeper of Divine laws. The disintegration of the statehood of Israel in the prophetic writings was closely associated with the fall of the entire people and the breakdown of the union with God. Its revival was expected as a result of repentance. The destruction of the temple, the loss of shrines and the fall of the monarchy were perceived as a coherent phenomenon. At the same time, the hope for political liberation of the people and the restoration of the union with God were closely linked with the reconstruction of the monarchy, which acquired a religious and messianic significance. The opposition of the Pharisees to Christ and the death sentence to the Savior had a pronounced political implication.

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F. MAYDANA, SEBASTIAN. "Hippopotamus hunting in Predynastic Egypt: Reassessing Archaeozoological evidence." Archaeofauna 29 (July 29, 2020): 137–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.15366/archaeofauna2020.29.009.

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Hippopotamus hunting as an iconographical motif is widely attested during most of Egyptian history. Both private and royal Egyptian tombs spanning from early Old Kingdom to Roman times show these images in their walls. The motif was often depicted in Predynastic iconography but, due to some of its particularities, some authors suggested that hippopotami were, in fact, not killed but rather captured alive. Decades have passed, and evidence both ar- chaeological and archaeozoological has since grown significantly. We now have enough sources to reassess the corpus of evidence to debunk or ratify such hypotheses. Particularly relevant to confirm these was the finding at Hierakonpolis of a young hippopotamus’ remains showing signs of having been kept captive in the village. Moreover, it is helpful to examine evidence not taken into account by the authors such as ethnohistorical research and the latest archaeozoological find- ings. The outcome of this research seems to suggest that the killing of hippopotami did, in fact, take place during hunting expeditions, due to the danger of transporting the beasts alive. Further- more, the idea of iconographic evidence as a narrative of actual events should be challenged and understood instead as being one of symbolic nature.

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Rademakers, Frederik W., Georges Verly, Luc Delvaux, and Patrick Degryse. "Copper for the afterlife in Predynastic to Old Kingdom Egypt: Provenance characterization by chemical and lead isotope analysis (RMAH collection, Belgium)." Journal of Archaeological Science 96 (August 2018): 175–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2018.04.005.

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Hamilton, Julia Clare Francis. "Hedgehogs and Hedgehog-Head Boats in Ancient Egyptian Religion in the Late 3rd Millennium BCE." Arts 11, no. 1 (February 8, 2022): 31. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/arts11010031.

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Hedgehogs held a special place in ancient Egyptian life like many other desert- and marsh-dwelling animals. Their natural defensive qualities were admired by ancient Egyptians and their bodily parts, notably their hardened spines, were used as ingredients in medico-magical prescriptions. In tomb reliefs of the late 3rd Millennium BCE, hedgehogs are represented being carried alive by offering bearers or as background participants in desert hunting scenes. In later periods of Egyptian history, rattles, small unguent vessels, and scaraboid amulets were made in their shape, all of which are presumed to have had apotropaic purposes. A particular votive object of the Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2181 BCE) is a palm-sized modelled boat with a prow in the shape of a hedgehog head, which has been discovered at sites throughout Egypt. A similar representation of this motif is the so-called ‘Henet’-boat (from the word ḥnt[j]) with a hedgehog head at the prow facing inwards, which is found in late Old Kingdom art. This article reassesses the role of hedgehogs as protective or apotropaic entities and their association with boats, considering how ancient Egyptians understood their ecology and their predation of snakes, scorpions, and similar stinging creatures. An updated list is provided of known representations of hedgehog-head boats, including petroglyphs and as yet unpublished examples from tombs at Giza and Saqqara. The meaning of the ancient Egyptian word ḥnt(j) is also rexamined in relation to the representation of riverine and marsh-water boats in Old Kingdom tombs.

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Nuzzolo, Massimiliano. "The Palermo Stone and Its Associated Fragments: New Discoveries on the Oldest Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 107, no. 1-2 (June 2021): 57–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/03075133211049465.

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Historical royal sources concerning Old Kingdom Egypt are rather scarce. One of the most important is a group of seven inscribed stone fragments also known as royal annals, the most famous of which is certainly the so-called Palermo Stone. These annals have been the subject of countless studies over more than a century since their initial discovery. However, the reading and interpretation of the hieroglyphic inscriptions engraved on them is still partial and often obscure. In recent years, however, the annals underwent a complete re-examination by means of the most up-to date technologies of 3D photographic documentation and reproduction – first of all, the so-called ‘Reflectance Transformation Imaging’ (RTI). In this article we will provide some insights on the new reading of selected parts of the fragments, especially the two major pieces: the Palermo Stone and the so-called ‘Cairo Fragment 1’.

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Serrano, José M. "The Ritual of “Encircling the Tomb” in the Funerary Monument of Djehuty (TT 11)." Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde 146, no. 2 (November 1, 2019): 209–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/zaes-2019-0018.

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Summary In the Theban tomb of Djehuty (TT 11) we have the representation of a ritual apparently focused on surrounding the funerary monument. The objective of this paper is the reconstruction of the scene, and the text that accompanies it, thanks to the parallel of TT 20 (Montuherkhepeshef). This allows us to link this ritual to the Pap. Ramesseum E and other antecedents of the Old and Middle Kingdom. An interpretation within the historical, religious and cultural context of the age of Hatshepsut-Thutmose III, and a possible relationship with the Middle Egypt background of the owners of TT 11 and TT 20 is also proposed.

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Yasseen, Adel. "Tombs of the Valley of the Kings in Luxor Ecological Consideration." Resourceedings 1, no. 2 (November 27, 2018): 137. http://dx.doi.org/10.21625/resourceedings.v1i2.329.

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By the eighteenth dynasty in the Egyptian Old History, funerary architecture was oriented towards a new direction in perceiving space and form, meaning and symbolizing, and pride and festivity. As being a great city by that time, Luxor (Thebes) looked for a site that offered a similar dignified place as it was with the pyramid plateau in Giza, in the north, close to the previous Capital ”IUNU”. As much as the Giza plateau was worked out to receive the edifices on, the place in Thebes was chosen of highly qualified natural properties. The place was on the sacred western side of the capital of the kingdom, in a huge valley formed through millions of years where its morphology could offer the dignity that we still feel, the geological formation was much easier to work through, tombs architecture within it offered the possibilities to preserve the traditions and the bodies of the great kings safe. The paper aims at declaring the environmental capabilities of the architecture form of tombs of the Kings Valley of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties of the Old Egypt History.

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Simon, Claire. "Le nbi Et Le Canon De Proportions." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 79, no. 1 (October 1993): 157–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/030751339307900110.

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A re-examination of the corpus of length-measuring instruments reveals the existence of standardized tools and apparently unstandardized ones. It is shown that the latter are inscribed with different scales of the canon of proportion which were intended to draw the preparatory grids for decorated walls. Some of them, found at Kahun, have previously been wrongly interpreted as foreign standards. The word nbi is studied anew and the author demonstrates, with the help of the plan of Senenmut's tomb (TT 71) sketched on an ostracon, that the nbi is a linear measure of 70 cm (divided into seven units of 10 cm), i.e. a wooden rod inscribed with the canon at full scale. In use possibly as early as the Old Kingdom, the nbi was certainly employed from the Twelfth Dynasty onward in several parts of Egypt, until the reform of the canon during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty made this implement obsolete.

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Janjanin, Bojan, and Jelena Beban-Brkić. "Analiza izmjere Keopsove piramide." KoG, no. 21 (2017): 55–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.31896/k.21.1.

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The topic of this paper is an analysis of the survey of Cheops pyramid (also known as the Great pyramid), the most significant of the three pyramids of the Giza complex, the archeological site on the plateau of Giza, situated on the periphery of Cairo. It is assumed that Cheops as well as Khafre and Menkaure pyramids were built around 2686 -- 2181 BC, known in the history as the Old Kingdom of Egypt. Our goal was to collect data about geodetic survey of Cheops pyramid and analyze it. Along with that, several hypotheses related to the construction method of the pyramid and possible purposes of the construction itself are described. When analyzing the survey, two numbers, also called ``two treasures of geometry'', are constantly appearing, these are the number Pi ($\pi$) and the Golden ratio or golden number Fi ($\varphi$). One of the chapters is dedicated to these numbers.

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Martens-Czarnecka, Małgorzata. "The Christian Nubia and the Arabs." Studia Ceranea 5 (December 30, 2015): 249–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/2084-140x.05.08.

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Nubia constituted the area in the Nile Valley in the present day Sudan, the area which spread from the first cataract up to the place where the White Nile meets the Blue Nile. The area was inhabited by the population using a common language – Old Nubian. In the second half of the sixth century thanks to the missions send by the Byzantine Court, Nubia accepted Christianity as a state religion. Nubia immediately found itself in the area of influence of Byzantine culture. Byzantine administration, liturgy of the Eastern Church and the Greek language were introduced. In 641 the Arab conquest of Egypt took place. Soon after that in 642, the Arab army entered the Nubian territory and from this date centuries of clashes and peace treaties characterized relations between Nubians and Arab peoples. The 13th century marks slow decline of the kingdom of Nubia. Hostile Negro tribes from the South and South-West appear in the Mid Valley of Nile. Fights weaken the kingdom; slow islamization of the country follows, royal rule and Christian faith falls and together with those culture and arts deteriorates. The history of military as well as political or commercial Nubian-Arabic contacts over entire period of existence of Christian kingdom of Nubia undoubtedly had to bring about certain artistic trends in Nubia originating from rich heritage of Muslim culture. The culture of Christian Nubia originally based to considerable extent on Byzantine art, in course of time, subjected to more and more intense Arabic influence, significantly changed. Arabic components seen in Nubian church architecture, wall painting and art crafts became predominant, which over following centuries led to creation of Arabic culture of the contemporary Sudan.

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Chauhan, Suresh, Sukarn Sharma, and Yenesew Alene. "Bridging the Gap between Producers and Consumers of Himachali Fruit Wines." Atna - Journal of Tourism Studies 8, no. 1 (January 1, 2013): 33–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.12727/ajts.9.3.

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Tourism is travel for recreational, leisure or business purposes. This vast industry is associated with different services like Accommodation, Food and Beverage services, Travel services, Recreation and Entertainment. These days tourists not only look for vacations and travel—they seek cultural education, historical significance, natural or inbuilt beauty, and to taste local cuisine and beverages. In Beverages especially, wines play an important role. Winemaking has existed throughout Indian history but was particularly encouraged by Portugal and the United Kingdom. The Old Testament in the Bible gives evidence of existence of wines, but there is a definite evidence of its use in China in 2000 BC and in Egypt in 3000 BC. Having a well established name in fruit juices, Himachal Pradesh (a northern hill state in India) has planned to venture in the area of fruit wines. To know the present position of Himachal’s wine industry and the gaps therein, a research was conducted. It was found that Himachal’s wine industry should address issues like availability of multiple flavours of fruit wines and stiff competition with beer and breezer. However, the industry can take advantage of three factors associated with these wines viz. health, flavour, and price. This can help Himachal to set up the same benchmark as it has done in case of juices.

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Menu, Bernadette. "Les Actes de Vente en Egypte Ancienne, Particulièrement Sous les Rois Kouchites et Saïtes." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 74, no. 1 (August 1988): 165–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/030751338807400113.

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This is a brief exposition of (I) the characteristic features of sale in Egyptian law, especially of the fundamental distinction, which appeared very early, between reciprocal contracts intended for immediate execution, for which the model is sale, and unilateral contracts with an implicit delay, such as loans, and of (2) the main lines of evolution of sale contracts. To a basically oral law was added the practice of documents, which developed from the New Kingdom, but especially with the notarized acts of the Kushite and Saite periods. If the notion of consensual sale existed in germ from the Old Kingdom onwards, it was in the Twenty-fifth and Twenty-sixth Dynasties that a conscious conceptualization of legal relations and the identification of different juridical strains associated with agreement between parties appeared. This brought radical modifications in the redaction of formulae, between those of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty and the early years of Psammetichus I, and those of the following reigns. This major development, underlined by the change in script, became apparent in the course of Psammetichus I's reign, spreading gradually from north to south, from Year 8 at Memphis to Year 21 at El-Hibeh, but much later at Thebes: P. Vienna 12002 (cow sale, Year 25) and P. Turin 2120 (sale of land, Year 45), for example, still belong to the earlier group, and are still in abnormal hieratic. Appendices list the documents on which the study is based, and classify the diagnostic formulae.

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Khalifa, E., and E. Abd Elrahim. "Identification of vessel use and explanation of change in production techniques from the Old to the Middle Kingdom: Organic residue analysis, fabric and thermal characterization of pot sherds from Qubbet el‐Hawa, Aswan, Egypt." Archaeometry 62, no. 6 (August 24, 2020): 1115–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/arcm.12592.

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Gundacker, Roman. "Indirekte und direkte Evidenz für das Dreisilbengesetz. Überlegungen zur ägyptischen Sprachgeschichte unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Namen Nofretete und Nefertari sowie einer ungewöhnlichen Schreibung des Toponyms Memphis." Lingua Aegyptia - Journal of Egyptian Language Studies, no. 29 (2021): 61–148. http://dx.doi.org/10.37011/lingaeg.29.04.

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“Indirect and Direct Evidence for the ‘Dreisilbengesetz’. Reflections on the History of the Ancient Egyptian Language with Particular Attention to the Names Nefertiti and Nefertari as well as a Peculiar Spelling of the Toponym Memphis” - The greater part of the Egyptian language’s history down to the Coptic era is marked by a strict syllable structure and stress law, which only allowed for word stress on the penultimate or last syllable of any given word (“Zweisilbengesetz”). However, masculine and feminine nouns, singular and plural forms, base nouns and nisbe adjectives arranged in pairs have traditionally served as key witnesses for the reconstruction of an earlier stage of the Egyptian language, which was characterised by the ability to form words with word stress on any of the three last syllables (“Dreisilbengesetz”). A set of peculiar compound nouns (“Ältere Komposita”), which, when revocalised, display word stress on the antepenultimate syllable, is often regarded as evidence in favour of the “Dreisilbengesetz”, but, to date, there is a want of definitive proof therefor. In this article, the morphology of the personal names nfr.t-jrj.t “Nefertari” and nfr.t-jjj.tj “Nefertiti” is analysed with the result that they comprised the adjective *nắfĭrăt, which here, under peculiar circumstances, evolved to *năft-, but else to *nắfră(t). A hitherto largely unrecognised attestation of the “Älteres Kompositum” mn-nfr “Memphis”, which looks as if it contained the noun mnw “monument”, is identified as a sportive writing in order to indicate an actual pronunciation *mĭ́năfă(r). Either of these discoveries strongly supports the existence of the “Dreisilbengesetz” during the Old Kingdom, but further discussion reveals that, though this fits the elite idiom of the Memphite region, some parts of Upper Egypt had already advanced towards the “Zweisilbengesetz”. With this to start, the syllable structure rules during the time of the “Dreisilbengesetz” and processes of vowel elision as well as further prerequisites for the transition to the “Zweisilbengesetz” are investigated.

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Cahya, Nandang. "Rahasia Surat At Tiin: Kajian Sejarah Analisa Geopolitik Menguasai Kota Al Quds." Jurnal Tapis: Jurnal Teropong Aspirasi Politik Islam 15, no. 2 (March 3, 2020): 275–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.24042/tps.v15i2.5360.

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AbstractAl Quds or “Jerusalem” is a small town, it is only around 1 km square, this old city knew in the history as laden and bloodshed city, there was many several great empires and strength that overwhelm this city, like Babylon, Peria, Roman, and before 14 century Muslims came and open this city. Nowadys, this city “Al Quds” is under Israeli occubation. The invaders from Zionist movement wanted to establish Israile Kingdom stretching from the Nile in Egypt to the river of Euphrate in Iraq. Certainly “Al Quds” for Muslims is not only a Holy City, it is a political capital, and libarate Al Quds from the hands of Israel is a duty. This liberation project is not easy; Muslims must understand the geopolitical map. This paper is a historical study about the strategy of Omar bin Khattab and Saladin Ayyubi to libarate Al Quds. Research method used the geopolitics with geographical analysis to study Al Quds sitaution as referd in Surat At-Tiin. With this full understanding, Umar Ibn Al-Khattab and Saladin Ayyubi make the same strategi to open the cities around Al-Quds buffer, Especially Egypt and Syria (the Sham). Up to the present these two areas (Syria and Egypt) have significance to Al Quds and Palestine, so if these areas opened, the way to liberation of Holy City will be easy. So the secret key to libarate Al Quds is in Egypt and Syria, Also God said in the first of Surat At-Tiin with his swear, “Wattiini wazzaitun, watuurisina” (By the Fig and the Olive, And the Mount of Sinai). Al-Muffaseron (explainers) said that Tiini refers to Al-Sham and Olive Refers to Al-Quds and the hill of Sinai refers to Egypt.Keywords: Al Quds, Geopolitical, Surat At Tiin Abstrak Al Quds atau Yerusalem adalah kota kecil yang luasnya hanya kurang lebih 1 km persegi, sejarah mengenalnya sebagai kota tua yang sarat dengan pertumpahan darah, berbagai kekuatan imperium besar silih berganti menguasai kota ini, Babilonia, Peria, Romawi, dan dan 14 abad yang lalu Islam hadir sebagai pembebas kota ini. Hingga kini kota Al Quds berada dibawah kekuasaan bangsa penjajah Israel yang dengan gerakan zionismenya ingin mendirikan Negara Israel Raya yang terbentang dari sungai Nil di Mesir sampai sungai Euprat di Irak. Tentu bagi kaum muslimin Al Quds bukan sekedar kota suci, namun sebagai ibukota politik, maka membebaskan Al Quds dari tangan Israel adalah keharusan. Proyek pembebasan ini tidaklah mudah, kaum muslimin harus memahami peta geopilitik sebagai prasaratnya. Artikel ini merupakan kajian penelitian sejarah bagaimana strategi Umar bin Khattab dan Shalahuddin Al Ayyubi dalam membebaskan Al Quds. Metode penelitian ini menggunakan kajian strategi geopolitik dengan analisa letak geografis Al Quds yang diisyaratkan dalam surat At Tiin. Dengan memahami ini, strategi yang pertama kali dilakukan oleh Umar bin Khattab dan Shalahuddin Al Ayyubi adalah melakukan penaklukan-penaklukan kecil terhadap wilayah-wilayah penyangga kota Al Quds, terutama Mesir dan Suriah (wilayah bagian Syam). Hingga dalam kontek kekinian kedua wilayah ini memiliki arti penting Al Quds dan Palestina, dengan menguasainya akan mempermudah jalan menuju pembebasan kota suci itu. Jadi kunci rahasia pembeasan Al Quds adalah Mesir dan Suriah, sebagaimana Allah mengisyaratkan di awal surat At Tiin dengan sumpahnya, Wattiini wazzaitun watuurisina (Demi buah Tiin, zaitun, dan bukit Sinai). Para ahli tafsir mengatakan bahwa itu adalah Tiin adalah Syam, Zaitun adalah Al Quds, dan Bukit Sinai adalah Mesir. Kata kunci: Al Quds, geopolitik, At Tiin

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LONE, SHABIR AHMAD. "Art and Architecture of Ancient Kashmir During Karkota Dynasty with Special Reference to Lalitaditya Muktapida (724-761 A.D)." Journal of Language and Linguistics in Society, no. 22 (March 30, 2022): 34–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.55529/jlls.22.34.43.

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The Karkota dynasty of Kashmir was led by Lalitaditya Muktapida, who was its greatest emperor. During his reign, which lasted from 724 until 761 AD, he brought Egypt to the peak of glory. His rule was unquestionably historic in many ways, but his conquests are what history will remember him for the most. The kingdom's golden age began during Lalitaditya's leadership. For him, there was no one religion that he could not accept. At this period, both Buddhism and Brahmanism, the two major religions in India at the time, gained support from this emperor, who built temples for the Buddha and other gods? Several viharas, where learning flourished, were established by the king, who lavishly supported scholars. Foreign scholars and intelligentsia were treated with respect in Kashmir, and several cultural missions from other countries were welcomed. Many public buildings and services were overhauled under his watch. In the event of a natural disaster, farmers were given access to irrigation facilities and relief measures were put in place. As a result of the establishment of charitable institutions, those in need were fed every day. During the reign of Lalitaditya, also known as Samudurgupta of Kashmir, the author of this thesis focuses on art and architecture. During his reign, Kashmir prospered in art, architecture, culture, and learning. Many historians and writers have dubbed him the "Alexander of Kashmiri history" because of his many victories. The study will investigate the old styles of art and architecture from the time of the Karkota Dynasty, which was controlled by Lalitaditya from 724-761. These styles are of considerable significance in the modern era as part of the rich cultural history of the country.

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Bárta, Miroslav. "Location of the Old Kingdom Pyramids in Egypt." Cambridge Archaeological Journal 15, no. 2 (October 2005): 177–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959774305000090.

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The principal factors influencing the location of the Old Kingdom pyramids in Egypt are reconsidered. The decisive factors influencing their distribution over an area of c. eighty kilometres were essentially of economic, geomorphologic, socio-political and unavoidably also of religious nature. Primary importance is to be attributed to the existence of the Old Kingdom capital of Egypt, Memphis, which was a central place with regard to the Old Kingdom pyramid fields. Its economic potential and primacy in the largely redistribution-driven state economy sustained construction of the vast majority of the pyramid complexes in its vicinity. The location of the remaining number of the Old Kingdom pyramids, including many of the largest ever built, is explained using primarily archaeological evidence. It is claimed that the major factors influencing their location lie in the sphere of general trends governing ancient Egyptian society of the period.

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Redford, Donald B. "Egypt and Western Asia in the Old Kingdom." Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 23 (1986): 125. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/40001094.

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Bogdanov, I. "The Administrative Hierarchy in the Old Kingdom Egypt." World of the Orient 2014, no. 4 (December 30, 2014): 5–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/orientw2014.04.005.

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Al- Mahdy, Moataz, Khaled El-Basuony, and Mahmoud Awad. "Funerary Processions in Egypt from The Old Kingdom till The New Kingdom." Journal of Association of Arab Universities for Tourism and Hospitality 16, no. 2 (June 1, 2019): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.21608/jaauth.2019.68487.

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Aston, D. A. "Amphorae in New Kingdom Egypt." �GYPTEN UND LEVANTE Internationale Zeitschrift f�r �gyptische Arch�ologie und deren Nachbargebiete / EGYPT AND THE LEVANT International Journal for Egyptian Archaeology and Related Disciplines 1, no. XIV (2005): 175–214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1553/aeundl14s175.

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HATAMORI, Yasuko. "The “Pyramid City” in the Old Kingdom of Egypt." Bulletin of the Society for Near Eastern Studies in Japan 30, no. 2 (1987): 14–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.5356/jorient.30.2_14.

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Sadr, K., and G. Hart. "Pharaohs and Pyramids: A Guide through Old Kingdom Egypt." South African Archaeological Bulletin 46, no. 154 (December 1991): 151. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3889098.

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Morris, Ellen, and Lynn Meskell. "Private Life in New Kingdom Egypt." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 88 (2002): 265. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3822357.

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Bonani, Georges, Herbert Haas, Zahi Hawass, Mark Lehner, Shawki Nakhla, John Nolan, Robert Wenke, and Willy Wölfli. "Radiocarbon Dates of Old and Middle Kingdom Monuments in Egypt." Radiocarbon 43, no. 3 (2001): 1297–320. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033822200038558.

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Between 1984 and 1995 over 450 organic samples were collected from monuments built during the Old and Middle Kingdoms. The most suitable samples were selected for dating. The purpose was to establish a radiocarbon chronology with samples from secure context and collected with the careful techniques required for 14C samples. This chronology is compared to the historical chronology established by reconstructing written documentation.

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Weser, Ulrich, Yoka Kaup, Hedwig Etspüler, Johann Koller, and Ursula Baumer. "Peer Reviewed: Embalming In The Old Kingdom Of Pharaonic Egypt." Analytical Chemistry 70, no. 15 (August 1998): 511A—516A. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ac981912a.

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Kitchen, K. A., and Donald B. Redford. "Egypt and Canaan in the New Kingdom." Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 80 (1994): 242. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3821877.

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احمد, حنان. "...The Relationship Between Egypt and Nubia during old and middle kingdom." مجلة کلية الآداب . جامعة الإسکندرية 69, no. 69 (October 1, 2012): 1–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.21608/bfalex.2012.153378.

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فوزي, منال. "The Relationship Between Egypt and Nubia during old and middle kingdom." مجلة کلية الآداب . جامعة الإسکندرية 69, no. 69 (October 1, 2012): 1–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.21608/bfalex.2012.153377.

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Love, Serena. "Questioning the Location of the Old Kingdom Capital of Memphis, Egypt." Papers from the Institute of Archaeology 14 (November 15, 2003): 70. http://dx.doi.org/10.5334/pia.201.

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Morgan, Lyvia. "ENLIVENING THE BODY: COLOR AND STONE STATUES IN OLD KINGDOM EGYPT." Source: Notes in the History of Art 30, no. 3 (April 2011): 4–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/sou.30.3.23208555.

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Journal articles on the topic 'Egypt History Old Kingdom'

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