Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Efferocytose'

La myélopoïèse est finement régulée au niveau métabolique. Les cellules myéloïdes (monocytes et macrophages) sont au centre de nombreuses pathologies. Ma thèse étudie le rôle du métabolisme des cellules myéloïdes dans les pathologies inflammatoires. Je me suis intéressée au métabolisme du cholestérol dans la prolifération anarchique des monocytes (cancérisation) et j’ai étudié des mutations du transporteur ABCA1 (ATP-Binding Cassette A1) impliqué dans l’efflux de cholestérol, qui sont à l’origine d’une prolifération accrue des monocytes, soulignant l’impact du métabolisme lipidique dans la régulation de la prolifération cellulaire. Le métabolisme du glucose est lui aussi impliqué dans la régulation de la myélopoïèse. Nous avons étudié le rôle du transporteur au glucose, Glut-1, dans l’athérosclérose, qui est une pathologie inflammatoire chronique. Dans ce contexte, les CSH et les progéniteurs myéloïdes sur-expriment le transporteur Glut-1, induisant une monocytose, permettant l’accumulation de macrophages dans les lésions. La déficience en Glut-1 prévient la monocytose et le développement des plaques d’athérosclérose. Je me suis intéressée au rôle de la lipase acide lysosomale (LIPA) dans la phagocytose des cellules apoptotiques (efferocytose) par les macrophages, où une grande quantité de cholestérol ingérée doit être dégradée. LIPA en est un acteur central. L’inhibition de cette enzyme provoque un stress oxydatif mitochondrial, et active l’inflammasome NLRP3, contribuant à une inflammation chronique. Cela réduit aussi l’activation des Liver-X-Receptor et induit un défaut d’efferocytose des macrophages, ce qui participe à l’apparition d’une inflammatoire chronique
Myeloid cells are produced by hematopoiesis, from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), a metabolically fine-tuned process. In chronic inflammatory diseases, an increased amount of monocytes is observed (monocytosis). My thesis focuses on the role of myeloid cells metabolism in chronic inflammatory diseases. We focused on the impact of cholesterol metabolism alterations into the anarchic proliferation of monocytes (carcinogenesis). Novel somatic mutations in the cholesterol efflux transporter ATP-Binding Cassette A1 induce carcinogenesis of monocytes, highlighting the impact of cholesterol efflux pathway in monocyte proliferation. I studied glycolysis in atherosclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disease. HSCs and myeloid progenitors exhibited higher Glut-1 expression in a murine model of atherosclerosis, with an enhanced accumulation of macrophages into lesions. A partial deletion of Glut-1 reduced HSCs and progenitors proliferation, limiting monocytosis and atherosclerotic plaques development. I studied the role of lysosomal acid lipase (LIPA) in the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells (efferocytosis). When a macrophage phagocytized an apoptotic cell, an important amount of cholesterol has to be degraded. LIPA is a key player in this process. When LIPA is inhibited, we observed a reduced production of 25- and 27-hydroxycholesterol, leading to an increased mitochondrial oxidative stress, which activated NLRP3 inflammasome activation and a reduced LXR activation. LIPA inhibition leads to a defective efferocytosis in vitro and in vivo. LIPA enzyme is essential to prevent metabolic inflammation by maintaining effective efferocytosis

La myélopoïèse est finement régulée au niveau métabolique. Les cellules myéloïdes (monocytes et macrophages) sont au centre de nombreuses pathologies. Ma thèse étudie le rôle du métabolisme des cellules myéloïdes dans les pathologies inflammatoires. Je me suis intéressée au métabolisme du cholestérol dans la prolifération anarchique des monocytes (cancérisation) et j’ai étudié des mutations du transporteur ABCA1 (ATP-Binding Cassette A1) impliqué dans l’efflux de cholestérol, qui sont à l’origine d’une prolifération accrue des monocytes, soulignant l’impact du métabolisme lipidique dans la régulation de la prolifération cellulaire. Le métabolisme du glucose est lui aussi impliqué dans la régulation de la myélopoïèse. Nous avons étudié le rôle du transporteur au glucose, Glut-1, dans l’athérosclérose, qui est une pathologie inflammatoire chronique. Dans ce contexte, les CSH et les progéniteurs myéloïdes sur-expriment le transporteur Glut-1, induisant une monocytose, permettant l’accumulation de macrophages dans les lésions. La déficience en Glut-1 prévient la monocytose et le développement des plaques d’athérosclérose. Je me suis intéressée au rôle de la lipase acide lysosomale (LIPA) dans la phagocytose des cellules apoptotiques (efferocytose) par les macrophages, où une grande quantité de cholestérol ingérée doit être dégradée. LIPA en est un acteur central. L’inhibition de cette enzyme provoque un stress oxydatif mitochondrial, et active l’inflammasome NLRP3, contribuant à une inflammation chronique. Cela réduit aussi l’activation des Liver-X-Receptor et induit un défaut d’efferocytose des macrophages, ce qui participe à l’apparition d’une inflammatoire chronique
Myeloid cells are produced by hematopoiesis, from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), a metabolically fine-tuned process. In chronic inflammatory diseases, an increased amount of monocytes is observed (monocytosis). My thesis focuses on the role of myeloid cells metabolism in chronic inflammatory diseases. We focused on the impact of cholesterol metabolism alterations into the anarchic proliferation of monocytes (carcinogenesis). Novel somatic mutations in the cholesterol efflux transporter ATP-Binding Cassette A1 induce carcinogenesis of monocytes, highlighting the impact of cholesterol efflux pathway in monocyte proliferation. I studied glycolysis in atherosclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disease. HSCs and myeloid progenitors exhibited higher Glut-1 expression in a murine model of atherosclerosis, with an enhanced accumulation of macrophages into lesions. A partial deletion of Glut-1 reduced HSCs and progenitors proliferation, limiting monocytosis and atherosclerotic plaques development. I studied the role of lysosomal acid lipase (LIPA) in the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells (efferocytosis). When a macrophage phagocytized an apoptotic cell, an important amount of cholesterol has to be degraded. LIPA is a key player in this process. When LIPA is inhibited, we observed a reduced production of 25- and 27-hydroxycholesterol, leading to an increased mitochondrial oxidative stress, which activated NLRP3 inflammasome activation and a reduced LXR activation. LIPA inhibition leads to a defective efferocytosis in vitro and in vivo. LIPA enzyme is essential to prevent metabolic inflammation by maintaining effective efferocytosis

La granulomatose avec polyangéite est une vascularite systémique associée à une réaction auto-immune dirigée contre la protéinase 3, une serine protéase du neutrophile. Cette protéine présente un profil particulier d'expression dans le neutrophile, caractérisé notamment par une expression membranaire au cours de l'apoptose. Cette capacité de la protéinase 3 à se lier aux membranes repose sur l'existence de quatre acides amines formant un patch hydrophobe. Cette expression membranaire au cours de l'apoptose, qui dépend de l'existence de ce patch hydrophobe, conduit la protéinase 3 à interagir avec la calréticuline qui est une molécule impliquée dans la reconnaissance des cellules apopotiques par les macrophages. Nous avons démontré que cette interaction conduit la protéinase 3 à modifier le phénotype pro-résolutif des macrophages consécutif à la phagocytose de cellules apoptotiques. Le phénotype pro-inflammatoire résultant de cette expression de la protéinase 3 dépend de la voie de signalisation MyD88 mimant un signal danger. Cette activation des macrophages conduit à la sécrétion de chimiokines (MCP-1, KC, MIP-1α et MIP-1β) impliquées dans le recrutement de cellules exprimant la protéinase 3 participant ainsi au maintient de l'inflammation. Ce microenvironnement induit par les macrophages modifie le rôle immuno-modulateur de la clairance des cellules apoptotiques, influençant notamment l'interaction des cellules T naïves avec les cellules dendritiques plasmacytoïdes. La polarisation T résultante présente une distribution déséquilibrée vers les lymphocytes Th2/Th9 et une diminution de la génération de lymphocytes T régulateurs. La protéinase 3, qui est encodée par un gène de réponse au G-CSF, est de plus capable d'induire le recrutement de cellules sur-exprimant cette protéase capable à son tour de stimuler la sécrétion de G-CSF. La protéinase 3 apparait donc, par sa capacité à corrompre les mécanismes de résolution de l'inflammation et d'amplifier sa propre expression dans les cellules recrutées sur le site inflammatoire, comme un élément clé de la physiopathologie de la granulomatose avec polyangéite.

L’athérosclérose est une maladie inflammatoire chronique. L’une des caractéristiques des lésions d’athérosclérose est l’accumulation anormale de corps apoptotiques et nécrotiques, due à un défaut d’efferocytose, ceci entraînant la formation du cœur nécrotique. L’évolution de ce cœur nécrotique est également associée à une augmentation de l’inflammation et de la taille des plaques d’athérosclérose, mais aussi dans la survenue de complications telle que la rupture de plaque. Clec9a est un récepteur transmembranaire de type lectine C, majoritairement exprimé par une sous population de cellules dendritiques les DC-CD8α+. Il est capable de reconnaître un ligand spécifiquement exprimé par les corps nécrotiques, l’actine F. L’objectif de notre travail a été de savoir si Clec9a, qui est capable de reconnaître les corps nécrotiques, pouvait être impliqué dans la modulation de l’inflammation observée au cours du développement de l’athérosclérose. Au cours de cette étude, nous avons montré, in vivo partir de deux modèles murins (ApoE-/- et LDLr-/-), que la délétion de Clec9a entraîne une diminution significative de la taille des lésions dans un contexte d’hypercholestérolémie modérée. Cette athéro-protection observée en l’absence de Clec9a, est associée à une augmentation de l’expression de l’IL-10, qui est une interleukine anti-athérogène et anti-inflammatoire. Cet effet athéroprotecteur de l’absence de Clec9a n’est plus observé lorsque l’IL-10 est totalement invalidée. De plus, nous avons montré que l’invalidation de Clec9a spécifiquement dans les DC-CD8α+ entraîne, in vivo, une diminution de l’infiltration des macrophages et des lymphocytes T dans les lésions, ainsi qu’une augmentation de l’expression de l’IL-10, favorisant une diminution de la taille des lésions. La compréhension des mécanismes inflammatoires dans l’athérosclérose constitue un enjeu majeur pour prévenir les risques de complications comme la rupture de plaque ou la thrombose. Ainsi, ce travail met en évidence un nouveau rôle de Clec9a dans la régulation de l’inflammation dans l’athérosclérose et pourrait donc représenter une cible thérapeutique potentielle
Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease. One of the characteristics of atherosclerotic lesions is the abnormal accumulation of apoptotic and necrotic cells, due to a deficiency of efferocytosis, which leads to the formation of the necrotic heart. The evolution of this necrotic core is also associated with an increase in inflammation and lesions of atherosclerosis, but also in the occurrence of complications such as plaque rupture. Clec9a is a C type lectin receptor, mainly expressed by a subpopulation of dendritic cells, which are the CD8α+ dendritic cells. This receptor is able to recognize a ligand expressed by necrotic cells, the actin F. The aim of our work was to find out if Clec9a, which can sense necrotic cells, could be involved in modulating the inflammation observed during the development of atherosclerosis. In this study, we have shown, in vivo with two mouse models (ApoE - / - and LDLr - / -), that the deletion of Clec9a leads to a significant decrease in the incidence of moderate hypercholesterolemia. This athero-protection observed in the absence of Clec9a, is associated with an increase in the expression of IL-10, which is an anti-atherogenic and anti-inflammatory cytokine. This athero-protective effect of the absence of Clec9a is abolished after total invalidation of IL-10. Furthermore, we report that specific knockdown of Clec9a in CD8α+-DC, in vivo, leads to a decrease in macrophage and lymphocyte infiltration in lesions, as well as an increase in IL-1 expression. 10, which promotes a decrease in lesions size. Understanding of inflammatory mechanisms in atherosclerosis is a major challenge to prevent the risk of complications such as plaque rupture or thrombosis. Thus, this work highlights a new role of Clec9a in the regulation of inflammation in atherosclerosis and could be therefore a potential therapeutic target

Après un infarctus, les acteurs de l’immunité innée et adaptative contrôlent le remodelage et la fonction cardiaque. Dans un premier travail, nous nous sommes intéressés aux mécanismes moléculaires définissant le rôle des monocytes et des macrophages, composants majeurs de l’immunité innée. En particulier, nous avons analysé le rôle de deux récepteurs MertK (myeloid-epithelial-reproductive receptor tyrosine kinase) et Mfge8 (milk fat globule epidermal growth factor-like factor 8), susceptibles d’être impliqués dans la reconnaissance des débris cellulaires peuplant la zone infarcie. L’invalidation de MertK et Mfge8 in vivo chez la souris augmente l’accumulation des cellules apoptotiques, aggrave la fibrose et accroit la taille de l’infarctus par rapport aux souris contrôles. De plus, l’expression du facteur pro-angiogenique VEGF-A, est significativement réduite 3 jours post-infarctus chez les souris chimères Mertk-/-Mfge8-/- par rapport aux animaux contrôles. Enfin, l’invalidation de l’expression de VEGF-A dans les cellules myéloides augmente la fibrose et la taille de l’infarctus et diminue la fonction cardiaque. Ainsi, la reconnaissance des débris cellulaires par Mertk et Mfge8 promeut la libération de VEGF-A par les monocytes et macrophages et participe à la restauration de la densité capillaire et de la fonction cardiaque post-infarctus. Dans un deuxième travail, nous avons abordé les voies de signalisation intracellulaires sous-tendant les effets d’un acteur majeur de l’immunité adaptative, le lymphocyte B. Après un infarctus, les lymphocytes B libèrent la chimiokine Ccl7, qui en se fixant sur son récepteur CCR2, déclenche une mobilisation des monocytes inflammatoires de la moelle osseuse vers le sang puis leur recrutement délétère dans la zone infarcie. Nous avons notamment montré que des activateurs des lymphocytes B, comme des stimuli inflammatoires, stimulent la libération de Ccl7, en partie en initiant des voies de signalisation intracellulaires dépendantes du micro-RNA (miR)21. L’administration exogène de lymphocytes B déficients pour miR-21 améliore d’ailleurs la fonction et le remodelage cardiaque post-infarctus chez des souris immunodéficientes. miR21 cible le gène suppresseur de tumeur PTEN et ainsi augmente l’expression du facteur de transcription HIF1α. De fait, l’analyse par échocardiographie effectuée 14 jours après l’induction de l’infarctus montre une amélioration de la fonction cardiaque ainsi qu’une diminution de la taille de l’infarctus et de la fibrose interstitielle chez les souris invalidées pour HIF1α spécifiquement dans les lymphocytes B par rapport aux contrôles. Les taux de la chimiokine CCL7 dans le plasma de ces souris sont aussi significativement réduits à J1 et J3 post infarctus ; ainsi que la mobilisation et le recrutement monocytaire. Il apparaît donc que la voie de signalisation impliquant miR21/HIF1α conditionne l’effet délétère des lymphocytes B dans un contexte d’infarctus aigu du myocarde. Ces travaux ont permis de révéler des facteurs majeurs de la régulation fine de la réaction inflammatoire post-ischémique, et de souligner l’efficacité potentielle de stratégies thérapeutiques modulant l’activité des cellules immunitaires dans le décours des pathologies cardiaques
After a myocardial infarction, the innate and adaptive immunity play a role in post ischaemic remodelling and cardiac function. In a first work, we have been interested in the molecular mechanism of the role of monocytes and macrophages, the major innate immunity components. In particular, it has been analysed the function of, the myeloid-epithelial reproductive protein tyrosine kinase (Mertk) and the milk fat globule epidermal growth factor (Mfge8) and their implication in directing cardiac remodelling by skewing the inflammatory response after myocardial infarction. Compared with wild-type, Mertk-deficient (Mertk−/−), or Mfge8- deficient (Mfge8−/−) animals, Mertk−/−/Mfge8−/− mice displayed greater alteration in cardiac function and remodelling. In parallel, Mertk−/−/Mfge8−/− bone marrow chimeras manifested increased accumulation of apoptotic cells, enhanced fibrotic area, and larger infarct size, as well as reduced angiogenesis and VEFA expression. Combined Mertk and Mfge8 deficiency in myeloid cells either obtained from in vitro differentiation of bone marrow cells or isolated from infarcted hearts altered their capacity of efferocytosis and subsequently blunted vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) release. On the contrary, the recognition of necrotic cells by Mertk and Mfge8 promote VEGFA liberation improving cardiac function and angiogenesis. In the second work, we have focused on intracellular signalling pathway underlying the effects of another important actor of adaptive immunity, the B lymphocytes. After acute myocardial infarction multiple subtypes of inflammatory cells are known to orchestrate post-ischemic cardiac remodelling. In particular, Mature B lymphocytes selectively produce Ccl7 chimiokine and fixed on its CCR2 receptor it is able to induce monocyte mobilization and recruitment to the heart, leading to enhanced tissue injury and deterioration of myocardial function. Many B lymphocytes activators, such as inflammatory stimuli, may promote CCL7 release partially involving an intracellular signalling pathway depending on the micro-RNA miR21. We speculate that endogenous activation of the miR21/HIFα-related pathways balances the effect of B lymphocytes on post-ischemic cardiac remodelling. The treatment with TLR ligands resulted in induction of the microRNA miR-21, which targeted PTEN, leading to subsequent up regulation of HIF1α and HIF2α levels. In Rag1-/- immunodeficient mice with acute MI, we showed that re-supplementation with miR21-/- B lymphocytes restored cardiac repair and function when compared to injection of wild-type B cells. These effects were associated with a reduction in Ly6Chigh monocyte infiltration in the ischemic myocardium as well as with a decrease in infarct size and interstitial fibrosis. This work reveals several factors implicated in regulation of post-ischaemic inflammatory reaction, and underline the potential efficacity of a therapeutic strategy to module the activity of immune cells alongside the cardiovascular diseases

La sclérodermie systémique (ScS) est une maladie auto-immune fibrotique chronique incurable. Le concept de réparation tissulaire non résolue, menant à une fibrose persistante, a émergé sur la base d'une inflammation stérile chronique qui transforme une réponse de réparation contrôlée en fibrose pathologique. La résolution efficace de l'inflammation repose notamment sur l’élimination des cellules apoptotiques par les macrophages (Mϕ) via l’efferocytose. Récemment, mon équipe a montré le rôle de la stimulation des cellules endothéliales microvasculaires (CEMV) cutanées par l’IL-1β dans la modulation de la polarisation macrophagique vers un profil mixte M1/M2 inflammatoire, et son implication dans la fibrose cutanée sclérodermique. Une analyse transcriptomique à partir de biopsies cutanées, a mis en évidence une signature de gènes associés à l’efferocytose diminuée chez les patients ScS par rapport aux contrôles. Ce travail visait, par des analyses in vitro à partir de cellules purifiées de la peau de patients ScS ou de sujets sains, à déterminer si les CEMV et l'IL-1β contribuent à l'altération de l’efferocytose au cours de la ScS, et à évaluer les conséquences sur l'activation des fibroblastes et la transition endothélio-mésenchymateuse (EndoMT). Pour cela, les macrophages dérivés de monocytes ont été générés en présence de surnageant de CEMV activées (CEMVIL-1β-Mϕ) ou non (CEMV-Mϕ) par l’IL-1β.Nos résultats mettent en évidence une diminution significative de la phagocytose de Jurkat apoptotiques (apoJK) par les CEMVIL-1β-Mϕ associée à une diminution de l’expression de certains récepteurs directs ou indirects impliqués dans l’efferocytose. D’autre part, l'ajout d'IL-1β pendant la différenciation des MDM0 (contrôle positif de phagocytose) n'a pas altéré leur profil efferocytique global suggérant que l'effet inhibiteur de l'IL-1β ne se manifeste qu'en présence du sécrétome endothélial. Nous avons ensuite étudié les effets du sécrétome macrophagique post-efferocytose sur l’activation fibroblastique et l’EndoMT. Les CEMVIL-1β-Mϕ favorisent le phénotype pro-remodelant et inflammatoire des fibroblastes, effet qui n’est pas limité par la présence de TGF-β et qui est d’autant plus prononcé dans les conditions efferocytiques sclérodermiques. Sur le plan de l’EndoMT nos résultats indiquent que les CEMVIL-1β-Mϕ semblent initier l’EndoMT uniquement dans les conditions ScS en augmentant l’expression de l’α-SMA et de la fibronectine des CEMV. En revanche, les CEMV-Mϕ ont favorisé un phénotype profibrotique des fibroblastes uniquement en présence du surnageant efferocytique combiné au TGF-β et n’induisent pas d’initiation de l’EndoMT.Dans le cadre de cette thèse CIFRE, nous avons exploré le potentiel anti-inflammatoire et pro-résolutif du Résolvix©, candidat médicament développé par la société MIP, basé sur un sécrétome de Mϕ de sujets sains ayant réalisé une efferocytose. Nos résultats montrent qu’en présence de Résolvix©, les fibroblastes sclérodermiques des patients voient diminuer leur profil fibrotique au profit d’un profil remodelant et sécréteur de CCL2. Ce dernier permet également de reverser un profil myofibroblastique déjà établi, tout en favorisant la production de CCL2. Nos données montrent que l’efferocytose joue un rôle variable selon l’état d’activation des CEMV, reflétant potentiellement un rôle séquentiel dans la ScS dans la mesure où l'IL-1β est augmenté dans la peau des patients à des stades précoces, alors que le TGF-β semblent jouer un rôle à des stades tardifs.Ces résultats suggèrent que la restauration d’une efferocytose efficace pourrait limiter l’inflammation et la fibrose au cours de la ScS. Le Résolvix©, pourrait restaurer un environnement tissulaire limitant la fibrose tout en favorisant le recrutement de nouveaux macrophages aux capacités d’efferocytose restaurés chez les patients sclérodermiques ayant des formes tardives avec une fibrose bien établie
Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is an incurable chronic fibrotic autoimmune disease. The concept of unresolved tissue repair, leading to persistent fibrosis, has emerged based on chronic sterile inflammation, which transforms a controlled repair response into pathological fibrosis. Effective inflammation resolution relies on macrophages' (Mϕ) efferocytosis, the clearance of apoptotic cells. Recently, my team demonstrated the role of IL-1β-stimulated cutaneous microvascular endothelial cells (MVEC) in modulating macrophage polarization towards a mixed M1/M2 inflammatory profile, implicating this process in cutaneous sclerodermic fibrosis. Transcriptomic analysis from skin biopsies highlighted a gene signature associated with reduced efferocytosis in SSc patients compared to controls. This study aimed, through in vitro analyses of purified cells from SSc patients' or healthy donors' skin, to determine whether MVEC and IL-1β contribute to efferocytosis alteration during SSc and evaluate the consequences on fibroblast activation and endothelial-mesenchymal transition (EndoMT). Monocyte-derived macrophages were generated in the presence of supernatant from MVEC either activated (MVECIL-1β-Mϕ) or not (MVEC-Mϕ) by IL-1β.Our results show a significant reduction in the phagocytosis of apoptotic Jurkat cells (apoJK) by MVECIL-1β-Mϕ, associated with decreased expression of certain direct or indirect receptors involved in efferocytosis. Conversely, adding IL-1β during MDM0 (positive control for phagocytosis) differentiation did not alter their overall efferocytic profile, suggesting that IL-1β's inhibitory effect manifests only in the presence of the endothelial secretome. We then studied the effects of post-efferocytosis macrophage secretome on fibroblast activation and EndoMT. MVECIL-1β-Mϕ promoted a pro-remodeling and inflammatory fibroblast phenotype, unaffected by TGF-β, and more pronounced in sclerodermic efferocytic conditions. Regarding EndoMT, our results indicate that MVECIL-1β-Mϕ appears to initiate EndoMT only in SSc conditions, increasing α-SMA and fibronectin expression in MVEC. However, MVEC-Mϕ promoted a pro-fibrotic fibroblast phenotype only in the presence of efferocytic supernatant combined with TGF-β and did not induce EMT initiation.As part of this CIFRE thesis, we explored the anti-inflammatory and pro-resolutive potential of Résolvix, a drug candidate developed by MIP, based on the secretome of Mϕ from healthy subjects who had undergone efferocytosis. Our results show that in the presence of Résolvix©, sclerodermic fibroblasts from patients exhibit a decrease in their fibrotic profile in favor of a remodeling and CCL2-secreting profile. This also allows for the reversal of an already established myofibroblastic profile while promoting CCL2 production. Our data indicate that efferocytosis plays a variable role depending on the activation state of the vascular endothelial cells, potentially reflecting a sequential role in systemic sclerosis, as IL-1β is elevated in the skin of patients at early stages, while TGF-β seems to play a role at later stages.These results suggest that restoring effective efferocytosis could limit inflammation and fibrosis during SSc. Résolvix© could restore a tissue environment that limits fibrosis while promoting the recruitment of new macrophages with restored efferocytosis capabilities in sclerodermic patients with late-stage forms and established fibrosis

Le Lupus Erythemateux disséminé (LED) est un ensemble de maladies auto-immunes caractérisées par la présence d'anticorps anti-nucléaires. La pathogenèse du lupus est inconnue à ce jour et les mécanismes de la maladie pourraient être multiples. Dans ce travail nous reportons l'identification de variants autosomaux récessifs, pertes de function, dans le domaine kinase de ACK1 et BRK respectivement, chez des patients atteints de LED de 2 familles non apparentées. Utilisant des macrophages dérivés d'iPSCs similaires aux macrophages résidents exprimant TIM4, nous montrons que la forme sauvage de ACK1 et BRK n'est pas requise pour la phagocytose de bactéries et de champignons, mais est nécessaire pour une efferocytose efficace, incluant la phagocytose mediée par l'actin de cellules apoptotiques par des macrophages humains et l'expression précoce de gène anti-inflammatoire induit par STAT3 et AKT et déclenché par l'exposition à des cellules apoptotiques. Ces résultats indiquent que l'activité kinase de ACK1 et BRK sont nécessaires pour la clearance immunologiquement silencieuse des cellules apoptotiques par les macrophages. Enfin ces données définissent un sous-groupe de patients atteints de LED avec un déficit génétique d'efferocytose qui pourrait bénéficier de thérapie ciblée dans le future
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is a collection of autoimmune diseases characterized by auto-antibodies against nuclear antigens. Pathogenesis of SLE remains unclear and disease mechanisms may be multiple. Here we report the identification of autosomal recessive loss-of-function variants in the kinase domain of ACK1 and BRK, in patients from two families with SLE. Using patients and controls iPSC-derived Tim4+ resident-like macrophages we find that wild-type ACK1 and BRK are dispensable for phagocytosis of bacteria and fungi, but are both required for efficient efferocytosis, including actin-mediated engulfment of apoptotic cells by human macrophages, and an early cell-autonomous anti-inflammatory gene expression program driven by AKT and STAT3 and triggered by apoptotic cells. These results indicate that ACK1 and BRK kinases activity are required for the immunologically silent clearance of apoptotic cells by macrophages and define genetic efferocytosis deficiency in a subset of SLE patients who may benefit from personalized therapy in the future

La sclérodermie systémique est une maladie auto-immune caractérisée par l’existence d’une vasculopathie chronique et la présence de phénomènes inflammatoires et fibrosants touchant notamment la peau et le poumon. De par leur capacité à adopter un profil de polarisation à la fois pro-inflammatoire et pro-fibrosant, les macrophages pourraient occuper une place importante dans la physiopathologie de la sclérodermie. Cette polarisation macrophagique est conditionnée par les signaux et cytokines présents dans le milieu et qui dépendent notamment des voies de signalisation JAK/STAT. Ce travail démontre que les inhibiteurs de JAK, une classe thérapeutique utilisée dans certaines pathologies inflammatoires chroniques, permettent de limiter à la fois la polarisation pro-inflammatoire et pro-fibrosante des macrophages humains in vitro. Le ruxolitinib, inhibiteur de JAK1/2 permet en particulier de prévenir les manifestations pulmonaires et cutanées. La survenue d’une sclérodermie systémique peut être favorisée par une exposition à certains contaminants environnementaux tels que l’inhalation de silice cristalline. L’élimination de cellules apoptotiques, un processus de résolution de l’inflammation appelé efferocytose, est altérée dans les macrophages dérivés de monocytes sanguins circulants au cours de la sclérodermie systémique. Ce travail démontre que la silice cristalline altère les capacités d’efferocytose de macrophages humains in vitro, dans des proportions similaires à celles observées dans les macrophages de patients sclérodermiques. Cet effet est également observé in vivo dans les macrophages alvéolaires de souris exposées par voie transorale à la silice cristalline. In vitro, des inhibiteurs de la voie RhoA/ROCK permettaient de limiter la diminution de l’efferocytose induite par la silice cristalline
Systemic sclerosis (also called scleroderma) is an autoimmune disorder characterized by a chronic vasculopathy with inflammatory and pro-fibrotic manifestations in lungs and skin. As they can adopt pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic activation states, macrophages could play a key role in the pathogenesis of scleroderma. Macrophage polarization depends on surrounding activating factors such as cytokines that involve pathways including JAK/STAT signaling. This work demonstrates that JAK inhibitors, a new therapeutic class currently in use for the treatment of some inflammatory chronic diseases, can limit pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic polarization profile of human macrophages in vitro. Ruxolitinib, a JAK1/2 inhibitor can prevent the cutaneous and pulmonary manifestations of the disease in a mouse model of scleroderma and limits pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic activation of macrophages in these tissues.Although it is considered as an idiopathic disorder, the onset of systemic sclerosis can be triggered by exposure to environmental contaminants such as crystalline silica inhalation. A defect of apoptotic cell clearance, a process also called efferocytosis, is noticed in monocyte-derived-macrophages from patients with systemic sclerosis. This work demonstrates that crystalline silica impairs efferocytosis capacities of human macrophages in vitro, similarly to the defect observed in scleroderma patients. The same effect is observed in vivo, in alveolar macrophages from mice exposed to crystalline silica through transoral instillation. In vitro, inhibitors of the RhoA/ROCK pathway can limit the impairment of efferocytosis capacities of macrophages induced by exposure to crystalline silica

À l'heure actuelle, une large proportion des recherches vouées à l'identification et au développement de nouvelles thérapies anticancéreuses est basée sur l'apoptose. Dans les dernières décennies, divers composés phytochimiques ont été caractérisés comme des agents pharmacologiques susceptibles d'éliminer les cellules cancéreuses via l'induction de l'apoptose. Parmi ceux-ci, l'isoliquiritigénine (ILG), un flavonoïde naturellement présent dans les racines de réglisse, se distingue des autres par ses nombreuses propriétés thérapeutiques incluant une activité antitumorale. Chez les mammifères, les cellules apoptotiques (CA) peuvent être complètement dégradées via leur capture par des cellules phagocytaires spécialisées ou servir de vecteurs d'ADN dans un processus appelé transfert horizontal de gènes (THG). Ainsi, il a été mis en évidence que des CA dérivées de cancer du col de l'utérus peuvent induire le transfert de séquences d'oncogènes de papillomavirus humains (HPV) à des fibroblastes primaires humains (HPFs) qui acquièrent des propriétés de cellules transformées. Cependant, les mécanismes cellulaires et moléculaires impliqués dans l'internalisation de CA par les fibroblastes, un modèle de phagocyte non-professionnel, n'ont pas encore été clairement identifiés et la caractérisation de ces événements qui précèdent le THG est essentielle à la compréhension de ce processus et de la transformation des cellules receveuses qui peut en découler.Dans ce contexte, les objectifs de cette thèse étaient, (i) d'analyser les effets anticancéreux de l'ILG sur des cellules dérivées de cancer du col de l'utérus, (ii) de caractériser les mécanismes cellulaires et moléculaires impliqués dans la capture des CA par les HPFs, (iii) d'étudier les événements cellulaires qui font suite à ce processus comme la maturation des phagosomes, le THG et l'acquisition de propriétés de transformation et enfin, (iv) de démontrer la preuve de la conservation de la capacité tumorigénique des CA in vivo.Un premier travail a permis de mettre en lumière les propriétés antitumorales de l'ILG via une multiplicité d'actions sur des modèles cellulaires de cancer du col de l'utérus in vitro, incluant des activités anti-proliférative, pro-apoptotique, anti-migratoire. Concernant la lignée cellulaire Ca Ski, p53 sauvage et représentative du carcinome du col utérin le plus fréquent, associé à une infection transformante par HPV16, l'apoptose induite par l'ILG semble dépendante de p53 et de la mitochondrie, mais aussi de la voie des récepteurs de mort, comme attesté par l'augmentation des niveaux de protéines p53 et p21, la dissipation du potentiel membranaire mitochondrial, la libération du cytochrome c et le clivage des caspases-9, -8 et -3. Ces effets pourraient être la conséquence de la diminution de l'expression de l'oncoprotéine virale E6 d'HPV16 induite par l'ILG entraînant la restauration de l'expression de p53. Nos travaux révèlent un fort potentiel de l'ILG contre différents types de cellules malignes et ouvrent le champ à de nouvelles modalités de traitement des cancers associés à HPV
Most of the research strategies aiming at improving anticancer therapies currently target apoptosis. Over the last decades, several natural products derived from herbal medicine or food have been identified as pharmacological agents for cancer cell elimination through apoptosis induction. Among them, isoliquiritigenin (ILG) is a chalcone derivative isolated from liquorice and shallots which exhibits a wide variety of biological functions including antitumor properties.In mammals, apoptotic cells (AC) can either be eliminated after their capture by specialized phagocytes or act as vectors of DNA in a process named horizontal gene transfer (HGT). For instance, AC derived from cervical cancer cells can transfer human papillomavirus (HPV) oncogene sequences to human primary fibroblasts (HPFs) which subsequently acquire transformed cell properties. The molecular mechanisms underlying AC uptake by HPFs, a model of non-professional phagocytes, have not been clearly identified. Characterizing these upstream events appears critical to broaden our understanding of HGT and the ultimate transformation of recipient cells which may subsequently occur.The aims of this work were to (i) study the antitumor effects of ILG on cervical cancer cell lines,(ii) characterize the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying AC uptake by HPF, (iii) study the cellular events which occur in HPFs following AC engulfment such as phagosome maturation, HGT and acquisition of transformed properties, and (iv) evaluate the tumorigenic properties of AC in vivo.In a first part of this PhD project, we found that ILG exhibits multiple antitumor actions on cervical cancer cells in vitro including anti-proliferative, pro-apoptotic and anti-migration properties. Further studies on apoptosis-related events were conducted in Ca Ski cells (p53wt, HPV16 DNA positive), which are representative of the most frequent cervical carcinoma. The treatment of Ca Ski cells with ILG is associated with increased levels of p53 and p21 proteins, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, cytochrome c release and caspase-9, -8 and -3 cleavage. These features suggest that ILG-induced apoptosis is dependent on p53 and involve both mitochondrial and death receptor- mediated pathways. The effect of ILG in Ca Ski cells may be partly explained by the decrease of HPV16 E6 oncoprotein expression and the associated raise of p53 levels observed after cell treatment. Our work highlights the potential of ILG as an antitumor agent and provides the opportunity of new treatment. ln the second part of this work, we set up a method based on flow cytometry to quantitatively analyze AC uptake. This original method and microscopy analysis allowed us to show that HPFs act as non-professional phagocytes and are able to engulf subcellular fragments rather than dying whole cells, with lower efficiency and rapidity compared to professional phagocytes as macrophages. Uptake of AC by HPFs depends on time, temperature and the presence of bivalent ions. Morphological analysis and fonctional assays using endocytosis inhibitors revealed a mechanism related to phagocytosis and/or macropinocytosis. The recognition of phosphatidylserine exposed on the surface of AC by their receptor BAIl has emerged as a required event for AC uptake by HPFs

One third of the world’s population is infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, causing two million deaths annually. The bacteria avoid immune clearance by persisting within macrophages by subverting normal phagosome maturation and acidification. In order to spread, the bacteria induce necrotic death of its host macrophage, broadcasting the infection into neighboring cells. However, it has long been appreciated that the apoptotic, rather than necrotic death of an infected macrophage results in bacterial growth suppression, improved adaptive immune response and survival. The mechanism for apoptosis-mediated bacterial suppression has hitherto remained unknown. In this dissertation we report that apoptosis itself is not intrinsically bactericidal. We find that following apoptosis, the M. tuberculosis-infected macrophage is engulfed by bystander macrophages through the process of efferocytosis. Efferocytosis, or apoptotic cell clearance, is a critical function of macrophages; however, little is known regarding efferocytosis of infected apoptotic cells. We find that M. tuberculosis-infected macrophages die by apoptosis more commonly than found previously. By confocal microscopy we observed that apoptotic macrophages are rapidly engulfed by uninfected macrophages. Efferocytosis of M. tuberculosisinfected macrophages occurs in vitro with all macrophage types tested and in vivo- specifically in the lung, indicating that efferocytosis could play an important role during infection. We developed an uninfected macrophage co-culture system in which we observe efferocytosis and define conditions in which it occurs. Using this co-culture system we observe a suppression of bacterial growth. By blocking efferocytosis, we have found that the engulfment of infected cells is required for M. tuberculosis control in the macrophage co-culture system, demonstrating that efferocytosis is a novel antibacterial mechanism. We then demonstrated using transmission electron microscopy that the M. tuberculosis-containing efferocytic phagosome is structurally distinct from the traditional M. tuberculosis phagosome. Bacteria from within the efferocytic phagosome are unable to halt its maturation, and as such are delivered to lysosomes. Furthermore, we find that following efferocytosis, M. tuberculosis are killed. While efferocytosis is recognized as a constitutive housekeeping function of macrophages, our work indicates that is should also be viewed as an antimicrobial effector mechanism.

Francisella tularensis is the causative agent of the life-threatening disease tularemia. The Centers for Disease Control considers F. tularensis among the most likely agents of biowarfare due to its high mortality rate, ease of aerosol transmission, and low infectious dose. A fundamental aspect of tularemia pathogenesis is the overwhelming accumulation of neutrophils in the lung that are incapable of bacterial clearance and furthermore injurious to the host tissue, as neutrophilia exacerbates disease and blockade of neutrophil influx into the lungs favors host survival. We hypothesized that the pathologic accretion of neutrophils may be the result of decreased neutrophil death and/or decreased clearance by macrophages. Our lab recently demonstrated that F. tularensis delays neutrophil apoptosis by at least 48 hours to preserve its replicative niche, but the mechanism by which this occurs was poorly defined. Here, we investigate alterations in neutrophil apoptosis and survival signaling at the molecular level and find that, in addition to effects on neutrophil transcription, F. tularensis also modulates protein abundance, activity, and subcellular localization. Specifically, we report that F. tularensis preserves mitochondrial integrity by inhibiting the pro-apoptotic proteins Bid and Bax as well as maintaining expression of the pro-survival factors XIAP and calpastatin. Moreover, we found that infection diminishes the ability of R-roscovitine to induce apoptosis, suggesting bacterial modulation of CDK-mediated survival signaling. Following apoptosis, effete neutrophils are rapidly cleared by macrophages in a process termed efferocytosis to avoid neutrophil progression to secondary necrosis and consequent host tissue damage. We demonstrate for the first time that neutrophils laden with F. tularensis are readily consumed by macrophages and release their infectious cargo into the macrophage cytoplasm. The engulfing cell is unable to eradicate the infection and extensive bacterial replication ensues. Intriguingly, we found that unlike other pathogens, covert infection of macrophages by F. tularensis triggers an inflammatory cytokine response that is highly similar to that of directly infected cells, suggesting that efferocytosis is not an essential virulence mechanism for this bacterium. Together, these studies significantly advance our understanding of fundamental F. tularensis virulence mechanisms and disease pathophysiology as well as shed light on other inflammatory disorders characterized by dysregulated neutrophil turnover and clearance.

Rho-associated kinase 1 (ROCK1) is a serine/threonine kinase important for the regulation of the cellular cytoskeleton through the induction of actin stress fibres and acto-myosin contractility. The cleavage and subsequent activation of ROCK1 by caspase 3 during apoptosis is believed to cause many morphological phenomena associated with programmed cell death such as dynamic membrane blebbing. I now formally prove the necessity of ROCK1 cleavage for apoptotic blebbing by knocking-in a caspase cleavage resistant mutant of ROCK1 in a genetically modified model. In addition, animals homozygous for non-cleavable ROCK1 demonstrate a phenotype consistent with auto-immune disease suggesting that apoptotic blebbing is important to mediate rapid efferocytosis, which is a rapid phagocytic clearance of the cellular corpse, and thus maintain self-tolerance. Furthermore, apoptotic blebbing is important for the clearance of apoptotic cells and I demonstrate a novel mechanism for ROCK to mediate the release of factors participating in macrophage migration to dying cells. ROCK induced apoptotic blebs and bodies lose membrane integrity prior to secondary necrosis and leak intracellular material. Using quantitative mass spectrometry I identified numerous proteins that were previously unrecognized to be released during apoptosis. The release of protein was found to be impaired following ROCK antagonism with Y27632 which underscores the importance of ROCK activity in apoptotic protein release. One of these proteins, gelsolin, was released following caspase cleavage and encourages macrophage motility towards apoptotic cells. Finally, I now demonstrate that the three nonsynonymous somatic mutations in the ROCK1 gene identified in the Cancer Genome Project lead to elevated kinase activity and drive actin cytoskeleton rearrangements that promote increased motility and decreased adhesion, characteristics of cancer progression. Mapping of the kinase-interacting regions of the carboxy-terminus combined with structural modeling provides insight into how these mutations likely affect the regulation of ROCK1. Consistent with the frequency of ROCK1 mutations in human cancer, these results support the conclusion that there is selective pressure for the ROCK1 gene to acquire ‘driver’ mutations that result in kinase activation.

Regulation of the inflammatory response is essential for the successful resolution of inflammation, and restoration of normal tissue homeostasis. Eosinophils are granulocytic cells of the innate immune system historically considered to be primarily involved in the defence against parasitic infection. Eosinophils are also key effector cells in the allergic inflammatory response, initiation of which is associated with the recruitment and activation of eosinophils culminating in the release of their intracellular granule contents. Eosinophil granules contain a range of cytotoxic proteins (major basic protein, eosinophil cationic protein and eosinophil peroxidase) that act to destroy infectious and parasitic organisms. However, these cytotoxic proteins can also cause damage to surrounding host tissue cells. The resolution of the inflammatory response acts to limit the extent of eosinophil-mediated tissue damage. Programmed cell death (apoptosis) of eosinophils represents an important component of this resolution process, limiting release of granule contents and triggering efferocytosis (the removal of apoptotic cells by phagocytes). Apoptosis is initiated by the activation of intracellular caspases, a family of cysteine proteases. Caspase activation primarily occurs as a result of changes in the balance of intracellular pro- and anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family proteins. Mcl-1, an anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 protein has been shown to play a pivotal role in the regulation of neutrophil apoptosis. Pharmacological down-regulation of Mcl-1 initiates apoptosis and promotes the resolution of neutrophil-dominant inflammation. The importance of Mcl-1 in the regulation of apoptosis was shown using cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (CDKis), where induction of neutrophil apoptosis by CDKis was due to down-regulation of intracellular Mcl-1. Apoptotic cells display distinct surface molecules known as ‘eat-me’ signals that identify them for phagocytosis by macrophages and other phagocytes. One key receptor involved in the removal of apoptotic cells from tissue is the receptor tyrosine kinase Mer, a member of the Tyro3/Axl/Mer (TAM) family, which recognises the ‘eat me’ signal phosphatidylserine expressed on apoptotic cells. In the absence of Mer expression, clearance of apoptotic cells is compromised delaying the resolution of neutrophil-dominant inflammation. However, the roles of Mcl-1 and Mer in eosinophil apoptosis and clearance, respectively, and the resolution of allergic inflammation are not known. Asthma is a chronic inflammatory lung disease characterised by shortness of breath, airway obstruction, wheeze, non-specific bronchial hyper-responsiveness, excessive airway mucus production and an eosinophil dominant inflammatory infiltrate. The persistent presence of eosinophils in the lung, in chronic asthma, is likely due to a combination of excessive eosinophil recruitment and activation together with impaired eosinophil apoptosis. Investigation into the underlying mechanisms of these processes in allergic airway disease is of critical importance, as blocking eosinophil recruitment and/or promoting eosinophil apoptosis could provide a therapeutic approach to reduce associated eosinophil-mediated tissue damage. Understanding the regulation of eosinophil apoptosis and phagocytic clearance may identify novel pharmacological targets to enhance the resolution of allergic inflammation. We hypothesise that Mcl-1 and Mer play vital roles in the successful resolution of allergic airway inflammation. To investigate this hypothesis, we have used pharmacological and genetic manipulation of intracellular eosinophil Mcl-1 levels, and phagocyte Mer expression, to determine the role they play in the regulation of eosinophil apoptosis and phagocytic clearance of apoptotic eosinophils, respectively. Human and mouse eosinophils were cultured, and rates of constitutive and CDKi-induced apoptosis were determined, to investigate eosinophil apoptosis in vitro. Mice expressing human Mcl-1 (hMcl-1) were used to determine the effect of over-expression of Mcl-1 on eosinophil viability in vitro. The effect of hMcl-1 on eosinophil viability and disease severity in vivo was determined using an ovalbumin-induced model of allergic airway inflammation, which mimicked the symptoms of human asthma. Apoptotic eosinophils were co-incubated with macrophages in vitro to investigate the capacity for phagocytosis by different macrophage populations. Apoptotic cell clearance was further investigated using a Mer-kinase-dead mouse, which lacked Mer expression, to determine the role of Mer-dependent phagocytosis on the process of resolution of inflammation in vivo. Over-expression of Mcl-1 in eosinophils significantly delayed both constitutive and CDKi-induced apoptosis in vitro. In vivo in the ovalbumin-induced model of allergic airway inflammation, over-expression of Mcl-1 resulted in a significantly increased number of eosinophils in the lung and delayed rate of resolution of allergic airway inflammation. Alveolar and bone marrow-derived macrophages exhibited Mer-dependent phagocytosis of eosinophils, which was significantly reduced by an inhibitor of Mer kinase activity (BMS777607) or lack of macrophage Mer expression. The absence of Mer expression resulted in a significant increase in the number of apoptotic eosinophils in the lung together with a delayed rate of resolution of allergic airway inflammation in vivo. Together this work has shown that delayed rates of eosinophil apoptosis and impaired phagocytic clearance both delayed the resolution of allergic airway inflammation. These data suggest that both Mcl-1 and Mer are pivotal for the successful regulation of eosinophil apoptosis and phagocytic clearance of apoptotic eosinophils in asthma and may provide attractive novel therapeutic targets.

A fagocitose de células apoptóticas, também denominada eferocitose, é um processo dinâmico e de fundamental importância para homeostase dos tecidos após uma injúria. Estudos demonstraram previamente que a fagocitose de células apoptóticas promove a síntese de mediadores anti-inflamatórios como PGE2, TGF-? e IL-10, podendo resultar num microambiente supressor e aumento da susceptibilidade do hospedeiro contra agentes infecciosos. Entretanto, a fagocitose de células apoptóticas infectadas por células dendríticas promove a geração não apenas de citocinas anti-inflamatórias como TGF-?, mas também de IL-6 e IL-23, levando a um efeito imunoestimulador, a diferenciação de células Th17. A atuação da PGE2 na imunidade adaptativa vem sendo investigada quanto à diferenciação e ativação de linfócitos Th1, Treg e Th17. Nossos resultados demonstram que a fagocitose de células apoptóticas infectadas com E. coli promove a ativação e migração de células dendríticas, assim como a produção de citocinas pró- e anti-inflamatórias e altos níveis de PGE2. No entanto, diferente da hipótese inicial, a presença de altas concentrações de PGE2 inibe drasticamente a diferenciação de células Th17 no contexto de fagocitose de células apoptóticas infectadas com E. coli por células dendríticas, in vitro. O tratamento de linfócitos T CD4+naive com antagonistas e agonistas de EP2/EP4 demonstram que o efeito supressor de PGE2 é mediado primordialmente pelo receptor EP4. Por fim, nossos resultados in vivo comprovam os resultados obtidos in vitro, demonstrando o papel supressor de PGE2 na diferenciação de células Th17 no contexto de fagocitose de células apoptóticas infectadas em modelo de infecção pulmonar.
The phagocytosis of apoptotic cells, also called efferocytosis, is a dynamic process critical for tissue homeostasis after injury. We and other groups previously have shown that phagocytosis of apoptotic cells promotes the synthesis of anti-inflammatory mediators such as PGE2, TGF-? and IL-10, that may result in the suppression of host defense against microorganisms. However, an elegant study using infected apoptotic cells showed that phagocytosis of these cells promote not only the generation of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as TGF-? but also IL-6 and IL-23, resulting in an immunostimulatory effect, the differentiation of Th17 cells. The role of PGE2 in adaptive immunity has been investigated regarding differentiation and activation of Th1, Th17 and Treg. Our results demonstrate that engulfment of E.coli infected apoptotic cells promotes the activation and migration of dendritic cells as well as production of pro and anti-inflammatory cytokines together with high levels of PGE2. However, differing from our hypothesis, high levels of PGE2 inhibits drastically the differentiation of Th17 cells on the context of engulfment of E.coli infected apoptotic cells by dendritic cells in vitro. The treatment of T CD4+naive cells with antagonist or agonists of EP2/EP4 receptors demonstrates the suppressor effect is mainly mediated by EP4 receptor. Finally, the instillation of E.coli infected apoptotic cells in E.coli infected animals resulted on modest Th17 increase but treatment with cox inhibitor increased Th17 cell differentiation. Therefore, our in vivo results prove the in vitro results.

Inflammation is an integral part of the body defense mechanism that occurs in vascularized tissue in response to harmful stimuli that is perceived as being a threat to tissue homeostasis. It is a complex physiological host response that is designed to neutralize and eliminate harmful agents, initiate tissue healing, and orchestrate a return to tissue homeostasis. While inflammation is designed to be an acute event that resolves following the elimination of harmful stimuli and tissue healing, there are instances where inflammation fails to resolve and instead evolves into chronic inflammation. It is now well understood that ongoing inflammation can serve as the underlying cause of many chronic inflammatory diseases, including atherosclerosis. In fact, one of the most pressing issues that is currently faced in the field of inflammation research, one that has also become the focus of numerous ongoing investigations, is how to turn this excessive, unwarranted and undesirable inflammation response off. Once thought to be a passive and simple process, resolution is now understood to be an active and complex process that is orchestrated by various inflammatory mediators, signaling pathways and biophysical processes. The discovery of novel biosynthetic pathways that turn on the pro-resolution signals has lead to a surge in research aimed at taking a closer look at processes that can stimulate the resolution of inflammation. While major advances in the field have resulted in a better understanding of the proactive nature of resolution, many of the mechanisms involved are still unknown. To date, the repertoire of chemokine receptors that participate in macrophage clearance during resolution, for the most part, remain unidentified. Overall, there is a growing appreciation that the discovery of mechanisms involved in the resolution responses can lead to the development of novel therapeutic approaches to resolve many chronic inflammatory diseases. Syndecan-1 (Sdc-1), a member of a family of cell surface proteoglycans, has been previously shown to regulate events relevant to tissue repair and chronic injury responses. Macrophage Sdc-1 expression during inflammation has been reported to be protective in various inflammatory models. Given these observations, we hypothesize that Sdc-1 expression on macrophages is a critical component of an anti-inflammatory, pro resolution program necessary for the successful resolution of inflammatory response. In this dissertation, we report the presence of a unique population of macrophages expressing Sdc-1 that are present within the vascular wall of mice undergoing atherosclerosis. Consistent with previous publications, the presence of Sdc-1 expressing macrophages was found to limit atherosclerosis progression. In addition, Sdc-1 expression on macrophages was associated with anti-inflammatory M2 polarization state and high intrinsic motility. Macrophage Sdc-1 expression was also linked with efferocytosis and enhanced macrophage egress from the site of inflammation to the draining lymphatic network. Moreover, we discovered that the chemokine receptor CXCR4, which was found on Sdc-1 expressing macrophages, was also involved in macrophage egress during inflammation resolution. In summary, while the overall mechanism regulating resolution processes is still unknown, our work has managed to identify two components that are involved in the process: macrophage Sdc-1 and CXCR4. Collectively, these results reinforce the physiological significance of macrophage efferocytosis and macrophage motility as endogenous modulators of the inflammatory response.

碩士
國立屏東科技大學
生物科技系所
106
Baicalin is the main active ingredient primary isolated from the Chinese herb (Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi). Although baicalin can induce M2 macrophage polarization, the subtype of macrophage polarized by baicalin is still unknown. In this study, we characterized that murine bone marrow derived macrophages (BMDM) can be polarized into M2C macrophages by baicalin. The mRNA and membrane protein expression specific to M1 and M2 macrophages were analyzed. Baicalin induced M2C polarization by increasing gene transcripts of interferon regulatory factor 4 (IRF4), interleukin-10 (IL-10), MERTK and PTX3; concomitantly by decreasing gene transcripts of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interferon regulatory factor 5 (IRF5), IL-6 and CD86 surface protein expression. In contrast, M2 macrophage polarized by IL-4 increased gene transcript of arginase-1 (Arg-1) and surface marker of CD206 indicating their identity of M2A compared to M2C polarized by baicalin. Interestingly, the phagocytosis/efferocytosis activity was significantly increased in M2 macrophage polarized by baicalin than that by IL-4 and these capacities were correlated with expression of MERTK surface protein of M2 macrophages. We also notice that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) can induce M1 macrophage polarization from BMDM cells in association with increased phagocytosis activity nevertheless they were lack of the expression of MERTK surface protein. However, M1 macrophages polarized by LPS increased gene transcript of pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α and IL-6. These results indicated that baicalin induced M2C macrophages subtype polarization with the elevation of anti-inflammatory activity and MERTK-associated phagocytosis/efferocytosis.

Phagocytic clearance of bacteria and apoptotic cells (a process termed efferocytosis) in COPD is critical to protect against microbial infection and lung tissue injury. The compromised phagocytic capacity of alveolar macrophages in COPD allows bacterial colonisation and is postulated to contribute to the disease severity. However, the precise mechanisms that lead to the macrophage phagocytic dysfunction in COPD remains incompletely understood. LC3-associated phagocytosis (LAP) is a recently discovered cellular event characterised as a critical regulator of effective processing of ingested microbes and apoptotic cells by macrophages. Defective LAP impairs the clearance of pathogens and apoptotic cells by macrophages. Therefore, experiments described in Chapter 2 used novel approaches to measure components of the LAP signalling system including TIM-4, Rubicon, LC3, Atg5, NOX2 in blood monocyte derived macrophages, differentiated THP-1 macrophages and lung tissues of mice exposed to cigarette smoke extract (CSE). Further, the expression of the LAP specific regulator, Rubicon, was examined in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL)-derived macrophages from COPD patients and healthy controls. The findings of this study showed for the first time that Rubicon/LAP is dysregulated in COPD as a result of CSE exposure. Moreover, the study found that Rubicon inhibition correlated with a defective efferocytosis capacity of alveolar macrophages, confirming a link between LAP inhibition and defective efferocytosis in COPD. Furthermore, this report characterises LAP as a potential therapeutic target for potentiating macrophage efferocytic function in COPD. Modulation of Rubicon/LAP requires a better understanding of the processes that lead to Rubicon/LAP inhibition in COPD. Hence, Chapter 3 of this thesis addressed the mechanisms of Rubicon inhibition by CSE. It was noted that CSE shortens the half-life of Rubicon protein but does not have significant effects on Rubicon mRNA levels. This led to the hypothesis that a protein degradation pathway may contribute to the reduction in Rubicon in macrophages exposed to the factors in cigarette smoke. Further observation that Rubicon degradation could be attenuated by anti-proteases and lysosomal enzyme inhibitors confirmed this hypothesis and demonstrated that lysosomal enzymes may mediate the Rubicon degradation. Moreover, alterations in autophagy or proteasomes did not have significant effects on Rubicon suggesting that Rubicon downregulation by CSE is independent of autophagy or proteasomes.
Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, Adelaide Medical School, 2022