Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Ecosystem management – Australia – Sydney'

This study has contributed to the development of the reference condition approach in disturbed landscapes. The reference condition approach has been an important development for the bioassessment of aquatic ecosystems by providing a practical tool for the accurate assessment of river condition. The selection of appropriate reference sites is critical to the success of the predictive model in terms of being able to distinguish between natural variation in biota and the effects of human disturbance. Capturing natural variability and explaining it is a key difference between the reference condition approach and other study designs (e.g. before/after/control/impact). Natural disturbances such as drought or bushfire can significantly alter the ecological condition of streams, and although the ecological condition of streams affected by natural drought or bushfire is part of the natural cycle, this natural variation of the ecological condition is rarely incorporated into many study designs because of a mismatch in time scales. Human disturbance has also significantly altered the condition of landscapes through the development of agriculture and urbanisation. In urban or agricultural landscapes it can be impossible to locate streams that have not been modified by human activity for use as a reference condition. This study looked at the effects of natural disturbance on the reference condition, in terms of the way natural disturbance affects the prediction of stream condition and also the incorporation of the condition of streams experiencing natural disturbance into a predictive model. Additionally this study identified an alternative benchmark for modified landscapes based on the presence of good management practices for river protection, and tested this benchmark for the assessment of streams impacted by urbanisation. Drought and bushfire regularly disturb aquatic ecosystems in Australia, and affected reference sites in the ACT and South Coast region of New South Wales in 2002 and 2003. Drought and bushfire conditions affected macroinvertebrates and environmental variables across these streams, and the majority of sites were assessed as significantly impaired using regional AUSRIVAS (AUstralian RIVers Assessment System) models. This indicated the existing reference conditions for these regions had not incorporated the ecological conditions of reference sites suffering these natural disturbances. Many of the environmental variables used to predict the condition of streams were also affected by drought or bushfire. The changes to environmental variables affected how sites were assessed in models, but the overall assessment was not significantly changed from the initial assessment that drought or bushfire had significantly impaired the ecological condition. To reduce potential assessment errors associated with changes to predictor variables an attempt was made to construct new models with changeable variables excluded. However, it was not possible to completely exclude these types of variables, and subsequent models were no better than the original models in terms of changes to predictor variables affecting the generation of expected taxa lists. The changes to environmental variables did not affect the actual assessment of site condition because although group membership probabilities were changed the probabilities of taxon occurrence did not change significantly. The different reference site groups all contained some common taxa that occurred at most sites and even when group probabilities changed this did not change the probability of these taxa occurring at a test site. For regional models, such as the ACT or NSW South Coast, changes to predictor variables may not significantly affect the assessment of site condition. Incorporating reference sites under drought conditions into a predictive model was an effective way of discriminating the effects of drought from human disturbance. The model only provided two different ecological conditions, a single drought measurement and a single non-drought measurement, so the model did not fully encompass the potential natural variability. The model has value as a starting point and was effective in distinguishing sites affected by human disturbance from sites affected by drought. Good Management Practice (GMP) for river protection is any intervention that minimises human impact on stream condition. Urban sites protected by GMP were used as an alternative benchmark to a minimally impacted reference condition. The criteria used to select reference sites were not sufficiently robust to detect a significant benefit of GMP on physical or chemical characteristics of protected sites, compared to sites without GMP. In general however, the physical and chemical condition of GMP sites was better than sites without GMP and there were significant differences in macroinvertebrate assemblages of GMP and non-GMP sites. A refinement to the site selection process is proposed to include a specific assessment of GMP effectiveness for the protection it is designed to provide. This will substantially improve the robustness of a GMP benchmark and provide a clearer picture of the factors controlling biota in urban streams protected by GMP. The GMP benchmark was developed into a predictive model for the assessment of urban stream health, and in terms of the assessment of test site condition, it did not differ significantly from a model using minimally impacted sites. The purpose of the GMP benchmark was to provide an alternative reference condition for the assessment of stream health in modified landscapes when minimally impacted sites are unavailable or provide an unattainable benchmark. The GMP reference condition as an alternative can provide an attainable and realistic benchmark. The development and application of the suggested site selection protocol will improve the robustness of the GMP benchmark and better account for natural variation in the biota and physical characteristics of the sites used to determine the reference condition.

Thesis (M. Commerce (Hons.)) -- University of Western Sydney, 2008.
A thesis submitted to the University of Western Sydney, College of Business, School of Marketing, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Commerce (Honours). Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Western Sydney, 2009.
A thesis presented to the University of Western Sydney, College of Arts, School of Social Sciences, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Includes bibliographies.

Nitrogen fixation is no longer considered to be a minor factor of the nitrogen cycle in oceanic ecosystems. Recent geochemical and biological efforts have led to a significant increase in the estimated input of nitrogen to marine ecosystems by biological fixation, while molecular studies have increased our knowledge of the number and diversity of nitrogen fixers known to be active in the ocean. Although Trichodesmium spp. have long been viewed as the primary marine nitrogen fixers, recent efforts have shown that various members of the picoplankton community are also actively involved in nitrogen fixation. The relative abundance of different nitrogen fixers is an important ecosystem parameter since nitrogen fixers may differ significantly in their physiology, life history and ecology. Here we combine rate measurements and stable isotope natural abundance measurements to constrain the impact of N2 fixation in the waters north of Australia. Samples were collected in the Coral, Arafura, and East Timor Seas, thus spanning three distinct hydrographic regions. Our data show that Trichodesmium has a significant influence on the stable nitrogen isotope ratios of particulate and zooplankton biomass and suggest that Trichodesmium is a significant source of nitrogen for the pelagic ecosystem. Based on stable carbon isotope ratios, it is also likely that the pathways are indirect and nitrogen fixed by Trichodesmium enters the higher trophic levels via decomposition as dissolved organic and inorganic nitrogen. Picocyanobacteria showed high diazotrophic activity at some stations, but unlike Trichodesmium, their N2 fixation rate was not reflected in the stable N isotope ratios of particulate and zooplankton biomass. Our results suggest an important N contribution to biomass by diazotrophs in the Coral Sea, Arafura Sea and East Timor Sea.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Western Sydney, 2004.
A thesis presented to the University of Western Sydney, College of Science, Technology and Environment, School of Science, Food and Horticulture, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Includes bibliographies.

Anthropogenic impacts such as fishing and eutrophication are significant challenges to the sustainable management of aquatic ecosystems. This study used two ecosystem modelling techniques to investigate the effects of fishing and eutrophication on aquatic ecosystems in Western Australia. Firstly, a qualitative modelling technique called ‘loop analysis’ or ‘qualitative modelling’ was used to characterise the dynamics of the seagrass ecosystem in Shark Bay, Western Australia (Chapter 2). A qualitative model based on differential equations, was developed to represent the dynamics of the seagrass ecosystem, particularly interactions among tiger sharks, megafauna (e.g. dugongs), and megafauna prey (Fig. 2.2). Although the model structure generated some uncertainty about model predictions and model stability, it was possible to assess the stability of the model and to determine the response signs of model variables by applying data and magnifying loops. Qualitative modelling analyses indicated a strong top-down control by tiger sharks and suggested that this controlling effect occurred in four stages. A step-by-step increase in tiger sharks (States 1 and 2) led to a habitat shift by the megafauna out of seagrass meadows and into safer, deeper channel habitat. A step-by-step decrease in tiger shark numbers led to the megafauna returning to seagrass meadows, leading to a decrease of megafauna prey in this habitat (steps 3 and 4). Thus, tiger sharks influenced the use of seagrass habitats by megafauna species through direct and behaviourally mediated impacts. Further, megafauna responses to tiger shark predation risk established alternating predation pressure on different prey groups within seagrass habitats. Curiously, despite the fact that only some megafauna species (e.g. dugongs) are major components of diet of the adult tiger sharks, the perceived predation risk created by the high abundance of of tiger sharks in summer appears sufficient to cause megafauna species to leave (or under-utilise) feeding habitats in seagrass meadows. Thus, the modelling results suggest that the abundance of tiger sharks exerts an important top-down, regulatory influence on the other ecosystem components. This regulatory system has the potential to become imbalanced if there is a decrease in the abundance of adult tiger sharks in Shark Bay, as has occurred tiger shark populations in other areas worldwide. Targeting of tiger sharks by fishers in the waters of Northern Australia and Indonesia has increased steadily during the last years and impact the tiger shark stock in Shark Bay if, as has been hypothesized, there is single common stock. A qualitative trophic model suggested that the activities of recreational fishermen within Shark Bay reduce prey availability for juvenile tiger sharks, an impact which might adversely affect the tiger shark population and, thus, the dynamics of this seagrass ecosystem. Evidence of the ecological importance of tiger sharks and the potential impact of a population decline emphasises the need to sustain the tiger shark population in Shark Bay. In the second part of this study, a quantitative modelling technique, Ecopath with Ecosim and Ecospace, was applied to the ecosystem of the Peel-Harvey Estuary, Western Australia. A key impact on this ecosystem is the the Dawesville Channel, an artificial entrance channel was constructed in the mid-1990s to increase the flushing and reduce nutrient concentrations in the estuary. Ecopath was used to analyse the impact of the Dawesville Channel on the estuarine ecosystem. A large dataset was collected for model development, a process that uncovered significant data gaps (e.g. missing data on detritus pool and dietary information and indicated important areas for further research (Chapter 3). Two identical Ecopath models (comprising 30 living functional groups) were otherwise developed for the Peel-Harvey Estuary to describe the state of the ecosystem before (‘pre DC’) and after (‘post DC’) the opening of the Dawesville Channel (Chapter 4). Modelling found that, in addition to changes in the community structure of plants, fish and invertebrates, the entire ecosystem of the Peel-Harvey Estuary has declined drastically in total biomass since the opening of the Dawesville Channel, as has the biomass at each trophic level and in the size of flows between the functional groups. Changes in flows and transfer efficiencies suggested a change in the functioning of the ecosystem in which consumption has become a more important and more efficient flow since the opening of the channel. Analysis of network and system statistics indicated that food web structure had also changed, with more linkages in the ‘post DC’ model and thus a more web-like structure than in the ‘pre DC’ model. Modelling also identified changes in cycling processes and suggested that the ecosystem in the ‘post DC’ model was not able to keep carbon within the system, even though: (i) the food web has developed more linkages and (ii) with less primary production and less cycling, the size of the ecosystem has decreased drastically since the channel opening. Overall, the results of the Ecopath modelling indicated that the Dawesville Channel has markedly impacted the features, functioning and services of the Peel-Harvey Estuary (Chapter 4). Several indices were applied that suggested that both the ‘pre DC’ and the ‘post DC’ models were highly immature. Ecopath was also applied to investigate the impact of the Dawesville Channel on ecosystem services. Ecopath modelling indicated that all ecosystem services had declined, such as provisioning services (catches), regulating services (CO2-Fixation) and supporting services (nutrient cycling, primary production and biodiversity). Unfortunately, it was not possible to locate data relating to cultural services (tourism) for the ‘pre DC’ model. To support the reliability of the Ecopath and Ecosim predictions, model uncertainty and the sensitivity of the parameter settings were assessed in detail (Chapter 5). Overall, the results of this analysis indicated that the parameter settings for the ‘pre DC and ‘post DC’ models were robust and did not lead to uncertainties regarding modelling results and predictions. However, the vulnerability settings are crucial for Ecosim and Ecospace and need to be treated with caution. Ecosim was applied to identify: 1) the impact and effectiveness of the selective reduction of different primary producers and 2) the impacts of fishing on target and non-target species on the ecosystem model (Chapter 6). The application of Ecosim requires fitting a model to time series data; for this study, the sourcing and fitting of time-series data indicated the importance and uncertainty of vulnerability settings. Three categories of vulnerabilities were identified: (a) vulnerabilities that did not have any effect on time series fitting (category 1); (b) interactions in which the lowest sums of squares occurred at low vulnerability settings (v=1 or 2, category 2); and settings that had a drastic impact on model fitting (category 3). The Ecosim simulations indicated that fishing affected almost all functional groups in the model, not just the target species. The recreational fishing sector also had a very strong impact on many functional groups, particularly Blue Swimmer Crabs and other invertebrate groups like bivalves and gastropods. The commercial fishing sector affected functional groups less than the recreational sector, but affected a range of estuarine fish groups including non-target fish species. Thus, the results of this study suggest that it may be not advisable to close those fleets completely as some aspects of the estuary ecosystem appear to benefit from increasing fishing pressure. Some fish groups and some target species responded positively to the closure of certain fleets, while others – particularly waterbirds and other top predators – did not (Table 6.8). Ecosim analyses highlighted the need for more data to ensure sustainable management, but suggested that the coexistence of fleets might be a better solution for sustaining catches and group biomasses in the future. Ecosim modelling indicated that selective plant removal is a reasonable management tool for this estuary. However, nutrient reduction and, thus, the permanent reduction of microscopic algae appears to be more ecologically and economically worthwhile (Fig. 6.12). Removing aquatic plant groups showed no significant longterm change in biomasses and the magnitude of short-term effects was much higher than for long-term effects. The Ecosim simulations demonstrated that only a permanent reduction in microscopic algae led to a reduction in total biomass. Reducing phytoplankton might be worthwhile because, although blooms of Nodularia spumigena no longer occur in the estuary because the salinities are too high (Huber, 1985), the estuary now contains several phytoplankton species (e.g. Heterosigma akashiwo) that cause blooms in other ecosystems (Guiry & Guiry, 2010). While the effects of phytoplankton blooms on the ecosystem depend on the size (i.e. the biomass) of the bloom, even blooms that only double the biomass of microscopic algae can have drastic long-term effects. This study supports the conclusion that a reduction in phytoplankton through management of nutrient input in the estuarine catchment represents the only ecological and economical management scenario that provides long-term sustainability for this ecosystem (Chapter 6). Ecospace modelling represents biomass dynamics over two-dimensional space and time. For this study, a model with fours habitats (shallow mud, deep sand, rocks and plant habitat) was developed. By applying Ecospace, the effects of reducing plant habitat and the effectiveness of two Marine Protected Areas were investigated, with specific consideration of waterbirds (Chapter 7). The Ecospace simulations suggested that waterbirds and piscivorous waterbirds were impacted by fishing and would benefit slightly from an introduction of a MPA, in particular a MPA at Point Grey. Further, the results of this Ecospace scenario indicated that waterbirds would profit from the reduction of plant habitat, whereas piscivorous waterbirds showed a small decline in biomass after removal of aquatic plants. Under the current fishing effort, the total biomass of the system and of the fish community increased. Thus, while the major prey groups of piscivorous waterbirds increased in biomass, but piscivorous waterbirds did not benefit from increased prey biomasses in the model, presumably because of the competition for fish. Ecospace modelling indicated that the catches would also increase drastically and, thus, that piscivorous waterbirds were in direct competition with the fishing sectors and other piscivorous predators (e.g. dolphins and sharks) and were out-competed for fish. The modelling suggest that the sustainable management of the fishing sectors is essential for bird conservation. A MPA at Peel Inlet led to lower catches under the current fishing scenario and catches declined even further under lower fishing effort. In contrast, after introducing a MPA at Point Grey, the total catch only declined when the fishing effort was lessened. The Ecospace simulations indicated that an MPA at Point Grey increased the biomasses of functional groups and target species and also raised the total biomass of the system; however, these effects strongly depend on fisheries management (Chapter 7). Overall, the qualitative and quantitative modelling methods applied in this study improved our understanding of the dynamics and functioning of the Shark Bay and Peel-Harvey ecosystems (Chapter 8). Both approaches produced robust and reliable results. If precise quantitative predictions are required for a management scenario, Ecopath with Ecosim is the appropriate method to choose, as this approach can deliver detailed changes in biomass and catches. In contrast, qualitative modelling only indicates the direction of change, which might not always satisfy management needs. However, qualitative models are the ideal method when management decisions have to be made fast and when a detailed data set of the ecosystem is not available.

[Truncated abstract] Selection of priority areas for Marine Park conservation is often compromised by the lack of comprehensive biodiversity data and the resources and expertise necessary to gain this information directly by sampling. One cost effective alternative is the use of species groups or indicator species as surrogates for total biodiversity. However use of these surrogates requires an ecological understanding of how they reflect biodiversity gradients. A framework for unravelling these relationships has been suggested that involves relating species biodiversity to different and competing ecological models using appropriate statistical analysis. I use this framework to explore coral species biodiversity over a range of environmental gradients encompassing the North West Shelf of Australia and the Great Barrier Reef in North East Australia. ... I assessed physiological responses of corals to physical factors to corroborate crossshelf patterns in species biodiversity. Finally, I investigated to what extent coral cooccurrence based species groups (or guilds) can be used as surrogates for total coral biodiversity. The major findings of this thesis were: i) coral biodiversity along cross-shelf environments was highly correlated to specific gradients of abiotic reef conditions; ii) larval modelling indicates the potential for significant connectivity across continentalshelf environments such that differences in species distribution are not simply as a result of self seeding. iii) similar correlative patterns were demonstrated for coral species that occur along comparable abiotic gradients in reef areas of both Eastern and Western Australia, suggesting a causal relationship between the physical environment and coral biodiversity; iv) coral physiological parameters measured using lipid fractions independently corroborated the hypothesis that there is a biological basis for observed coral distributions; v) reef coral communities are not highly structured across abiotic physical gradients and biodiversity across the shelf increases as conditions become suitable for a wider range of species; vi) total coral biodiversity can be estimated very accurately (within r2 values ranging from 0.75 to 0.90) using a small number (15-30) of optimally chosen indictor species using the randomForest statistical method. These results suggest coral biodiversity over cross-shelf environments conforms most closely to the

Thesis (Ph.D.)-- University of Western Sydney, 2008.
A thesis submitted to the University of Western Sydney in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, School of Natural Sciences, College of Health and Science. Includes bibliographies.

Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Western Sydney, 2004.
Title from electronic document (viewed 15/6/10) Presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of Western Sydney, 2004. Includes bibliography.

Freshwater ecological systems throughout the world are extensively altered, with threatening processes being physical, chemical and biological. Data is often lacking to describe the processes within the system and their interactions. This thesis explores how modelling can be used to help understand and manage such complex systems under limited data and knowledge, by examining two Australian case studies. The first case study explores how fish species are distributed in the Murray-Darling Basin (MDB), Australia's largest river system, and attempts to understand the variations in fish assemblages across the Basin. The second case study involves the development and evaluation of a habitat suitability model for an endangered species Astacopsis gouldi, the Giant Tasmanian Crayfish. The MDB fish case study adopted a suite of multivariate analysis techniques, including cluster analysis and non-metric multidimensional scaling, which were applied within the framework of a data-mining process, Knowledge Discovery from Data. This is the first known study to describe the large-scale patterns in fish assemblages in the Basin. The analysis identified regions in the Basin sharing similar fish assemblages; these patterns were generally consistent with the temperature, precipitation and elevation of the streams and the temperature and water quality preferences of the species. The delineation of the Basin into regions can be an important basis for future ecological studies, for example by providing context for finer-scale studies or a benchmark for studies examining temporal changes to the fish communities. Bayesian networks were applied to model A. gouldi habitat suitability in the second case study, with a focus on the evaluation process. A series of 18 models were built and tested, based on the same structure but with their parameters estimated from different combinations of expert opinion and training datasets. The data-based A. gouldi habitat suitability models achieved better performance accuracy than the expert models. The combined data- and expert-based models performed equally well as the data-based models but were considered more robust. The model evaluation process revealed interesting insights into the habitat suitability of the species, including that elevation seemed to have little influence on habitat suitability, contrary to other studies. It was also found that the species is not in equilibrium with its environment, suggesting that future models must consider temporal dynamics and avoid using species presence-absence as an indicator of habitat suitability. Both case studies highlighted the subjective nature of modelling and the importance of good modelling practice in producing meaningful and purposeful outputs. Good practice guidelines are provided for Bayesian network modelling, with emphasis on the need of thorough evaluation of the model and its results, and transparent reporting of the modelling process. For models built under limited data and knowledge, it is especially important to acknowledge and embrace the uncertainties. Modelling cannot overcome a lack of data, but can help to integrate information, develop and test hypotheses, and refine knowledge about the system and its processes. Modelling can also help guide future monitoring and research toward data and knowledge gaps most crucial to our understanding of the system.

Agricultural shows are community-based festivals that represent a majority of festivals staged in rural destinations within Australia. Recent anecdotal evidence indicates their survival is being threatened. Declines in the overall number of shows and visitor attendance have been widely reported, yet an analysis of the reason for these declines has not been investigated. Agricultural shows are managed by volunteers within not-for-profit show societies who are finding it difficult to survive in an increasingly competitive and challenging external environment. Little is understood about these show societies, their volunteer managers and the management effectiveness. This study has addressed these gaps by investigating show society management effectiveness by means of a marketing concept paradigm. A case study method employing qualitative in-depth interviews with key show society members and other stakeholders was conducted on one agricultural show. Findings reveal that this show society is managed by volunteers whose primary involvement motivation is based upon self-interest in one or more components of the show. The majority of these individuals do not have management skills and expertise required to manage a festival and whilst it is important to note their volunteering contribution, it is this lack of skills and knowledge that has prevented a systematic approach to management. There is no attempt at consumer research, strategic planning, organisational planning or volunteer recruitment. The show programs do not change to reflect the current needs of the community, rather what is affordable, who can organise it and what has always been done. As a result, the case study show society is not employing a marketing concept orientation but a product concept orientation. This study concludes that without this focus, the show society will be ill equipped to meet changing customer demands and stay abreast of competitors. To assist agricultural shows to manage future challenges and adopt a marketing concept, a theoretical model has been proposed that incorporates existing frameworks and this study’s findings.
M. Commerce (Hons.)

The recognition that human life depends on services provided by ecosystems has given rise to the field of ecosystem services. The main goal of the thesis is to develop a robust methodology for investigating how human interventions in the landscape affect ecosystem services, using as a case study the Australian Capital Region. The methods, which are based on remote sensing, spatial environmental modelling and geographic information systems, address the measurement, modelling and mapping of a comprehensive set of ecosystem services associated with major land cover types and land uses. These analyses are used to explore the synergies and trade-offs between these services across the Australian Capital Region. This thesis is structured in three sections. The first section introduces the aim and scope of the thesis; defines the concept of ecosystem services and its role as a communication tool for scientists, policy makers and stakeholders and describes the methods used by the thesis. The second section presents a land use and land cover classification for the Australian Capital Region. This classification underpins the quantification and mapping of five key ecosystem services in the remainder of the second section. These ecosystem services are: (i) carbon flows and storage; (ii) provision of food; (iii) biodiversity richness; (iv) water quality; and (v) recreation and ecotourism. The third section analyses the impacts of a hypothetical land use change scenario in which food production in the region is increased to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions associated with the importation of food - the so-called 'carbon miles' associated with the transport of food into the region from other parts of Australia and the world. The analysis assesses not only the impact on carbon stored in the region, but also the impact on other ecosystem services. The analysis also identifies what parts of the Australian Capital Region are most affected under the scenario outcomes. The thesis concludes with the key outcomes of this study. The methods presented in this thesis demonstrate that remote sensing, spatial environmental modelling and geographic information system are cost-effective tools to study and quantify ecosystem services at a regional scale. The results of this thesis could help in the promotion of sustainability in landscape and conservation planning.

In 2010-2011 Australia experienced its most expensive floods in history with costs to insurers and state and federal governments exceeding A$10 billion. Climate and population changes are likely to increase future flood threats and economists estimate that by 2050, even without factoring in climate change, Australia’s natural disaster damage bill could reach $33 billion per year. Flood management is thus a key area for improving adaptive capacity. While the causes of flooding are well-known, effective solutions have proved elusive and some flood management options may be maladaptive in the longer term. There were contradictions in flood management literature. Some sources categorized structural measures such as dykes and levees as adaptation measures. Others warned about their negative impacts. Meanwhile, innovative approaches used overseas appeared little known or used in Australia. Although structural measures were often criticized in adaptation literature, there was a lack of guidance about how to reduce reliance on them. Similarly, resilience researchers with a social-ecological systems perspective argued the need to identify policy and institutional interventions that would make it possible to move from undesirable to more desirable resilience domains. The challenge was therefore to determine how best to adapt to increasing flood risk, and how to facilitate the adoption of adaptive approaches. A key question was whether adaptive approaches used elsewhere were transferrable to Australia. Given the dominance of resilience theory in modern disaster management, a related research aim was to determine whether or not disaster resilience policy was likely to achieve adaptive outcomes. Literature review was the primary research method, supplemented with semi-structured interviews. Sources included recent flood reviews, academic literature, policy and legal documents. These were used to develop comparative case studies from China, The Netherlands, the United States and Australia. This was extended to cover global organizations for the resilience component of the work. Data analysis drew on literature relating to adaptation, resilience, comparative public policy, institutional theory and emergency management. Resilience interpretations were identified in a systematic way using a modified emergency management framework, complemented with narratives. Results revealed that resilience interpretations varied according to country, with Australia tending to be the least adaptive and the Netherlands the most. This reflects changes in attitudes towards structural mitigation. While support for structural mitigation remains strong in Australia, recent flood events in other countries have exposed its weaknesses. This has resulted in a shift to reduce levee dependency, accompanied by support for alternatives such as ecosystem based measures and development relocation. Such measures encounter significant barriers in Australia, making policy transfer problematic. Nevertheless, case studies revealed opportunities to improve program implementation, and investigation of path dependency associated with structural mitigation identified opportunities to alter feedbacks. Regarding application of resilience theory to disaster management, it was found that while resilience is a useful concept for researchers, there are problems when it is operationalised. A better focus for practitioners would be to negotiate long-term adaptation pathways.

Research Doctorate - Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
The Earth is experiencing a period of mass extinction due to human development and expansion (Wake & Vredenburg 2008). It has been estimated that 866 animal, plant, fungi and protist species have become extinct in recent history, and 25,821 species were declared either Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable in 2017 (IUCN 2017). Causal agents of population declines and biodiversity loss include climate change, land clearing, habitat modification and the introduction of exotic competitor or predator species (Vitousek et al. 1997) and disease (Skerratt et al. 2007) which affect species from global to local scales. The magnitude of species loss and threat of further extinctions has caused worldwide attention, instigating efforts to identify and conserve species at risk (Redford & Richter 1999). Species management programs typically aim to identify causal agents of decline, assess species requirements for survival and reproduction and understand population proce sses so that informed decisions can be made to reverse population declines. An important step in this process is gaining an understanding of the factors which affect species distribution (Guisan et al. 2013; Noss et al. 1997). Conservation programs often aim to understand an animal’s distribution by identifying what constitutes habitat. Factors commonly examined include abiotic and biotic attributes of the landscape including available shelter and food, as well as an animal’s interaction with heterospecifics (Campomizzi et al. 2008). In the instance that these factors or interactions correlate with species presence or abundance either positively or negatively, it is assumed that these factors are actively selected for or avoided (Batt 1992). However, additional behavioural factors can affect distribution, such as attraction to (Ahlering et al. 2010) or avoidance of conspecifics (same species) (Keren-Rotem et al. 2006; Stamps 1983), causing strong aggregations or segregation of animal distribution over a landscape, respectively. Despite the influence of these factors on distribution, conspecific attraction and avoidance are not commonly considered by conservation programs when attempting to understand, predict and alter species distributions (Campomizzi et al. 2008). As animals experiencing conspecific attraction or avoidance may deviate from the correlation model assumed by habitat selection, research programs aimed at assisting endangered species cannot afford to ignore conspecific interactions (Manly et al. 2009). A last resort for conservation initiatives is breeding animals in captivity, creating or restoring habitat and translocating animals back into populations that are experiencing population decline or have become locally extinct. Current research in conservation biology has focused on identifying and assessing animal behaviour which can limit the success of conservation initiatives such as; multi-spatial-level habitat selection (McGarigal et al. 2016), conspecific attraction (Campomizzi et al. 2008) and mate selection within captive breeding (Chargé et al. 2014a; Chargé et al. 2014b). As these factors influence species distribution and survival, they therefore affect the success of habitat construction programmes and the persistence of naturally occurring or translocated populations. Amphibians are a globally threatened taxon with 33 extinct species and 2,100 species declared either critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable (IUCN 2017). Factors causing amphibian decline include the human facilitated spread of chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) (Skerratt et al. 2007), global climate change, introduced species as well as habitat loss and modification (Brown et al. 2012; Stuart et al. 2004). Considerable research has been undertaken on causal agents of decline, along with understanding population processes and habitat requirements that affect the persistence of populations (Wake & Vredenburg 2008). Despite the fact that many amphibian species show signs of conspecific attraction and/or avoidance, the influence of conspecific interactions on spatial distribution and subsequent declines of amphibians is under-investigated. This current research project explores the potential for particular behaviours which may influence species distribution and the success of habitat creation and translocation programmes for the green and golden bell frog (Litoria aurea). For the first research paper, I assessed conspecific call attraction in L. aurea. Over a landscape, animal distributions can be skewed as a result of conspecific attraction and aggregation. This can hinder habitat restoration and creation programmes as species may fail to colonise available habitat, despite its suitability. It has been noted from past research that L. aurea uses particular habitat and has distributional traits which suggest the presence of conspecific attraction, and using speakers playing calls can successfully attracted L. aurea at short distances, forming new aggregations (James et al. 2015: Attachment 1). In the first research chapter, I aimed to use speaker systems playing calls to manipulate the landscape distribution of L. aurea. I placed a stand with a speaker playing call broadcast in a treatment waterbody (T), a stand with no calls broadcasted as a manipulative control (MC) and no stand or speakers as a control (C). This design was replicated in five areas on Kooragang Island, Australia, and waterbodies were surveyed to measure changes in abundance and calling over two and a half breeding seasons. We found that speaker introduction did not increase abundance or calling at T relative to MC and C. We did, however, find that the length of time males called was longer at T, compared to MC and C. As the length of calling time may be extended using conspecific call broadcast , provision of conspecific stimulation at translocation sites may improve breeding activity and retention of the population post-release by reducing dispersal. For the second research chapter, I assessed habitat selection of L. aurea. The site selection of breeding individuals is a crucial component of a species habitat selection and can help to direct conservation programmes. However, very little is known about the microhabitat selection of calling male L. aurea. This study aimed to distinguish if male aggregations are associated with specific habitat features within a waterbody and describe their use of available habitat structures. Within waterbodies we compared calling locations relative to non-calling locations for water variables (temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen), microclimate (temperature, humidity, average and maximum wind speed) and habitat (percentage coverage of water, ground, emergent vegetation and floating vegetation). Overall, males were associated with lower salinity and higher dissolved oxygen, higher percentage coverage of emergent vegetation and bare ground, and low percentage coverage of open water. Males were most commonly found in the water floating between or beside emergent vegetation or perched on emergent vegetation above water level. This suggests that males may select habitat to protect themselves from predators, or for breeding; providing appropriate vegetation, dissolved oxygen and salinity for embryo and tadpole development. This provides supportive information for previous studies on habitat selection, indicating what habitat is preferred by breeding males to improve monitoring, habitat creation and rehabilitation. For the third research chapter, I assess a habitat construction programme. Habitat creation programmes are often used to compensate for the loss of habitat for endangered species, with varying results. I describe an early stage wetland construction programme implemented for L. aurea on Ash Island, NSW Australia. Seven ephemeral (flooding) and two permanent waterbodies were constructed near an existing population. The wetland was designed to increase landscape aquatic habitat, based on adaptive management learnings from past research. In this study, I assess the initial use of this habitat by L. aurea, and initial findings on the design suitability. Surveys in constructed wetlands and in the broader Kooragang area showed that L. aurea rapidly colonised and called at constructed ephemeral wetlands but not permanent wetlands. The chorus size in constructed wetlands was large in comparison to other populations in coastal NSW, and a range of other frog species also bred onsite. Female L. aurea used a nearby remnant wetland (adjacent to the constructed wetlands), and used different habitat to males. Similar habitat use variation between sexes was reflected in the broader population. Most male and female L. aurea captured on Ash Island were under 12 months of age, and body condition in the constructed wetlands was higher than in the broader population. Waterbody design successfully protected waterbodies from overland flooding, and ephemeral waterbodies dried, which suggests the drying regime may protect the constructed habitat long-term from infestation of predatory fish. Elevated salinity from ground water in permanent waterbodies (intended to ameliorate chytrid disease in the landscape) was higher than anticipated and requires further monitoring. It is hoped that this programme may help guide other conservation projects creating habitat for amphibians under threat. For the fourth research paper, I assess sexual selection in L. aurea. As a conservation strategy for L. aurea, captive breeding programmes supplement at-risk populations and translocate individuals to their former ranges. However, breeding programmes are undertaken with very little information on sexual selection and its exclusion can reduce the fitness of released animals. The aim of the fourth study was to assess whether forms of sexual selection occur for L. aurea to inform captive breeding programmes. In the wild I studied mate selection. Firstly, we aimed to assess if the size and body condition of amplexing individuals (grasping to breed), differed from other individuals in the population as an indication of female sexual selection or male-male competition. Secondly, we investigated if male and female amplexing pairs were size correlated as an indicator of size assortative mating, and thirdly we made observations on behavioural interactions in the breeding waterbody to complement the analysis. In Whangarei, New Zealand, we captured L. aurea over 4 survey nights, undertaking capture-mark-recapture and measuring morphometrics of snout vent length (SVL), right tibia length (RTL) and weight, calculated body condition. We compared the SVL, RTL and weight of breeding individuals to non-breeding individuals and found that amplexing males were larger with better body condition, however, female size did not differ. Male-female pairs were not size assortative and aggressive interactions were recorded between males. Larger male size may be an indicator of either female selectivity or larger-male mating advantage through aggressive interactions. As removal of sexual selection in captive breeding programmes can reduce fitness and place conservation initiatives at risk, I recommend incorporating sexual selection by placing multiple males of varying sizes in breeding tanks with females to facilitate female selectivity or larger-male mating advantage. Based on the results of the current studies, I have identified possible constraints on the use of conspecific attraction for this species, and also recognised its potential use in translocations programmes to improve project outcomes. As a result of microhabitat assessment, habitat creation and management programmes can use specific parameters to design, maintain and monitor habitat for calling males. Assessment of a habitat construction project designed from previous research recommendations shows initial project success and provides information to refine future habitat construction programmes. Finally, assessment of sexual selection in L. aurea provides vital information to conservation programmes breeding animals for translocation to work toward improving the fitness of released individuals. Overall, the current study provides key aspects of L. aurea’s biology and ecology that have not been clearly addressed in the literature and aims to improve conservation efforts. In light of recent extinctions and increasing pressures on wildlife, continued research on key threatening processes and behavioural ecology is crucial to help guide conservation.