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1
MEARDON, STEPHEN. "RECIPROCITY AND HENRY C. CAREY’S TRAVERSES ON “THE ROAD TO PERFECT FREEDOM OF TRADE”." Journal of the History of Economic Thought 33, no. 3 (September 2011): 307–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1053837211000228.
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Free trade and protectionist doctrines have long had ambiguous relationships to bilateral trade deals, known throughout the nineteenth century as “reciprocity” arrangements. Henry C. Carey, “the Ajax of Protection” in the nineteenth-century United States, embodies the ambiguity from one side of the controversy. Carey’s early adulthood in the mid- to late 1820s was a time when the forerunners of the Whig Party pursued reciprocity at least partly as a means of fostering protection. In the 1830s, Carey, too, endorsed reciprocity—because he stood for free trade and believed reciprocity would promote it. In the 1840s and 1850s Carey changed his mind, decided that protection was the real “road to perfect freedom of trade,” and for that reason opposed reciprocity with Canada. In the 1870s he remained a protectionist but reconciled his doctrine with reciprocity. This article attempts to explain the changes in the disposition toward reciprocity of America’s foremost protectionist thinker from the Second Party System to the generation after the Civil War.
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Ross, Danielle M. "Muslim Charity under Russian Rule: Waqf, Sadaqa, and Zakat in Imperial Russia." Islamic Law and Society 24, no. 1-2 (March 8, 2017): 77–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15685195-02412p04.
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This article examines the development of Muslim charitable practices in the Russian Empire (Volga-Ural region, Siberia and the northern Kazakh Steppe) from the Russian conquest of Kazan in 1552 to the 1917 Russian Revolution. Building upon existing research on charity in those regions, it argues that Russian rule from the 1550s to the mid-1800s created the basis for a range of locally-organized charity-based economies for meeting the religious, cultural, and social needs of Muslim communities in a non-Muslim state. Though these economies differed somewhat in organization, all were structured around Muslim modes of charity and all generated and re-enforced hierarchies within their respective communities. The struggles over charitable practices that occurred from the 1860s to 1917 emerged from these well-established but evolving economies as their participants responded to changing circumstances within and around their confessional communities.
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Handler, Jerome, and Diane Wallman. "Production Activities in the Household Economies of Plantation Slaves: Barbados and Martinique, Mid-1600s to Mid-1800s." International Journal of Historical Archaeology 18, no. 3 (June 18, 2014): 441–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10761-014-0265-2.
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Buggey, Susan. "Building in mid-nineteenth Century Halifax." Urban History Review 9, no. 2 (November 8, 2013): 5–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/1019333ar.
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An important element in the construction of the nineteenth century cityscape was the "master builder," who in Halifax emerged in the late 1850s and early 1860s, and who significantly changed the role of builders from, primarily, artisans in particular trades to contractors with capacity to meet the needs of large scale construction. They were men who undertook building on a scale sufficient to employ a continuous workforce and who usually carried out all aspects of a contract. One such man was George Lang, a Scottish mason, who in the period 1858 to 1865 contracted for construction of a number of major buildings in growing Halifax. The study of one such "master builder" provides some insight into the study of the cityscape, though much work remains on the inter-relationship of builder, artisan, and architect, as well as the role of legislation, the nature and supply of material, the economics of the building process and the general relationship of buildings to the urban environment.
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Pfister, Ulrich. "The Inequality of Pay in Pre-modern Germany, Late 15th Century to 1889." Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte / Economic History Yearbook 60, no. 1 (May 27, 2019): 209–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jbwg-2019-0009.
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Abstract The study explores relative labour scarcity in a broad range of activities and relates it to the long-run dynamics of structural change, supply and demand of human capital, and the inequality between men and women. It builds on two recent compilations of wage data and complements these with additional information, particularly on wages in agriculture. From the second quarter of the seventeenth century the skill premium was stable; the first phase of industrialization did not lead to a differentiation of the individual return to human capital. Labour demand from the modern sector stabilized real wages of males from the second quarter of the eighteenth century at least and increased them from the mid-1850s onwards. This opened a wedge between the agricultural and the non-agricultural sectors already for considerable time before the beginnings of industrialization. Finally, the modern era saw two phases of labour market segmentation along gender lines, one in the later sixteenth and the early seventeenth centuries, the other from the 1840s to the 1870s.
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Challú, Amílcar E., and Aurora Gómez-Galvarriato. "MEXICO’S REAL WAGES IN THE AGE OF THE GREAT DIVERGENCE, 1730-1930." Revista de Historia Económica / Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History 33, no. 1 (March 2015): 83–122. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s021261091500004x.
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ABSTRACTThis study builds the first internationally comparable index of real wages for Mexico City bridging the 18thand the early 20thcentury. Real wages started out in relatively high international levels in the mid 18thcentury, but declined from the late 1770s on, with some partial and temporal rebounds after the 1810s. After the 1860s, real wages recovered and eventually reached 18th-century levels in the early 20thcentury. Real wages of Mexico City’s workers subsequently fell behind those of high-wage economies to converge with the lower fringes of middle-wage economies. The age of the global Great Divergence was Mexico’s own age of stagnation and decline relative to the world economy.
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Köksal, Yonca, and Mehmet Polatel. "A tribe as an economic actor: The Cihanbeyli tribe and the meat provisioning of İstanbul in the early Tanzimat era." New Perspectives on Turkey 61 (October 31, 2019): 97–123. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/npt.2019.19.
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AbstractThis article studies how the Cihanbeyli tribe became a crucial economic actor for the meat supply of İstanbul, by focusing on a conflict between the tribe’s leader, Alişan Bey, and the Russian trader David Savalan, which lasted from the 1840s to the 1850s in and around the province of Ankara. Two important processes of the early Tanzimat era had an impact on the Cihanbeyli’s role in animal trade. First, as part of the centralization project of the Tanzimat, the Cihanbeyli tribe was sedentarized in the 1840s and 1850s. Second, although the Ottoman state adopted liberal economic policies during the Tanzimat, the provisioning of meat to the imperial capital continued until 1857. Therefore, the article examines the Cihanbeyli’s role in the animal trade in the light of these administrative and economic changes. Our findings support the argument that tribes were an integral part of the imperial economy, politics, and society. The dependence of the Ottoman state on the supply of meat by the Cihanbeyli increased significantly from the seventeenth to the mid-nineteenth century. This opposes the conventional view that posits tribes as primordial forms hindering economic and social development in the modernization processes of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
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Avtonomov, Vladimir, and Natalia Makasheva. "The Austrian school of economics in Russia: From criticism and rejection to absorption and adoption." Russian Journal of Economics 4, no. 1 (April 23, 2018): 31–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.3897/j.ruje.4.26002.
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Dissemination and adoption of Western economic ideas in Russia have never been a simple process, always bearing marks of the socio-political and ideological circumstances of the country and inner processes in economics, as well as marks of the national intellectual tradition in general. It is not surprising that the history of Austrian economics in Russia was akin to a long road with many windings and turns. We can distinguish three different periods, or waves, each of them rather complex: from the 1890s until the late 1920s (introduction and, to a certain degree, adoption and criticism), from the beginning of the 1930s until the mid-1980s (hostile attitude and ignorance), and from the mid-1980s onwards (rediscovery, dissemination, and adoption).
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Cora, Yaşar Tolga. "Institutionalized migrant solidarity in the late Ottoman Empire: Armenian homeland associations (1800s–1920s)." New Perspectives on Turkey 63 (July 6, 2020): 55–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/npt.2020.16.
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By focusing on the Armenian homeland associations (hayrenakts‘akank‘) established in Istanbul in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, this article examines the migrants’ activism and their achievements—facilitated by affective bonds based on shared origins. It outlines the Istanbul-based homeland associations’ development chronologically and discusses their cultural and economic goals in their home regions in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The article then focuses on their durability and ability to adapt to the needs of the communities in the series of great political and demographic changes in the late Ottoman Empire from mid-1890s to their reconstruction after the end of World War I. The homeland associations established in the post-genocide period reflect the persistence of local belonging as a basis of solidarity and they fulfilled important functions as information networks and intermediaries between the survivors and the community administration. The article argues that Armenian homeland associations constituted a space in which agency of the migrants and their interaction with broader social and political developments could be observed in the late Ottoman Empire. They were one of the most durable and institutionalized forms of migrant solidarity which render migrants’ agency visible in the historiography of the late Ottoman Empire.
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Watanabe, Susumu. "The Lewisian Turning Point and International Migration: The Case of Japan." Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 3, no. 1 (March 1994): 119–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/011719689400300107.
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This article critically examines the Lewisian turning point in light of Japan's experience since the mid-1800s. Japan reached its Lewisian turning point around 1960. Contrary to the assumptions of the theory however, the findings for Japan indicate that political factors have been more determinative of the rate of migration than purely economic ones. Prior to its turning point in 1960, international relations, war and forced repatriation were the decisive factors. Recently, though the inflow of foreign workers to fill labor shortages has increased, so also has the outflow of Japanese to accompany direct foreign investment. DFI itself is more responsive to trade barriers, exchange rates and incentives offered by host governments than to differing wage levels or labor market conditions.
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Harper (陈美月), Marina Tan. "Philanthropic Action of Chinese Diaspora in Southeast Asia: Shaped by Family, Ancestry, Identity and Social Norms." China Nonprofit Review 11, no. 2 (December 11, 2019): 258–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18765149-12341365.
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Abstract Due to push and pull factors, millions of Chinese migrants fanned out into the Nanyang from the mid-1800s onward. The G1 (first generation) diasporic Chinese left China with a sojourner mentality, compelling their philanthropic action back to motherland China. As G1 diasporic Chinese and their second or third generation ethnic Chinese (G2, G3 …) eventually settled as nationals into various countries in Southeast Asia, their Confucian Chinese values were confronted, severely tested, remolded, and evolved as they assimilated and converged with the political, social, and economic circumstances of the times. With self-help and mutual aid philanthropy, they thrived and prospered in the Nanyang and were soon propelled to lead local communities. As they engendered gratitude to where they built their wealth, raised families, and honored ancestry in their resettled new homes, their loyalties, generosity, and philanthropy also began to shift away from China. This study investigates these traditions, ethos, and value systems through the lens of philanthropy.
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Pastore, Mario. "Trade Contraction and Economic Decline: The Paraguayan Economy under Francia, 1810–1840." Journal of Latin American Studies 26, no. 3 (October 1994): 539–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022216x0000852x.
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I argue here that economic activity fell considerably in the first three decades of Paraguay's early national period, below levels it had attained in the late colonial period and would attain again only after the mid-nineteenth century. I attribute this economic depression primarily to regional political fragmentation and the institutional regression it triggered. In the 1810s, the United Provinces of the River Plate sought to keep the former Viceroyalty of the River Plate under a single federal government, but failed to prevent Paraguay's early secession. Their subsequent trade blockades and military threats had profound economic and political effects on Paraguay: revenues from foreign trade taxation fell, scale economies in defence and justice provision vanished, a standing army emerged, government budget deficits worsened, mercantilist regulations heightened, the fiscal burden increased, and transactions costs generally rose. Proponents of federation, more representative governments, and freer trade progressively declined, while supporters of secession, political absolutism, and government regulation became ever more prominent. In the 1820s, blockade relaxations exacerbated economic intervention by the state, which substantially redistributed property rights in land towards itself. In the 1830s, renewed blockading had more than proportional negative effects on economic activity, which remained below late colonial levels at least until international waterways became freely navigable shortly after mid-century. Colonial absolutism and mercantilism may be said to have been restored with a vengeance. Long-run economic performance worsened.
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Jones, Christopher A., Amanda Wassel, William Mierse, and E. Scott Sills. "The 500-year Cultural & Economic Trajectory of Tobacco: A Circle Complete." Journal of Health Economics and Outcomes Research 5, no. 2 (December 20, 2017): 175–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.36469/9809.
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Who smokes, and why do they do it? What factors discourage and otherwise reward or incentivize smoking? Tobacco use has been accompanied by controversy from the moment of its entry into European culture, and conflicting opinions regarding its potentially adverse influence on health have coexisted for hundreds of years. Its use in all forms represents the world’s single greatest cause of preventable disease and death. Tobacco was introduced to Europe by Christopher Columbus, who in October 1492 discovered the crop in Cuba. While the next four centuries would see tobacco as the most highly traded economic commodity, by 1900, the now familiar cigarette remained obscure and accounted for only 2% of total tobacco sales. Global tobacco consumption rose sharply after 1914 and became especially prevalent following World War II, particularly among men. Indeed, overall tobacco sales increased by more than 60% by the mid-20th century, and cigarettes were a critical driver of this growth. Cigarettes dominated the tobacco market by 1950, by then accounting for more than 80% of all tobacco purchases. In the absence of clinical and scientific evidence against tobacco, moral and religious arguments dominated opposition voices against tobacco consumption in the 1800s. However, by the mid-20th century, advancements in medical research supported enhanced government and voluntary actions against tobacco advertising and also raised awareness of the dangers associated with passive tobacco smoke exposure. Solid epidemiological work connecting tobacco use with “the shortening of life span” began to appear in the medical literature in the 1950s, linking smoking with lung cancer and related conditions. In subsequent years, these developments led to significant curtailment of tobacco use. This monograph explores aspects of the intersection of tobacco with themes of behavioral incentives, religion, culture, literature, economics, and government over the past five centuries.
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Hummer, Kim E., and Stan Pluta. "White Pine Blister Rust Susceptibility in Ribes Species." HortScience 31, no. 4 (August 1996): 609e—609. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.31.4.609e.
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In the late 1800s a European disease called white pine blister rust, Cronartia ribicola Fisher, was introduced into the United States. By 1937 this disease had naturalized and was firmly established in native Ribes across the country. White pine blister rust causes economic damage to white pines and infects leaves of some Ribes late in the summer after harvest. Ribes serve as obligate alternate hosts for this disease. Our objective was to determine which Ribes species were susceptible to white pine blister rust under field conditions in Corvallis, Ore., where inoculum is naturally present. In 1995 and 1996, 57 Ribes taxa from North and South America, Europe, and Asia, were evaluated in mid-August and mid-September for presence of white pine blister rust. Susceptibility was determined by the rust infection of the abaxial leaf surfaces. Rust infection was rated on a scale from 1, no infection observed, to 9, severe infection covering almost the entire surface of at least three or more leaves. Data from 1995 indicated that 22 Ribes taxa were susceptible to white pine blister rust, while 35 others had no infection. The 1996 data will be reported. Species without infection may offer resistance genes to breeders who wish to develop rust-resistant commercial fruit cultivars.
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PICKARD, JOHN. "The Transition from Shepherding to Fencing in Colonial Australia." Rural History 18, no. 2 (October 2007): 143–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0956793307002129.
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AbstractThe transition from shepherding to fencing in colonial Australia was a technological revolution replacing labour with capital. Fencing could not be widespread in Australia until an historical conjunction of technological, social and economic changes: open camping of sheep (from about 1810), effective poisoning of dingoes with strychnine (from the mid-1840s), introduction of iron wire (1840s), better land tenure (from 1847), progressive reduction of Aboriginal populations, huge demand for meat (from 1851) and high wages (from 1851). Labour shortages in the gold-rushes of the early 1850s were the final trigger, but all the other changes were essential precursors. Available data are used to test the alleged benefits of fencing: a higher wool cut per head; an increased carrying capacity; savings in wages and the running costs of stations; less disease in flocks; larger sheep; higher lambing percentages, and use of land unsuitable for shepherding. Many of the benefits were real, but some cannot be verified. By the mid-1880s, over ninety-five per cent of sheep in New South Wales were in paddocks, wire fences were spreading rapidly, and the cost of fences was falling. However, shepherding persisted in remote northern areas of Australia until well into the twentieth century.
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Wible, James R., and Kevin D. Hoover. "MATHEMATICAL ECONOMICS COMES TO AMERICA: CHARLES S. PEIRCE’S ENGAGEMENT WITH COURNOT’SRECHERCHES SUR LES PRINCIPES MATHÉMATIQUES DE LA THÉORIE DES RICHESSES." Journal of the History of Economic Thought 37, no. 4 (November 12, 2015): 511–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1053837215000450.
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Although Cournot’s mathematical economics was generally neglected until the mid-1870s, he was taken up and carefully studied by the Scientific Club of Cambridge, Massachusetts, even before his “discovery” by Walras and Jevons. The episode is reconstructed from fragmentary manuscripts of the pragmatist philosopher Charles S. Peirce, a sophisticated mathematician. Peirce provides a subtle interpretation and anticipates Bertrand’s criticisms.
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Murakami, Ei. "A Comparison of the End of the Canton and Nagasaki Trade Control Systems." Itinerario 37, no. 3 (December 2013): 39–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0165115313000806.
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Owing to the development of global history in recent decades, the idea of the West as the standard by which to consider economic development in other parts of the world has been abandoned.In his studies, Kenneth Pomeranz emphasised the similarities in the living standards that existed in the core region of East Asia and Northwest Europe until the beginning of the nineteenth century. He concludes that the reasons for the great divergence between East Asia and Northwest Europe had to do with the regions' access to coal mines and the New World. His studies stimulated comparisons between East Asian countries, such as China, India, and Japan, with Northwest Europe using different economic indicators.However, these studies do not adequately explain the reason for the “small divergence” between China and Japan after the mid-nineteenth century. There were no significant differences in the living standards or real wages in the core regions of China and Japan until late in the century. Because of the development of transportation technology during the 1800s, the location of coalmines cannot explain the difference between the two countries. Therefore, it is important to examine the institutional background for the “small divergence” between China and Japan.
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Jolivétte, Andrew. "Migratory Movement: The Politics of Ethnic Community (Re) Construction Among Creoles of Color, 1920-1940." Ethnic Studies Review 28, no. 2 (January 1, 2005): 37–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/esr.2005.28.2.37.
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This article considers the social and economic conditions under which Creoles of Color left the state of Louisiana from 1920-1940.1 Because Creoles in the years following 1920 were legally reclassified as black, many lost their land, social and legal rights, and access to education as well as the possibility of upward mobility to which they had previously had access when they were accorded the status of a distinct/legal ethnic group. Creole families had to make decisions about the economic, social, religious, and cultural futures of their children and the community as a whole. As a form of resistance to colonial and neocolonial rule, thousands of Creoles left Louisiana, following the pattern established by members of the previous generation who had anticipated the advent and implications of the new legal racial system as far back as the mid to late 1800s and had engaged in the first wave of migration from 1840-1890, moving primarily from rural ethnic enclaves to larger urban cities within the US and to international sites such as Mexico, Cuba, Haiti, Brazil, and other parts of the Caribbean and Latin America where racial lines were more fluid (Gehman, 1994).
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Sutherland, Heather. "Treacherous Translators and Improvident Paupers: Perception and Practice in Dutch Makassar, Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries." Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 53, no. 1-2 (2009): 319–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/002249910x12573963244566.
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AbstractTranslator/interpreters in (pre)colonial settings were gatekeepers, capable of shaping both perceptions and policy. Their ability to bridge cultural divides was crucial, but consequently their identities could appear ambiguous and their loyalties uncertain. This case-study analyses the changing character of official translators in the East Indonesian port of Makassar in the 18th and 19th centuries. It considers the fluctuating fortunes of the mestizo families who dominated the role under the VOC and until the mid 1800s. Subsequently the Dutch East Indian state was increasingly able to subordinate personal networks to professional administrative criteria, marginalizing the mestizo and consolidating the colonial bureaucracy.Les traducteurs-interprètes qui ont été employés dans un cadre précolonial et colonial peuvent être considérés comme des véritables gardiens à cause de leur habilité à traduire des perceptions et à formuler des stratégies. Leur capacité d’établir un rapprochement entre des mondes culturels divergents était crucial. Cependant, cette même aptitude leur valait des fois une réputation d’identité ambiguë et de loyauté douteuse. Cette contribution traite des traducteurs officiels du port de Makassar (l’Indonésie orientale) aux XVIIIe-XIXe siècles, et en détaille la transformation de leur statut social durant cette époque à travers l’analyse des fortunes instables des familles métisses qui exerçaient un rôle dominant sous la VOC jusqu’à la mi-XVIIIe siècle. Par la suite l’État colonial des Indes néerlandaise s’est montré de plus en plus capable de soumettre les réseaux personnel en les remplaçant par des critères relatifs à une administration professionnelle. Il s’ensuivit que les traducteurs métis furent marginalisés tandisque la bureaucratie coloniale fut renforcée.
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Shchankina, L. N. "Mordvins in Western Siberia in the Late 19th to Early 20th Century: Certain Issues in the Migration and Settlement." Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 47, no. 3 (September 21, 2019): 119–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.17746/1563-0110.2019.47.3.119-126.
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This study addresses the main aspects of the Mordvin peasant relocation to Western Siberia from the mid-1800s to Stolypin’s agrarian reform, with a focus on resettlement and relationships with old residents, successful and failed unauthorized and reverse migration, and the displacement level. The sources are archival data, specifi cally E.I. Krivyakov’s and V.B. Rusyaikin’s manuscripts owned by the archives of the Government of Mordovia Institute for the Humanities. Causes of migration were mostly economical, and the process was triggered by the abolishment of serfdom in 1861 and then by the Stolypin’s reform, meant to defuse the imminent agrarian crisis in central Russia. On the basis of archival and published evidence, it is demonstrated that the main problems faced by the authorities were their unpreparedness for arranging the relocation of large numbers of peasants, insuffi cient funding, small size of land plots allotted to new settlers, diffi culties with obtaining documents, the fact that governmental help was insuffi cient and provided not to all those in need (land plots were not allotted to unauthorized settlers), administration’s laissez faire in the resettlement process, failure to limit admission fees paid to old settlers, and other factors caused by poor organizational training.
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HICKSON, CHARLES R., and JOHN D. TURNER. "The Trading of Unlimited Liability Bank Shares in Nineteenth-Century Ireland: The Bagehot Hypothesis." Journal of Economic History 63, no. 4 (December 2003): 931–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050703002493.
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In the mid-1820s, banks became the first businesses in Great Britain and Ireland to be allowed to form freely on an unlimited liability joint-stock basis. Walter Bagehot warned that their shares would ultimately be owned by widows, orphans, and other impecunious individuals. Another hypothesis is that the governing bodies of these banks, constrained by special legal restrictions on share trading, acted effectively to prevent such shares being transferred to the less wealthy. We test both conjectures using the archives of an Irish joint-stock bank. The results do not support Bagehot's hypothesis.
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De Marchi, Neil. "Visualizing the gains from trade, mid-1870s to 1962." European Journal of the History of Economic Thought 10, no. 4 (December 2003): 551–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0967256032000137711.
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LEES, ANDREW. "Between anxiety and admiration: views of British cities in Germany, 1835–1914." Urban History 36, no. 1 (May 2009): 42–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s096392680800597x.
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ABSTRACTExamination of writings about British cities that appeared in Germany between the mid-1830s and 1914 runs counter to emphasis either on German anti-urbanism or on growing hostility among Germans to their neighbours across the North Sea. Although it takes into account strong disparagement of flaws and failings that had, in the view of critics, resulted from the chaotic nature of urban growth in Britain, it points to increasing recognition – particularly after mid-century – of efforts to ameliorate conditions about which critics had complained. Much of what was singled out for commendation involved voluntary efforts by men and women who sought to improve working-class life via philanthropic uplift. During the 1850s and 1860s, the conservative social reformer Victor Aimé Huber sang the praises of the co-operative movement, both from an economic and from a moral standpoint. Later on, other observers, such as the liberal economist Gerhart Schulze-Gävernitz, lauded the most famous of the British settlement houses, Toynbee Hall in East London, on account of the activities it promoted in the area of adult education. Favourable commentary on municipal government rounded out a picture of the urban scene as a sphere in which local forces exemplified a spirit of civic-mindedness that ought to inspire admiration rather than enmity.
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Atack, Jeremy, Robert A. Margo, and Paul W. Rhode. "“Automation” of Manufacturing in the Late Nineteenth Century: The Hand and Machine Labor Study." Journal of Economic Perspectives 33, no. 2 (May 1, 2019): 51–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jep.33.2.51.
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Recent advances in artificial intelligence and robotics have generated a robust debate about the future of work. An analogous debate occurred in the late nineteenth century when mechanization first transformed manufacturing. We analyze an extraordinary dataset from the late nineteenth century, the Hand and Machine Labor study carried out by the US Department of Labor in the mid-1890s. We focus on transitions at the task level from hand to machine production, and on the impact of inanimate power, especially of steam power, on labor productivity. Our analysis sheds light on the ability of modern task-based models to account for the effects of historical mechanization.
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Smirnova, Irina. "Philaret, Metropolitan of Moscow and the Russian Church Policy in the Eastern Siberia." Przegląd Wschodnioeuropejski 8, no. 1 (June 1, 2018): 45–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.31648/pw.3602.
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The article is devoted to the Church policy of the Russian Orthodox Church in Eastern Siberia and the Far East with the participation of the Metropolitan of the Moscow Philaret (Drozdov, 1782–1867). Until recently historians did not focus their attention on “Asian” perspective of his activities, though there is an extensive historiography devoted to Moscow prelate. The most important aspects of the missionary activity of the Russian Orthodox Church in Eastern Siberia during the 1810s – 1860s are considered on the basis of materials from Russian archives (RSHA, St. Petersburg) and the little-known documentary sources. Particular attention is paid to the fate of the British Ecclesiastical Mission (1818–1840) and the development of Orthodox missionary work in the Trans-Baikal region, the missionary work of St. Innocent (Veniaminov) in the Far East, the Russian Church policy in the Amur and Primorye regions after the Crimean War (1853–1856), the reorganization of the Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in Beijing (1860–1864). The role of the Metropolitan Philaret in the Russian Church diplomacy in the Far East is studied in the context of Russian-Chinese relations in the mid-Nineteenth Century.
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Klein, Herbert S. "The “Historical Turn” in the Social Sciences." Journal of Interdisciplinary History 48, no. 3 (November 2017): 295–312. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jinh_a_01159.
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The first professional societies in the United States, from the 1880s to the 1910s, understood history to be closely associated with the other social sciences. Even in the mid-twentieth century, history was still grouped with the other social sciences, along with economics, sociology, political science, and anthropology. But in the past few decades, history and anthropology in the United States (though not necessarily in other countries) have moved away from the social sciences to ally themselves with the humanities—paradoxically, just when the other social sciences are becoming more committed to historical research.
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JAFFE, JAMES A. "Governments, labour, and the law in mid-Victorian Britain: the trade union legislation of the 1870s." Economic History Review 58, no. 1 (February 2005): 206–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2005.00302_10.x.
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Arroyo Abad, Leticia. "FAILURE TO LAUNCH: COST OF LIVING AND LIVING STANDARDS IN PERU DURING THE 19TH CENTURY." Revista de Historia Económica / Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History 32, no. 1 (January 20, 2014): 47–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0212610913000232.
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ABSTRACTBased on a variety of archival sources, this paper presents estimations for cost of living and living standards for Lima, Peru during the 19th century. During this century Peru experienced deep swings in economic activity marked by the independence wars, the War of the Pacific, and a commodity boom. These new series show that a sizable inflationary period during the guano age had dampening effects on the living standards of the popular class. While living standards peaked by mid 1850s, GDP per capita did not do so until two decades later. These results suggest that the guano bonanza failed to lift working-class living standards above subsistence levels. Even though living standards climbed steadily, almost reaching those of England, all these gains were lost by the end of the century.
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Hatfield, Jerry L., John Antle, Karen A. Garrett, Roberto Cesar Izaurralde, Terry Mader, Elizabeth Marshall, Mark Nearing, G. Philip Robertson, and Lewis Ziska. "Indicators of climate change in agricultural systems." Climatic Change 163, no. 4 (June 6, 2018): 1719–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10584-018-2222-2.
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AbstractClimate change affects all segments of the agricultural enterprise, and there is mounting evidence that the continuing warming trend with shifting seasonality and intensity in precipitation will increase the vulnerability of agricultural systems. Agricultural is a complex system within the USA encompassing a large number of crops and livestock systems, and development of indicators to provide a signal of the impact of climate change on these different systems would be beneficial to the development of strategies for effective adaptation practices. A series of indicators were assembled to determine their potential for assessing agricultural response to climate change in the near term and long term and those with immediate capability of being implemented and those requiring more development. The available literature reveals indicators on livestock related to heat stress, soil erosion related to changes in precipitation, soil carbon changes in response to increasing carbon dioxide and soil management practices, economic response to climate change in agricultural production, and crop progress and productivity. Crop progress and productivity changes are readily observed data with a historical record for some crops extending back to the mid-1800s. This length of historical record coupled with the county-level observations from each state where a crop is grown and emerging pest populations provides a detailed set of observations to assess the impact of a changing climate on agriculture. Continued refinement of tools to assess climate impacts on agriculture will provide guidance on strategies to adapt to climate change.
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Squicciarini, Mara P., and Nico Voigtländer. "Human Capital and Industrialization: Evidence from the Age of Enlightenment *." Quarterly Journal of Economics 130, no. 4 (July 6, 2015): 1825–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjv025.
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AbstractWhile human capital is a strong predictor of economic development today, its importance for the Industrial Revolution has typically been assessed as minor. To resolve this puzzling contrast, we differentiate average human capital (literacy) from upper-tail knowledge. As a proxy for the historical presence of knowledge elites, we use city-level subscriptions to the famous Encyclopédie in mid-18th century France. We show that subscriber density is a strong predictor of city growth after the onset of French industrialization. Alternative measures of development such as soldier height, disposable income, and industrial activity confirm this pattern. Initial literacy levels, on the other hand, are associated with development in the cross-section, but they do not predict growth. Finally, by joining data on British patents with a large French firm survey from the 1840s, we shed light on the mechanism: upper-tail knowledge raised productivity in innovative industrial technology.
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WHITE, MICHAEL V. "THIRSTING FOR THE FRAY: THE CAMBRIDGE DUNNING OF MR. MACLEOD." Journal of the History of Economic Thought 32, no. 3 (August 27, 2010): 305–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1053837210000428.
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In 1883 Henry Sidgwick complained that, with the recent undermining of the authority of political economy, “utterances of dissent from economic orthodoxy” could obtain a ready hearing. This was of particular concern to those writing and teaching on political economy at Cambridge University. As Henry Dunning Macleod was one of the dissenters named by Sidgwick, it appears odd that Macleod was also recognized as a lecturer in political economy at Cambridge between the late 1870s and mid-1880s. This article examines that peculiar occurrence, showing how Macleod exploited the struggle between reformers and conservatives over teaching reform in the university.
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Fleming, Grant. "R.Arnold, New Zealand’s burning: the settlers’ world in the mid 1880s (Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1994. Pp.319.)." Australian Economic History Review 36, no. 1 (January 1, 1996): 116–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/aehr.361br9.
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Stone, Ian R. "‘The faithfulness of our dealings’: the correspondence between George Simpson and Ferdinand von Wrangell, 1838–48." Polar Record 38, no. 207 (October 2002): 329–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0032247400018027.
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AbstractBy an agreement in 1839, the Hudson's Bay Company and the Russian American Company established a framework for co-operation in their activities in Alaska and adjacent areas of Canada that lasted until the 1860s. The signatories to the agreement were George Simpson and Ferdinand von Wrangell. These men were prominent in the management of the co-operation and this was facilitated by their mutual trust and friendship. An examination of their correspondence affords insights into business methods in a cross-cultural environment in the mid-nineteenth century, and into the extent to which their personal relations influenced major decisions in economics and politics with regard to the areas of activity of both companies.
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Fermanis, Porscha. "Capital, Conversion, and Settler Colonialism in Samuel Butler’s Erewhon." Journal of Victorian Culture 25, no. 3 (May 28, 2020): 424–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jvcult/vcz058.
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Abstract Viewing capitalism as emerging primarily from within the framework of empire rather than the nation state, this essay considers the relationship between capital, conversion, and settler colonialism in Samuel Butler’s Erewhon, or Over the Range (1872). It looks, first, at the novel’s critique of Wakefieldian organized settlement schemes as systems sustained by various forms of capital accumulation and free/unfree labour; and second, at its over-arching evangelical conversion narrative, which both frames and structures the main body of the text. The essay argues that, far from directing its satire wholly or even primarily towards metropolitan Britain, the novel enacts two circulating mid-nineteenth-century settler colonial anxieties: concerns about a perceived crisis of diminishing industriousness and economic exhaustion in colonial Australia and New Zealand, and concerns about the efficacy of British humanitarianism and missionary conversion. It considers the former in the context of the disruptions to settlement caused by the gold rushes in Australia and New Zealand in the 1850s and 1860s, and the latter in the context of missionary and humanitarian efforts to ameliorate conditions for Indigenous peoples from the 1830s onwards. The essay’s larger claim is that Erewhon presents capital and conversion as structurally interconnected mechanisms of an evolving Anglo-settler state in New Zealand. Radicalizing a tradition of economic critique of empire beginning with Adam Smith, Butler satirizes the idea of colonialism as an essentially liberal system by showing how much it is intertwined with exploitative practices of territorial expansion, dispossession, capital accumulation, unfree labour, missionary conversion, and racial assimilation.
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Heinonen, Maarit, and Lidija Bitz. "How to Discover Traditional Varieties and Shape in a National Germplasm Collection: The Case of Finnish Seed Born Apples (Malus × domestica Borkh.)." Sustainability 11, no. 24 (December 7, 2019): 7000. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su11247000.
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Cultivated apple (Malus × domestica Borkh.) is a major crop of economic importance, both globally and regionally. It is currently, and was also in the past, the main commercial fruit in the northern European countries. In Finland, apple trees are grown on the frontier of their northern growing limits. Because of these limits, growing an apple tree from a seed was discovered in practice to be the most appropriate method to get trees that bear fruit for people in the north. This created a unique culturally and genetically rich native germplasm to meet the various needs of apple growers and consumers from the late 1800s to the mid-1900s. The preservation, study and use of this genetic heritage falls within the mandate of the Finnish National Genetic Resources Program. The first national apple clonal collection for germplasm preservation was reorganized from the collections of apple breeders. The need to evaluate the accessions, both in this collection and possible missing ones, to meet the program strategy lead us to evaluate the Finnish apple heritage that is still available in situ in gardens. In this article we use multiple-approach methodologies and datasets to gain well-described, proof-rich samples for the trueness-to-type analysis of old heirloom apple varieties. The approach includes a combination of socio-historic, pomological and genotyping methods and datasets that are all valued as equally important. The main finding was that in addition to the pomological, molecular and genetic evaluation of ex situ apple collections, an extensive historical data and socio-economic conditions research are essential to perform good characterization of accessions. After implementing the results in re-creating the Finnish national apple germplasm collection, the number of Finnish local varieties was more than doubled from 38 accessions to 97.
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Cummins, Neil. "Where Is the Middle Class? Evidence from 60 Million English Death and Probate Records, 1892–1992." Journal of Economic History 81, no. 2 (April 16, 2021): 359–404. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050721000164.
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This article analyzes a newly constructed individual level dataset of every English death and probate from 1892–1992. This analysis shows that the twentieth century’s “Great Equalization” of wealth stalled in mid-century. The probate rate, which captures the proportion of English holding any significant wealth at death rose from 10 percent in the 1890s to 40 percent by 1950 and has stagnated to 1992. Despite the large declines in the wealth share of the top 1 percent, from 73 to 20 percent, the median English individual died with almost nothing throughout. All changes in inequality after 1950 involve a reshuffling of wealth within the top 30 percent. I translate the individual level data to synthetic households; the majority have at least one member probated. Yet the bottom 60 percent of households hold only 12 percent of all wealth, at their peak wealth-holding level, in the early 1990s. I also compare the new wealth data with existing estimates of top wealth shares, home-ownership trends, wealth survey distributions, aggregate wealth, and the wealth Gini coefficient.
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Shumkin, George. "Energy Supplied per Job in the Steel Industry of Ural in the Late 19th and in the Early 20th Centuries." Journal of Economic History and History of Economics 21, no. 4 (December 30, 2020): 497–528. http://dx.doi.org/10.17150/2308-2588.2020.21(4).497-528.
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The article contains the analysis of transformation in energy supply at factories of the steel industry in Ural from 1882 to 1911. The analysis was based on the materials of Statistical Compilations on Mining Industry of Russia regarding such indicators as: engine power per worker, fuel supply per worker and correlation between production workers and related workers. The study observes the impact of economic conditions and other factors on energy supply dynamics. Three stages in energy supply development were determined (from the 1880s to mid-1890s, second half of the 1890s and the early 20th century). The paper specifies the period of time of the main changes, which took place during the economic crises and the recession of the early 20th century. The text concluded that development of energy supply was due to the increased productivity of related workers, as well as to replacing water wheels with turbines and steam engines, while the amount of fuel supply per worker remained almost at the same level. As a result, the correlation between production workers and related workers has changed, as well as the structure of power facilities.
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Federico, Giovanni, Max-Stephan Schulze, and Oliver Volckart. "European Goods Market Integration in the Very Long Run: From the Black Death to the First World War." Journal of Economic History 81, no. 1 (January 13, 2021): 276–308. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050720000637.
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This paper examines price convergence and changes in the efficiency of wheat markets, covering the period from the mid-fourteenth to the early twentieth century and most of Europe. The analysis is based on a new data set of prices from almost 600 markets. Unlike previous research, we find that convergence was a predominantly pre-modern phenomenon. It started in the late fifteenth century, advanced rapidly until the beginning of the seventeenth century when it temporarily stalled, resumed after the Thirty Years’ War, and accelerated after the Napoleonic Wars in response to trade liberalization. From the late 1840s, convergence petered out and turned into divergence after 1875 as policy decisions dominated technological change. Our results point to the ‘Little Divergence’ between North-Western Europe and the rest of the continent as starting about 1600. Long-term improvements in market efficiency began in the early sixteenth century, with advances over time being as uneven as in price convergence. We trace this to differential institutional change and the non-synchronous spread of modern media and systems of information transmission that affected the ability of merchants to react to news.
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Hart, Barry, Glen Walker, Asitha Katupitiya, and Jane Doolan. "Salinity Management in the Murray–Darling Basin, Australia." Water 12, no. 6 (June 26, 2020): 1829. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w12061829.
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The southern Murray–Darling Basin (MDB) is particularly vulnerable to salinity problems. Much of the Basin’s landscape and underlying groundwater is naturally saline with groundwater not being suitable for human or irrigation use. Since European settlement in the early 1800s, two actions—the clearance of deep-rooted native vegetation for dryland agriculture and the development of irrigation systems on the Riverine Plains and Mallee region—have resulted in more water now entering the groundwater systems, resulting in mobilization of the salt to the land surface and to rivers. While salinity has been a known issue since the 1960s, it was only in the mid-1980s that was recognized as one of the most significant environmental and economic challenges facing the MDB. Concerted and cooperative action since 1988 by the Commonwealth and Basin state governments under a salinity management approach implemented over the past 30 years has resulted in salinity now being largely under control, but still requiring on-going active management into the future. The approach has involved the development of three consecutive salinity strategies governing actions from 1988 to 2000, from 2001 to 2015, and the most recent from 2016 to 2030. The basis of the approach and all three strategies is an innovative, world-leading salinity management framework consisting of: An agreed salinity target; joint works and measures to reduce salt entering the rivers; and an agreed accountability and governance system consisting of a system of salinity credits to offset debits, a robust and agreed method to quantify the credits and debits, and a salinity register to keep track of credits and debits. This paper first provides background to the salinity issue in the MDB, then reviews the three salinity management strategies, the various actions that have been implemented through these strategies to control salinity, and the role of the recent Basin Plan in salinity management. We then discuss the future of salinity in the MDB given that climate change is forecast to lead to a hotter, drier and more variable climate (particularly more frequent droughts), and that increased salt loads to the River Murray are predicted to come from the lower reaches of the Mallee region. Finally, we identify the key success factors of the program.
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Sefer, Akın. "British Workers and Ottoman Modernity in Nineteenth-Century Istanbul." International Labor and Working-Class History 99 (2021): 147–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0147547921000028.
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AbstractIn the mid-nineteenth century, when the Ottoman state launched an industrialization campaign within the context of increasing contacts between the Ottoman and British governments, hundreds of British industrial workers migrated to Istanbul to work in Ottoman military factories, along with technology transfer from Britain. This article narrates the history of these workers and of the community they established in Istanbul in a period spanning four decades, from the beginning of the mechanization efforts in the 1830s until the economic crisis in the mid-1870s. Drawing on archival evidence from Ottoman and British sources, it analyzes the larger context of British workers’ migration from Britain, their relations with the Ottoman state officials and local workers, and their experiences and struggles in the workplace and the city. Although both British and Ottoman historians have largely ignored their experiences due to their marginal numbers and distinct statuses, these workers actively took part in the Ottoman industrialization process, in the development of capitalist class relations, and in the social, cultural, and spatial transformation of the capital city in the Ottoman age of reforms. By means of this analysis, the article aims to highlight the significance of immigrant workers as actors of the history of large-scale transformations in the late Ottoman Empire as well as underlining the role of trans-imperial labor migration in the history of modernity.
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Klyza, Christopher McGrory. "Ideas, Institutions, and Policy Patterns: Hardrock Mining, Forestry, and Grazing Policy on United States Public Lands, 1870–1985." Studies in American Political Development 8, no. 2 (1994): 341–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0898588x00001279.
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From the mid–1800s through the mid–1980s, the federal government initiated programs to manage three types of resources on the lands that it controlled. The discovery of gold in California and elsewhere in the West prompted the first government policy in the 1860s. Debate over the nation's forests began in the 1870s, and a system of national forests to be managed by a federal Forest Service was created in the late 1800s and early 1900s. And in the 1930s, the government finally began to manage the lands no one wanted, its grazing lands. The federal government continues to be an active manager of national resources. Indeed, with control of nearly 30 percent of the nation's land, it is the largest land manager in the country.
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Bodovics, Éva. "Weather Anomalies and Their Economic Consequences: Penury in Northeastern Hungary in the Late 1870s." Hungarian Historical Review 9, no. 2 (2020): 179–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.38145/2020.2.179.
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This study investigates an episode of penury in 1879–1880 in Borsod and Zemplén Counties which occurred as one of the negative consequences of a short-term weather change which was experienced across Europe in the late 1870s and early 1880s. From the mid-1870s on, due to the wetter and cooler weather, the annual crop yields repeatedly fell below the usual and expected averages in Hungary. After a catastrophic harvest in the autumn of 1879, when the quantity of harvested cereals was sufficient neither for reserves nor for spring sowing, the situation became severe. 1878 had also been a bad year for agriculture: the severe floods in the second half of 1878 not only had washed the crops from the fields but had also covered them with thick sludge that made it impossible to sow in autumn. Since the spring of 1879 was characterized by unfavorable conditions for agriculture (increased rainfall, widespread floods, low average spring temperatures), the local and national authorities continuously kept their eyes on the crops. Thanks to this preliminary attention, the administration was able to respond quickly and in an organized manner to the bad harvest in July and August and could avert catastrophe at national level. The leadership of the two counties responded more or less in the same way to the near-famine conditions. First, they asked the Treasury to suspend tax collection until the next harvest at least so that the farmers who were facing financial difficulties would not have to go into debt. Second, they appealed to the government for financial and crop relief to save the unemployed population from starvation. For those who were able to work, they asked for the approval of public works and major construction projects from the Ministry of Transport and Public Works. For many, such state-funded road construction or river regulation projects were the only way to make a living. Third, the county administrations also gave seeds for spring sowing to the farmers. While Borsod county survived the years of bad harvests without dire problems due to the higher proportion of better quality fields, in the more mountainous region of Zemplén, most landowners had smaller and lower quality lands, and they often chose to emigrate to avoid starvation. These difficult conditions may have provided the initial impetus for mass emigration to Western Europe and America.
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Woloson, Wendy A. "Wishful Thinking: Retail Premiums in Mid-Nineteenth-Century America." Enterprise & Society 13, no. 4 (December 2012): 790–831. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1467222700011472.
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“Wishful Thinking” discusses the origins of retail premium schemes in America. An entirely new marketing strategy that began appearing in the early 1850s, giving away free things with purchases helped fuel the consumer revolution of the 19th century by inducing people to buy things they did not necessarily want or need. The article focuses on the three most prevalent forms of premiums – gift distributions, prize packages, and gift book establishments – and draws on scholarship from various fields, including advertising and marketing history and economic anthropology. In addition to describing various premium schemes and linking them to nascent consumerism, the article posits why they might have been so successful, despite the fact that many were clearly fraudulent.
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Kern Koegel, Ashley. "Evidence Suggesting the Existence of Asperger Syndrome in the Mid-1800s." Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 10, no. 4 (June 19, 2008): 270–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1098300708320238.
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Quinn, Norman W. S. "Reconstructing Changes in Abundance of White-tailed Deer, Odocoileus virginianus, Moose, Alces alces, and Beaver, Castor canadensis, in Algonquin Park, Ontario, 1860-2004." Canadian Field-Naturalist 119, no. 3 (July 1, 2005): 330. http://dx.doi.org/10.22621/cfn.v119i3.142.
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The history of White-tailed Deer, Odocoileus virginianus, Moose, Alces alces, and Beaver, Castor canadensis, in Algonquin Park since the 1860s is reviewed and placed in the context of changes to the forest, weather, and parasitic disease. Deer seem to have been abundant in the late 1800s and early 1900s whereas Moose were also common but less so than deer. Deer declined through the 1920s as Moose probably increased. Deer had recovered by the 1940s when Moose seem to have been scarce. The deer population declined again in the 1960s, suffered major mortality in the early 1970s, and has never recovered; deer are essentially absent from the present day Algonquin landscape in winter. Moose increased steadily following the decline of deer and have numbered around 3500 since the mid-1980s. Beaver were scarce in the Park in the late 1800s but recovered by 1910 and appear to have been abundant through the early 1900s and at high numbers through mid-century. The Beaver population has, however, declined sharply since the mid-1970s. These changes can best be explained by the history of change to the structure and composition of the Park's forests. After extensive fire and logging in the late 1800s and early 1900s, the forest is now in an essentially mature state. Weather and parasitic disease, however, have also played a role. These three species form the prey base of Algonquin's Wolves, Canis lycaon, and the net decline of prey, especially deer, has important implications for the future of wolves in the Park.
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Lawrence, Jon. "Popular Radicalism and the Socialist Revival in Britain." Journal of British Studies 31, no. 2 (April 1992): 163–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/386002.
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The twentieth century has not been kind to the “Whig interpretation of history” with its emphasis on the inexorable triumph of reason and progress. Mortally wounded on the battlefields of Flanders, the liberal certainties that underpinned it were finally laid to rest in the shadow of the Holocaust. With the Whig interpretation died the tradition of seeing nineteenth-century politics in terms of the gradual, but uninterrupted, evolution of democratic principles and institutions. In its place emerged a new orthodoxy that stressed the discontinuities of popular politics during the nineteenth century and argued for three distinct phases of political development. The first, a phase of militant, semirevolutionary politics, coincided with the “industrial revolution” and led up to the defeat of Chartism in the late 1840s. This, it was argued, was followed by a period of stabilization during the mid-Victorian decades characterized by relative prosperity and political docility among the working classes. The final phase began with the economic downturn of the late 1870s and was said to have witnessed the reemergence of working-class militancy and socialist politics and to have culminated in the formation of the class-based Labour party.This three-phase model emerged in embryonic form between the wars in the agitprop histories of Marxist writers such as Theodore Rothstein and T. A. Jackson and in the more influential works of G. D. H. Cole and the Hammonds. At the same time, many of the reductionist assumptions that underpinned it were simultaneously finding favor within Britain's emergent school of economic historians.
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Poage, Nathan J., Peter J. Weisberg, Peter C. Impara, John C. Tappeiner, and Thomas S. Sensenig. "Influences of climate, fire, and topography on contemporary age structure patterns of Douglas-fir at 205 old forest sites in western Oregon." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 39, no. 8 (August 2009): 1518–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/x09-071.
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Knowledge of forest development is basic to understanding the ecology, dynamics, and management of forest ecosystems. We hypothesized that the age structure patterns of Douglas-fir at 205 old forest sites in western Oregon are extremely variable with long and (or) multiple establishment periods common, and that these patterns reflect variation in regional-scale climate, landscape-scale topography, and landscape-scale fire history. We used establishment dates for 5892 individual Douglas-firs from these sites to test these hypotheses. We identified four groups of old forest sites with fundamentally different Douglas-fir age structure patterns. Long and (or) multiple establishment periods were common to all groups. One group described old forests characterized by substantial establishment from the early 1500s to the mid-1600s, with decreasing establishment thereafter. Another group was characterized by peaks of establishment in the middle to late 1600s and in the late 1800s and early 1900s. A third group was characterized by a small peak of establishment in the mid-1500s and a larger peak in the middle to late 1800s. Characteristic of the fourth group was the extended period of Douglas-fir establishment from the late 1600s to the late 1800s. Group membership was explained moderately well by contemporary, regional climatic variables and landscape-scale fire history, but only weakly by landscape-scale topography.
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Jenkins, Jeffery A., Eric Schickler, and Jamie L. Carson. "Constituency Cleavages and Congressional Parties." Social Science History 28, no. 4 (2004): 537–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0145553200012840.
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We analyze the constituency bases of the congressional parties from 1857 through 1913 by focusing on two key concepts: party homogeneity and party polarization. With a few notable exceptions, prior efforts to assess these concepts have relied upon measures based on members’ roll call votes. This is potentially problematic, as such measures are likely endogenous: They reflect the party’s actual level of success as much as the party’s underlying homogeneity. To address this problem, we construct measures for party homogeneity and polarization that are based on constituency characteristics, using economic-based census data and presidential voting data as proxies. We then examine how these “exogenous” measures compare to roll call-based measures. We find that changes in party unity on roll call votes track shifts in constituency characteristics fairly closely. Substantively, we find that the congressional parties went through three distinct phases during these 56 years: first, a period of extremely high overlap and low party homogeneity during the Civil War and Reconstruction, followed by a period of moderate polarization and homogeneity from the mid-1870s through the early 1890s, and concluding with a period of sharp polarization and high homogeneity, which coincided with the realignment of 1894–96. While the status of the 1894–96 elections as a critical turning point remains controversial in the historical and political science literatures, our results suggest that these elections did lead to a substantial change in the underlying characteristics of the congressional parties.
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Claeys, Gregory. "Mazzini, Kossuth, and British Radicalism, 1848–1854." Journal of British Studies 28, no. 3 (January 1989): 225–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/385936.
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The relative quiescence of British working-class radicalism during much of the two decades after 1848, so central to the foundations of mid-Victorian stability, has been the subject of many explanations. Though Chartism did not expire finally until the late 1850s, its mainstream strategy of constitutionalist organization, huge meetings, enormous parliamentary petitions, and the tacit threat of violent intimidation seemed exploded after the debacle of Kennington Common and the failed march on Parliament in April 1848. But other factors also contributed to undermine the zeal for reform. Alleviating the pressures of distress, emigration carried off many activists to America and elsewhere. Relative economic prosperity rendered the economic ends of reform less pressing, and proposals like the Chartist Land Plan less appealing. The popularity of various self-help doctrines, including consumer cooperation, also militated against collectivist political action. “Labour aristocrats” and trade union leaders, moreover, preferred local and sectional economic improvement to the risks and expense of political campaigning.Accounts of mid-Victorian political stability have had little to say, however, about the impact of European radicalism on the British working-class movement after 1848. That the failure of the continental revolutions brought thousands of refugees to Britain is well known. But although useful studies exist of the internationalist dimensions of Chartism prior to 1849—and of some of the refugee groups generally in this period—the effects of the exiled continental radicals on British working-class politics in the early 1850s have remained largely unconsidered.
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Rosenbloom, Joshua L., and Thomas Weiss. "Economic growth in the Mid-Atlantic region: Conjectural estimates for 1720 to 1800." Explorations in Economic History 51 (January 2014): 41–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eeh.2013.08.002.
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