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Published: 10 March 2023

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1

Doney, John Christopher. "The Catholic Enlightenment and Popular Education in the Prince-Bishopric of Würzburg, 1765–95." Central European History 21, no. 1 (March 1988): 3–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938900012644.

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In the last decades of the eighteenth century the Enlightenment (Aufklärung) flourished in Catholic Germany, developing a distinctive character there. Nothing lay more at the heart of enlightened interests than the reform of pedagogy, and in particular the education of children in parish schools and catechetical classes. This article focuses on the reform of popular education in the Prince-Bishopric (Hochstift) of Würzburg between 1765 and 1795 both to help in defining the goals and policies of the Catholic Enlightenment and to evaluate the extent of its success.

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2

Sanderson, M. "Prince Albert and the Development of Education in England and Germany in the Nineteenth Century." English Historical Review 117, no. 473 (September 1, 2002): 1004–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ehr/117.473.1004.

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3

Wiedermann, Gotthelf. "Alexander Alesius' Lectures on the Psalms at Cambridge, 1536." Journal of Ecclesiastical History 37, no. 1 (January 1986): 15–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022046900031894.

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In the summer of 1535 Anglo-German relatios assumed a new dimension. Faced with the prospect of a Catholic alliance on the continent and the possibility of a general council in the near future, Henry VIII was forced to consider more seriously than ever before a defensive alliance with the German Protestants. In August of that year, while Robert Barnes was approaching Wittenberg via Hamburg, commissioned by Henry both to prevent Melanchthon's rumoured visit to France and to make preparations for a full diplomatic mission to the princes of Lutheran Germany, Philip Melanchthon sent copies of the latest edition of his Loci Communes to the king of England, to whom they had been dedicated. The envoy on this mission was the Scottish Augustinian, Alexander Alesius, who was lecturing at the University of Wittenberg at that time. Alesius had received his own university education in St Andrews. Upon his graduation in 1515, he had entered the Augustinian priory there and subsequently proceeded to the study of theology. As a successful student of scholastic theology he had felt himself called to refute Lutheran theology as soon as it began to be debated in Scotland. In February 1528 he was commissioned to bring about the recantation of Patrick Hamilton, but the discussions with this first martyr of the Scottish Reformation as well as the latter's steadfast death at the stake led to a profound questioning of his own convictions. In the following year Alesius emerged as a severe critic ofthe old Church, for which he paid dearly by persecution and imprisonment. After an adventurous escape from St Andrews and months of travelling he finally reached Wittenburg, where he was inscribed in the faculty of arts in October 1532. So far very litde is known about Alesius' activities in Wittenberg. Yet there are two reasons why some elucidation of his academic activities and theological development during his three years at Wittenberg is highly desirable. First, it would be surprising indeed if his first experiences at this university, and especially the direct contact with Luther and Melanchthon, had not left a mark on his thought and career as a reformer. Second, his close friendship with the English reformers and his involvement in the doctrinal debates in England during the late 1530s suggests that Alesius formed an important link between the Reformation in England and in Germany.

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4

Anna, Mallek. "Pedagogika muzealna. Cele, idea, kierunek rozwoju i zastosowanie w praktyce na przykładzie „lekcji muzealnej” w polskim muzeum historycznym." Problemy Wczesnej Edukacji 28, no. 1 (March 31, 2015): 114–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0008.5676.

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Museum education is a subdiscipline of Pedagogy which has been changing rapidly during the current century. The beginning of such education was inevitably related to the origin of the museum. The richest royal men as kings, princes and priests set up their own individual collections which were displayed only to chosen people. The fi rst museums are claimed to have existed during the Italian Renaissance, for instance Pope Sixtus IV hired Michaelangelo Buonarrotti to create a special place for ancient collections. During the French Revolution it was believed that art had got an unique ability to rehabilitate those members of society who suffered from alcoholism and other kinds of pathology. The Louvre was opened to the public in 1793 and, since that time, art collections have started to be organised in special exhibition form. At the end of the 19th century two German art historians and educationists Alfred Lichtwark and Georg Kerchensteiner started to form a special educational programme for children and young people, concerning the museum collection. In the history of Pedagogy they are claimed to be the forerunners of museum education which has been developing into one of the most infl uential and potential kinds of cultural education in the 21st century. Among history studies, I would like to present museum education in the context of one selected Polish historical museum and then analyze and interpret the ‘museum lesson’ in comparison with contemporary movements in museology and critical, progressive pedagogy.

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5

Louthan, Howard, and H. C. Erik Midelfort. "Mad Princes of Renaissance Germany." Journal of Interdisciplinary History 26, no. 4 (1996): 706. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/205065.

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6

Winter, E. L. "Book Review: Prinz Albert und die Entwicklung der Bildung in England und Deutschland im 19. Jahrhundert--Prince Albert and the Development of Education in England and Germany in the 19th Century." German History 20, no. 1 (January 1, 2002): 128–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026635540202000115.

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7

Mora, George. "Mad princes of renaissance Germany." Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 34, no. 1 (1998): 107–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1520-6696(199824)34:1<107::aid-jhbs37>3.0.co;2-t.

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8

Cheyette, Fredric L., and Benjamin Arnold. "Princes and Territories in Medieval Germany." Journal of Interdisciplinary History 25, no. 3 (1995): 494. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/205720.

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9

Freed, John B., and Benjamin Arnold. "Princes and Territories in Medieval Germany." American Historical Review 97, no. 3 (June 1992): 831. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2164799.

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10

Gekht, Anton. "Prince Eugene of Sweden. A painter’s brief biography." Scandinavian Philology 20, no. 2 (2022): 402–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/11701/spbu21.2022.211.

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This article tells about the main stages of the biography of the famous Scandinavian painter Prince Eugene, a representative of the Bernadotte dynasty, who left a noticeable mark on the history of Swedish culture. Having no prospects of ever taking the royal throne, Eugene, after receiving the traditional upbringing and education for the heir to the throne, devoted himself to the study of painting. Having experienced the serious influence of the French Impressionist masters of the last third of the 19th century during his studies in Paris, he worked fruitfully in various genres for a long time, leaving an extensive creative legacy: his brush owns not only numerous canvases presented both in leading museums in Sweden and world-class collections (the British Museum, the Metropolitan Museum), but also monuments of monumental painting — in particular, frescoes in the Stockholm City Hall and the Royal Drama Theater. The activity of Prince Eugene as a representative of the Swedish royal court during the period on the eve of the dissolution of the Swedish-Norwegian union is a significant research interest. Prince Eugene made certain efforts to preserve the unity of Sweden and Norway by popularizing such ideas in the Norwegian creative environment, where he had wide acquaintances and a certain popularity and was even proposed by such famous figures of Norwegian culture as K. Hamsun and B. Bjornson as a possible candidate for the role of king of Norway. The prince-artist is also noteworthy as a public figure who held anti-Nazi positions during the period before and during World War II: he not only condemned the policies of the Third Reich, but also criticized Swedish public figures who expressed sympathy for the actions of the Nazi regime in Germany. Nowadays, the extensive creative heritage of Prince Eugene is on display in the collection of the art museum located in his estate Waldemarsudde in Stockholm, where he lived and worked for most of his life and where he was buried after his death.

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11

Beck, H. "Royals and the Reich: The Princes von Hessen in Nazi Germany." German History 29, no. 1 (September 2, 2010): 153–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gerhis/ghq083.

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12

Julia, Dominique. "Princes et élèves : les études des princes d’Orléans sous l’autorité de Madame de Genlis (1782-1792)." Histoire de l'éducation, no. 151 (January 15, 2019): 63–121. http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/histoire-education.4460.

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13

Sen, Satadru. "Book Review: Sovereign Spheres: Princes, Education and Empire in Colonial India." Studies in History 20, no. 2 (August 2004): 340–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/025764300402000211.

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14

Bartlett, R. "Germany in the Early Middle Ages, 800-1056; Princes and Territories in Medieval Germany; Count and Bishop in Medieval Germany: A Study of Regional Power, 1100-1350." German History 10, no. 3 (July 1, 1992): 421–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gh/10.3.421.

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15

Lamberti, M. "Education in Nazi Germany." German History 29, no. 3 (March 7, 2011): 530–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gerhis/ghr017.

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16

Datsenko, Pavel. "The Congress of the German Princes in Frankfurt in 1863: the Last Attempt to Reform the German Confederation." ISTORIYA 12, no. 6 (104) (2021): 0. http://dx.doi.org/10.18254/s207987840016086-3.

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The article examines the preparation and holding of the congress of German princes in Frankfurt am Main in 1863. Being an important stage in the Austro-Prussian rivalry for dominance in Germany, the congress was at the same time the highest point in the efforts of the reform group of German states by absorbing the experience of plans for the development of the Federal Constitution of 1815, the plans which had been discussed since 1849. The article pays particular attention to the role of ministers and princes of the middle German states, who tried during the congress to balance the Austrian project and prevent not only the excessive strengthening of Austria and Prussia, but also the rejection of the reform by public opinion. The defeat of the project in this context was a consequence of not only the Bismarck’s politics against the Confederation, but also of mistakes made by the Austria, who didn’t understand all the complexities of the reform and failed to redirect its strategy to support the middle states that fought to keep Germany on the path of a smooth transition from the confederative model to the federative and to preserve the equality between the members of the Confederation as a historical basis of German federalism.

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17

Hope, Nicholas. "The View from the Province. A Dilemma for Protestants in Germany, 1648–1918." Journal of Ecclesiastical History 41, no. 4 (October 1990): 606–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022046900075746.

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Uber dem Berg gibst auch Leute. This ultramontane remark made in 1742 by Christoph Matthäus Pfaff, professor of theology and chancellor of Tübingen University between 1720 and 1756, was intended to shake students out of their cosy, provincial and exclusive Lutheran theology. It was time, so Pfaff argued, they opened windows, put aside their arrogant hair-splitting about correct Lutheran doctrine, and looked at the wider Protestant world beyond Württemberg. Knowledge of the sources of the Christian Church, and of the customs and legal shape of Protestantism in Germany as it had developed since the Reformation, provided the only sure defence of the Protestant Church in an age when autocratic behaviour was fashionable with princes, and the temporal authority of Popes Clement xi and Clement XII was still an inescapable fact.

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18

Taylor, Peter K. "“Patrimonial” Bureaucracy and “Rational” Policy in Eighteenth-Century Germany: The Case of Hessian Recruitment Reforms, 1762–93." Central European History 22, no. 1 (March 1989): 33–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938900010815.

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Until the 1950s the historical reputation of the eighteenth-century rulers of Hesse-Cassel rested primarily upon their practice of financing state and court expenses by leasing conscripted and trained military units to Europe's major powers. Over the course of the last forty years another picture has emerged which stresses that these petty German absolutists participated in a movement of “Enlightened” reform. More recent attempts to reconcile apparent enlightenment with a military and financial system based on involuntary military servitude have noted contradictory labyrinths of means, ends, theory, and practice. What I offer in the following pages is not an attempt to soften these antinomies but an effort to highlight them through historical analysis of the military reforms of Landgrave Frederick II (1760–85). In this way I hope to contribute to a critical account of bureaucratic “rationality” as eighteenth-century absolutist princes practiced it.

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19

Renault, Rachel. "Eine moralische Ökonomie der Steuern?" Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte / Economic History Yearbook 62, no. 2 (November 1, 2021): 303–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jbwg-2021-0012.

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Abstract This article analyses the conflicts over imperial taxation in 17th-18th century Germany at local level. As imperial taxes have been mostly studied for the 16th century and usually from the perspective of Vienna, observing them from below gives a completely different perspective. One can observe, in particular, very strong and long-lasting conflicts between subjects and territorial princes. The article defends the idea that taxation conflicts are not only due to the size of the tax burden, but also linked to social and political considerations. They provide an excellent vantage point for analysing the Empire from below and the popular politics that emerged within the imperial body politic.

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20

Rajšp, Vincenc. "Ob 500-letnici Luthrovega nastopa na državnem zboru v Wormsu ▪︎ On the 500th Anniversary of Luther’s Appearance at the Diet of Worms." Stati inu obstati, revija za vprašanja protestantizma 17, no. 33 (June 20, 2021): 47–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.26493/2590-9754.17(33)47-70.

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Following the publication of Luther’s theses on 31 October 1517, the Diet of Worms was the next fundamental step in the reform movement of the 16th-century European Christianity. In the “Holy Roman Empire,” the way was opened for further religious and new institutional development in the previously unified church, culminating in the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, which granted individual rulers of political units in the country, princes, prince-bishops etc. the right to decide on the religion of their Catholic and Lutheran subjects. The immediate cause of “Worms 1521” and the consequent “Edict of Worms” were two papal bulls addressed to Luther. The first, Exsurge Domine from 1520, threatened him with excommunication unless he recanted almost one half of the theses published in 1517. Luther responded by proclaiming the pope the Antichrist, although he had until then somewhat avoided criticising him, and publicly burned the bull in December of the same year. Exsurge Domine was followed in January 1521 by the bull Decet Romanum Pontificem excommunicating Luther, which also meant death sentence and exile from the state. According to the established doctrine and practice the execution of the sentence would follow automatically. This doctrine was rejected by Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, who was not convinced by the arguments about Luther’s “heresy” and demanded judgement by domestic experts and authorities. He had his University of Wittenberg in mind, which firmly defended Luther’s views. Frederick the Wise reached the agreement with Emperor Charles that “the case of Luther” would be discussed at the Diet, and that Luther was guaranteed safe arrival in Worms and return to Wittenberg. Luther appeared before the Diet on April 17 and 18. The party representing Luther’s conviction gave him only the option of renouncing the convicted theses, which is why he requested more time for reconsideration and was granted the emperor’s personal permission. The next day, on April 18, Luther performed brilliantly, to which the emperor personally responded on April 19. Thus, Emperor Charles and the monk Luther literally stood opposite each other at the Diet, in front of the highest representatives of the state, which was previously completely unimaginable. Both presented their religious perceptions and understandings, referring to their own conscience. They were in a very unequal position not only as emperor and monk; it was a much more sensitive matter, since the emperor was religiously “free” while Luther was a validly convicted and excommunicated “heretic”. The case of Luther at the Diet was far from solely religious in nature, but rather a reflection of the broader socio-religious situation at the turning point in history. The conflict culminated in the contradictions between “cultural” Rome and barbaric “Germanism”, as perfectly illustrated by the correspondence of the papal nuncio, Girolamo Aleandro the elder. The great understanding for Luther’s resistance to Rome was supported at the Diet by decades-old German complaints (gravamina) debated at Diets, which were not taken seriously in Rome. The most notable figures in the case of Luther (causa Lutheri) at the Diet were: Martin Luther, Emperor Charles V, Elector of Saxony Frederick the Wise, and the papal nuncio Girolamo Aleandro the elder. Although at the end of the Diet each of them was “victorious” in one way or another, the actual winner was Martin Luther, who achieved unprecedented success only by appearing before the Diet, not renouncing the convicted theses and being able to return to Wittenberg under the emperor’s protection. It is true that he published his fundamental reform writings as early as 1520, but the door for the Reformation has only now opened. After Luther was “abducted” on his way back, he undertook the translation of the Bible into German, which became the only recognized religious basis, and he incorporated his theology into the translation. He used his native, German language to communicate the faith. This was already demonstrated at the Diet, where he spoke first in German and only then in Latin for those who did not understand German, e.g. the emperor and the papal nuncio Aleandro. Pamphlets (Flugschriften) handed out in the streets also reported about the events at the Diet in German. At first glance, the conclusion of the Diet was not favorable for Luther. The Edict of Worms, dated May 8 and signed by the emperor on May 26, as an act of the emperor and not as a resolution of the Diet, legitimized Luther’s conviction. The edict was drafted by the nuncio Aleandro, and partly also by Peter Bonomo, later Trubar’s teacher. However, the edict did not have fatal consequences for Luther, because the emperor did not send it to the province of Saxony; consequently Frederick, Elector of Saxony, did not have to declare it, so the edict did not apply where the “heretic” lived. This, in turn, enabled Luther to continue working as both a religious reformer and a university professor at the University of Wittenberg, which became a central institution for the education of Lutheran reformers.

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21

Erdal, Marcel. "Uigurica from dunhuang." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 51, no. 2 (June 1988): 251–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0041977x00114569.

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Since the early years of this century, there has been a steady flow of publications containing editions of Uigur texts found in the Turfan region and brought to Germany. Not so the Uigur MSS of Dunhuang, which are kept in London and Paris. A good start was made by Le Coq, Thomsen and Pelliot in 1911–1914. Twenty years later, Bang, Gabain and Rachmati published the ‘Sūtra of Eight Heaps’. Another forty years were to elapse before the appearance of further material. Moriyasu mentions hundreds of MSS found in the cave which was given the number 181. There have, on the other hand, been multiple editions: The ‘ Story of the Two Princes’ was edited three times; recently, an Uigur text in Tibetan script was published—twice.

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22

Pernau, Margrit. "Book Review: Sovereign Spheres: Princes, Education and Empire and Colonial India." Indian Economic & Social History Review 41, no. 4 (December 2004): 499–501. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/001946460404100411.

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23

Sassenberg, Marina. "The Face of Janus." European Judaism 33, no. 2 (September 1, 2000): 72–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/ej.2000.330209.

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As the unification of contemporary Europe becomes a reality, new questions arise about a common cultural identity. In this context, research on a common European Jewish heritage has achieved wide public interest. Involving economic and political, cultural and religious, social and academic questions, the history of the Hoffaktoren, as they were called in German, was not constrained by European borders. It is the history of those entrepreneurs, bankers, politicians and diplomats, who served their princes throughout seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Europe, which serves perfectly as a research field relating to European identity. Though centred on Germany, Austria and Holland, the history of the Court Jews had a decisive influence on many other countries, such as Spain, Portugal, Denmark, Poland, Hungary, Italy, England and Ireland

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24

Lovett, A. W. "The Vote of the Millones (1590)." Historical Journal 30, no. 1 (March 1987): 1–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0018246x00021890.

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The efforts of Charles V (1500–58) to consolidate and defend his hereditary possessions gave a powerful boost to the development of public credit in western Europe. To meet a scale of expenditure which surpassed anything seen before, Imperial agents had recourse to an entirely new series of financial devices, necessity providing, as it normally did, the spur to invention. Charles V's servants exploited the facilities of the Antwerp Bourse to encourage the investing public to sink its money into government debt rather than commercial enterprises or speculations in commodities. Additional funds were raised on the credit-worthiness of provincial taxgatherers in the Low Countries. Thanks to the ingenuity of his financial advisers, the emperor survived the dramatic collapse of his position in Germany during the spring of 1552; and he was able shortly after to attempt the recovery of the Imperial bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun, which the Lutheran princes had bartered away in their bid for French support.

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25

Sparrow, Elizabeth. "The Swiss and Swabian Agencies, 1795–1801." Historical Journal 35, no. 4 (December 1992): 861–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0018246x00026194.

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AbstractThis article continues an examination of the British government's counter-revolutionary organization begun in ‘The Alien Office 1792-1806’, The Historical Journal, XXXIII (1990), which outlined the department's functions and secret service policy. The Swiss and Swabian agencies were one aspect of British foreign secret service; they linked the French princes' secret agents to the British government under the central European control of William Wickham, ambassador in Berne 1794–7, and military and diplomatic subsidiaries. Anti-republican secret committees were set up covering all France, Switzerland, northern Italy and southern Germany, which included members from every grade of society. French republican generals, even Ministers were swayed, allowing infiltration of the French secret police. British control was however limited to the finesse of finance – bribery was implicit. By never offering enough to the leaders and too much to assistants, initial constitutional intentions slid into subversion and assassination. The first complete andfully documented description is included of how, why, and by whom, the French deputies were assassinated at Rastadt.

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26

Fulbrook, Mary. "Education and Absolutism in Eighteenth-Century Germany." Historical Journal 34, no. 3 (September 1991): 759–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0018246x00017611.

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27

Greene, Jody. "Francis Kirkman's Counterfeit Authority: Autobiography, Subjectivity, Print." PMLA/Publications of the Modern Language Association of America 121, no. 1 (January 2006): 17–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1632/003081206x96096.

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This essay explores the relation between print culture and literary authority in seventeenth-century England, through the career of the rogue author, translator, and autobiographer Francis Kirkman. Barred from traditional forms of authority by his middle-class birth and rudimentary education, Kirkman claimed new forms of self-authorization promised by the press. In his autobiography, The Unlucky Citizen, as well as in his biography of the impersonator Mary Carleton, the self-styled “German Princess,” Kirkman developed strategies of counterfeiting authority to compensate for the traditional entitlements he, like Carleton, lacked. These strategies involved harnessing the press to circulate authoritative versions of his authorial persona that were intended to substitute for his unauthorized status. Kirkman's ultimate failure to “gain some Reputation by being in Print” is instructive for scholars interested in the history of autobiography and in the changing conditions of authorship in the first era of print culture. (JG)

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28

Grandière, Marcel. "MEYER (Jean). – L’éducation des princes en Europe du XVe au XIXe siècle." Histoire de l'éducation, no. 113 (January 1, 2007): 165–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/histoire-education.1386.

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29

Milton, Patrick. "The Early Eighteenth-Century German Confessional Crisis: The Juridification of Religious Conflict in the Reconfessionalized Politics of the Holy Roman Empire." Central European History 49, no. 1 (March 2016): 39–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938916000042.

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AbstractThe success of the treaties of Westphalia in preserving the religious peace in the Holy Roman Empire after 1648 has been a popular scholarly theme. Many historians also realize, however, that confessional tensions and confrontations persisted well into the eighteenth century. Exploring an early eighteenth-century German confessional crisis centered in the Palatinate, this article focuses on the degree to which judicial, political, and diplomatic mechanisms successfully regulated and deescalated confessional strife. In short, it looks at the “juridification” of confessional conflict in the Empire. In so doing, it addresses a number of underresearched themes, such as the reactions of the Catholic princes and the Emperor, the internal dynamics within theCorpus Evangelicorum, as well as the international dimension of European great power politics. This not only provides a multiangle analysis of a crisis that saw the emergence of a new regime in the politics of religion, but also offers greater insight into the relationship between the powerful, militarized Protestant territorial-states of northern Germany and the Habsburg emperorship, specifically with regard to the judicial authority of the latter.

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30

Balfour, M. "RE-EDUCATION IN GERMANY AFTER 1945: SOME.FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS." German History 5, no. 5 (January 1, 1987): 25–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gerhis/5.5.25.

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31

Bernhardt, John W. "Princes and Territories in Medieval Germany. By Benjamin Arnold. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1991. Pp. xiv + 314. $54.50. ISBN 0-521-39085-0." Central European History 25, no. 1 (March 1992): 98–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938900019737.

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32

Conze, Eckart. "Royals and the Reich: The Princes von Hessen in Nazi Germany. By Jonathan Petropoulos. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. Pp. xx+524. $37.50." Journal of Modern History 80, no. 3 (September 2008): 715–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/593443.

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33

Leonteva, V. "Russian language education in Germany." Linguistics & Polyglot Studies 7, no. 4 (November 25, 2021): 65–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.24833/2410-2423-2021-4-28-65-69.

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Russian is one of the languages which are learnt in Germany at any educational level. Though today it has lost its positions in the rate of foreign languages chosen by the Germans, there are many interesting projects and initiatives supporting and maintaining the status of the Russian language in Germany. In this paper, I am going to give an overview of the history of cultural relations between Russia and Germany, try to explain the reasons of the current situation and describe the perspectives of the Russian language in today’s Germany. By way of examples, I will discuss such events and projects as “To4ka-Treff”, “RussoMobil” and the activities of the Russian culture centers in Germany, as well as programs in Russian as a foreign language at schools and universities in Germany.

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Mykhailova, O. V. "Woman in art: a breath of beauty in the men’s world." Aspects of Historical Musicology 17, no. 17 (September 15, 2019): 163–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.34064/khnum2-17.11.

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Background. А history of the development of the human community is at the same time a history of the relationship between men and women, their role in society, in formation of mindset, development of science, technology and art. A woman’s path to the recognition of her merits is a struggle for equality and inclusion in all sectors of public life. Originated with particular urgency in the twentieth century, this set of problems gave impetus to the study of the female phenomenon in the sociocultural space. In this context, the disclosure of the direct contribution of talented women to art and their influence on its development has become of special relevance. The purpose of the article is to summarize segmental of information that highlights the contribution of women to the treasury of world art, their creative and inspiring power. Analytical, historical-biographical and comparative studying methods were applied to reveal the gender relationships in art and the role of woman in them as well as in the sociocultural space in general. The results from this study present a panorama of gifted women from the world of art and music who paved the way for future generations. Among them are: A. Gentileschi (1593–1653), who was the first woman admitted to The Florence Academy of Art; M. Vigee Le Brun (1755–1842), who painted portraits of the French aristocracy and later became a confidant of Marie-Antoinette; B. Morisot (1841–1895), who was accepted by the impressionists in their circle and repeatedly exhibited her works in the Paris Salon; F. Caccini (1587–1640), who went down in history as an Italian composer, teacher, harpsichordist, author of ballets and music for court theater performances; J. Kinkel (1810–1858) – the first female choral director in Germany, who published books about musical education, composed songs on poems of famous poets, as well as on her own texts; F. Mendelssohn (1805–1847) – German singer, pianist and composer, author of cantatas, vocal miniatures of organ preludes, piano pieces; R. Clark (1886–1979) – British viola player and composer who created trio, quartets, compositions for solo instruments, songs on poems of English poets; L. Boulanger (1893–1918) became the first woman to receive Grand Prix de Rome; R. Tsekhlin (1926–2007) – German harpsichordist, composer and teacher who successfully combined the composition of symphonies, concerts, choral and vocal opuses, operas, ballets, music for theatrical productions and cinema with active performing and teaching activities, and many others. The article emphasise the contribution of women-composers, writers, poetesses to the treasury of world literature and art. Among the composers in this row is S. Gubaidulina (1931), who has about 30 prizes and awards. She wrote music for 17 films and her works are being performed by famous musicians around the world. The glory of Ukrainian music is L. Dychko (1939) – the author of operas, oratorios, cantatas, symphonies, choral concertos, ballets, piano works, romances, film music. The broad famous are the French writers: S.-G. Colette (1873–1954), to which the films were devoted, the performances based on her novels are going all over the world, her lyrics are being studied in the literature departments. She was the President of the Goncourt Academy, Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, a square in the center of Paris is named after her. Also, creativity by her compatriot, L. de Vilmorin (1902–1969), on whose poems С. Arrieu, G. Auric, F. Poulenc wrote vocal miniatures, is beloved and recognized as in France as and widely abroad. The article denotes a circle of women who combined the position of a selfsufficient creator and a muse for their companion. M. Verevkina (1860–1938) – a Russian artist, a representative of expressionism in painting, not only helped shape the aesthetic views of her husband A. Yavlensky, contributing to his art education, but for a long time “left the stage” for to not compete with him and help him develop his talent fully. Furthermore, she managed to anticipate many of the discoveries as for the use of light that are associated with the names of H. Matisse, A. Derain and other French fauvist. F. Kahlo (1907–1954), a Mexican artist, was a strict critic and supporter for her husband D. Rivera, led his business, was frequently depicted in his frescoes. C. Schumann (1819–1896) was a committed promoter of R. Schumann’s creativity. She performed his music even when he was not yet recognized by public. She included his compositions in the repertoire of her students after the composer lost his ability to play due to the illness of the hands. She herself performed his works, making R. Schumann famous across Europe. In addition, Clara took care of the welfare of the family – the main source of finance was income from her concerts. The article indicates the growing interest of the twentieth century composers to the poems of female poets. Among them M. Debord-Valmore (1786–1859) – a French poetess, about whom S. Zweig, P. Verlaine and L. Aragon wrote their essays, and her poems were set to music by C. Franck, G. Bizet and R. Ahn; R. Auslender (1901–1988) is a German poetess, a native of Ukraine (Chernovtsy city), author of more than 20 collections, her lyrics were used by an American woman-composer E. Alexander to write “Three Songs” and by German composer G. Grosse-Schware who wrote four pieces for the choir; I. Bachmann (1926–1973) – the winner of three major Austrian awards, author of the libretto for the ballet “Idiot” and opera “The Prince of Hombur”. The composer H. W. Henze, in turn, created music for the play “Cicadas” by I. Bachmann. On this basis, we conclude that women not only successfully engaged in painting, wrote poems and novels, composed music, opened «locked doors», destroyed established stereotypes but were a powerful source of inspiration. Combining the roles of the creator and muse, they helped men reach the greatest heights. Toward the twentieth century, the role of the fair sex representatives in the world of art increased and strengthened significantly, which led Western European culture to a new round of its evolution.

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35

Dudarev, Vasiliy. "The Dispute over the Imperial Title: the Traditionalism of William I and the Policy of State Interests of Otto Von Bismarck." Novaia i noveishaia istoriia, no. 1 (2022): 30. http://dx.doi.org/10.31857/s013038640018256-9.

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The logical conclusion of the Franco-German War was, according to many contemporaries, the proclamation of the German Empire headed by King William I of Prussia. At the very last moment, a bitter dispute erupted between him and the Iron Chancellor of the North German Confederation, Otto von Bismarck, over the need for the imperial title and its form. There are several interesting sources related to this largely unexplored subject, and their examination will complement the history of the proclamation of the German Empire, bringing to light one of the most dramatic episodes in the long history of the relationship between the Emperor and his Chancellor. Bismarck associated the assumption of the imperial title with the success of the continued process of imperial integration. That was beyond the mere desire of Wilhelm I for the German princes to recognise the supremacy of the Prussian crown in Germany. The result of Bismarck's initiative in preparing the Kaiserbrief was that Wilhelm I agreed to assume the imperial title. The date of 18 January 1871 was chosen for the proclamation of the German Empire – a symbolic date, since the Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, Friedrich III, was crowned King of Prussia on 18 January 1701. The dispute between Wilhelm I and Bismarck continued over the form of the title. The difference between the title of “Emperor of Germany”, as insisted upon by Wilhelm I, and that of “German Emperor”, as suggested by Bismarck, was not simply a matter of drawing on different historical traditions. The title “Emperor of Germany” carried with it the danger of a territorial claim by the Reich to German lands that were not part of the newly created empire. This dispute culminated in the Grand Duke of Baden Frederick I declaring a triple hurrah for William I in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles.

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36

Balfour, M. "RE-EDUCATION IN GERMANY AFTER 1945: SOME FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS." German History 5, no. 1 (January 1, 1987): 25–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gh/5.1.25.

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Blessing, B. "Learning Democracy: Education Reform in West Germany, 1945-1965." German History 28, no. 4 (August 10, 2010): 606–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gerhis/ghq030.

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38

Luchtenberg, Sigrid. "Perspectives on Bilingual Education in Germany." Journal of Intercultural Studies 15, no. 2 (January 1994): 73–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07256868.1994.9963417.

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Hewitson, Mark. "Princes’ Wars, Wars of the People, or Total War? Mass Armies and the Question of a Military Revolution in Germany, 1792–1815." War in History 20, no. 4 (November 2013): 452–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0968344513483071.

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40

CHOI, Jae-Ho. "Establishment of the Federal Republic of Germany and its History Education: Focusing on Modern and contemporary History Education in West Germany, 1949-1959." Korean Society of the History of Historiography 40 (December 31, 2019): 283–315. http://dx.doi.org/10.29186/kjhh.2019.40.283.

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41

Ku, Yangmo. "The Politics of Historical Memory in Germany." Journal of Educational Media, Memory, and Society 2, no. 2 (September 1, 2010): 75–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/jemms.2010.020206.

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Prior to the late 1960s, German history textbooks lacked coverage of Poland and depicted Germany's eastern neighbor with negative images. The 1970s and 1980s, however, witnessed positive changes to the contents of German school textbooks—particularly with respect to their descriptions of Poland and German-Polish relations. How and why did Germany promote a more reflective view of history and correct negative descriptions of the Poles in German history textbooks between the 1970s and 1980s? This article addresses this question by focusing on the influence of Brandt's Ostpolitik and on the activities of the German-Polish History Textbook Commission. The article also shows how contemporary conservative reaction was not powerful enough to reverse these positive changes to German history textbooks.

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42

Kennedy, Katharine D., and Ann Taylor Allen. "Feminism and Motherhood in Germany, 1800-1914." History of Education Quarterly 33, no. 2 (1993): 270. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/368360.

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Graumann, O. "History of teacher education in Germany and Western European countries." Lifelong education: the XXI century 3, no. 3 (October 2013): 57–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.15393/j5.art.2013.2146.

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Nochvina, B. A., and N. V. Starikova. "Political Education of Young People in Germany: History and Modernity." Общество: философия, история, культура, no. 12 (2022): 200–204. http://dx.doi.org/10.24158/fik.2022.12.31.

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45

Connelly, John. "East German Higher Education Policies and Student Resistance, 1945–1948." Central European History 28, no. 3 (September 1995): 259–300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938900011845.

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Those who opposed Communist rule in East Germany often did so because Communism in practice strongly reminded them of the fascism they had experienced in the Third Reich. The new East German regime was also one that attempted total control of people's lives; therefore it became natural to describe it as totalitär. Most sensitive to the similarities between the old and new regimes were university students. They displayed stronger direct opposition to the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) in the years from 1946–1949 than any other social group. This is reflected in the political battles that were fought in universities during these years, leading to SED election failures in the elections of the postwar years: 1946/47 and late 1947. The latter were the last freely contested elections in East Germany until 1989. It is also reflected in the disproportionate number of students arrested by Soviet and East German authorities in the early postwar years.

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Krüger, Michael. "Gymnastics, Physical Education, Sport, and Christianity in Germany." International Journal of the History of Sport 35, no. 1 (January 2, 2018): 9–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2018.1496084.

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Jones, Larry Eugene, and Elizabeth Harvey. "Youth and the Welfare State in Weimar Germany." History of Education Quarterly 35, no. 2 (1995): 222. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/369655.

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48

Puaca, Brian M. "Navigating the Waves of Change: Political Education and Democratic School Reform in Postwar West Berlin." History of Education Quarterly 48, no. 2 (May 2008): 244–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5959.2008.00142.x.

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In the aftermath of the Second World War, Germany found itself defeated, destroyed, occupied, and ultimately divided. The eastern portion of Germany fell under Soviet administration, while the western part came under joint occupation by the three victorious western Allies (the United States, the United Kingdom, and France). Recognizing at an early date that rebuilding Germany would promote political stability, economic growth, and peace in central Europe, the western Allies set out to reconstruct the defeated nation. The schools were an important part of this project. Many observers argued that without substantial reform to the educational system, German nationalism, militarism, and xenophobia might once again lead to conflict. In the western zones, particularly in the American zone, democratizing the schools took on great importance by 1947. This effort, however, was short-lived. The occupation of Germany ended in 1949, leaving many Americans with the sense that school reform was incomplete.

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Mustonen, Tero, Sergei V. Sokolovskiy, Hugh Beach, and Jessica Kantarovich. "Book Reviews." Sibirica 17, no. 2 (June 1, 2018): 121–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/sib.2018.170209.

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The World of the Khanty Epic Hero-Princes: An Exploration of a Siberian Oral Tradition Arthur Hatto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 246 pp., bibliography, index. $99.99 (hardcover). ISBN 978-1-107-10321-4A. A. Nikishenkov: “Izobretaia traditsiiu” i sozdavaia “voobrazhaemye soobschestva” Edited by E. V. Mis’kova and A. V. Tutorskii (Moscow: Novyi khronograf, 2017), 272 pp., 1 illustration. Moscow State University Historical Department Transactions, Number 90; Series II: Historical Studies, Number 46. Paperback. ISBN 978-5-94881-301-1Leaving Footprints in the Taiga: Luck, Spirits and Ambivalence among the Siberian Orochen Reindeer Herders and Hunters Donatas Brandišauskas (New York: Berghahn Books, 2017), 305 pp., 32 illustrations, bibliography, index. $120.00 (hardcover). ISBN 978-1-78533-238-8Oral History Meets Linguistics Edited by Erich Kasten, Katja Roller, and Joshua Wilbur (Fürstenberg/Havel, Germany: Kulturstiftung Sibirien, 2017), 211 pp., 12 color photos. €26.00 (paperback). ISBN 978-3-942883-30-6

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Witkowski, Rafał. "The Catalogue of the Library of Duke Alexander Louis Radziwiłł in Nesvizh (1651)." Bibliotheca Lituana 2 (October 25, 2012): 329–427. http://dx.doi.org/10.15388/bibllita.2012.2.15592.

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The studies on book culture and the functioning of various libraries have been present in academic circle for many decades. For obvious reasons the interest in books among the illustrious members of Radziwiłł magnate family as well as their scope of activity as the patrons of culture have been analyzed by historians. In the context, the history of the famous Radziwiłł library in Nesvizh can be considered as a separate research topic. This magnificent collection was confiscated after the first partition of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1772) by order of Empress Catherine the Great. Some 15.000 volumes were transported to Saint Petersburg and offered to the Russian Academy of Sciences and Fine Arts (later Russian Academy of Sciences).Nicolas Radziwiłł the Black (1515–1565) is considered to be the founder of the Nesvizh library; however, its full development can be dated back to the time of Nicholas Christopher Radziwiłł “the Orphan” (1549–1616), who rebuilt the ducal palace and organized a library in one of the specially adopted rooms. The Nesvizh collection has been enriched by numerous donations, including that of cardinal and bishop of Vilnius George Radziwiłł (1556–1600), Sigismund Charles Radziwiłł (1591–1642), and many other members ofthe family.The presented catalogue was compiled under the request of Duke Alexander Louis Radziwiłł. This magnate, born in 1594 as a son of Nicolas Christopher Radziwiłł and Elisabeth Eufemia née Wiśniowiecka, received a most privileged education. In 1610 he began his studies in Germany then traveled throughout Germany, France and Italy. He returned to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by the end of 1620, but in 1624 he left for Italy again, this time in the company of Prince Vladislas Vasa. In summer 1625 he again returned to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, but soon was totally immersed in political life. Thanks to family connections he advanced his career very fast, becoming in the court marshal of Lithuania in 1635, and grand marshal of Lithuania only two years later. In December 1652 he went to Italy again and died in Bologna March 30, 1654. The manuscript catalogue of the library of Alexander Louis Radziwiłł is currently preserved in the Kórnicka Library of the Polish Academy of Sciences (Ms BK 1320). It contains of two parts. The first of them (f. 1–25r), compiled according to subjects, was written down in April 1651, then second one (f. 26r–46v), compiled alphabetically – in May and June this year. The catalogues are not identical. The first part, divided into classes, is more comprehensive than the second one (alphabetical). The catalogue was composed by John Hanowicz, mayor of Nesvezh. The manuscript has been marked with the ex-libris of the Radziwiłł library (Ex Bibliotheca Radivilliana Ducali Nesvisiensi) and pressmark (Loc. X, No 17). Hanowicz did not state usually the information about the place and year of publication, which makes the precise identification of the books very difficult. Therefore, one can only predict the exact number of the books (and volumes) preserved in the Nesvezh library at that time. It also happened that Hanowicz stated a title of this same book in both versions: once in the original Latin version and then in (abbreviated) Polish form. Among items included the catalogue one can also find manuscripts, maps, drawings and landed estate documents. Most the books were bound with white or red leather, less frequently with green, cherish, orange or red colored leather, and seldom with morocco leather or paper. The bibliographical descriptions provided in the footnotes should be considered only as suggestions, for only direct analysis of a given book (in visu) allows one to identify and link a book with the Radziwiłł Library. Some of the most precious books were kept in the castle treasury. The Nesvizh collections included also musical pieces, e.g. the libretto (?) of the first opera – Il ratto di Helena – performed on September 4th, 1636, in the theater of the lower ducal castle in Vilnius. The music of the famous opera was composed by an anonymous author, but the libretto was produced by Virgilio Puccitelli.The significance of the magnate families (e.g. that of the Radziwiłłs or the Sapiehas) as promoters and patrons of fine arts and literature was enormous and hard to over-estimate in the history of Grand Duchy of Lithuania. A further and detailed study on the content of the Nesvizh library of Duke Alexander Louis Radziwiłł in 1651 gives one the opportunity to present in full and broad contexts a truly European library collection of Baroque culture in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

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