Journal articles on the topic 'Earthworks-Foundations'

All work on the construction of pumping and compressor stations is usually divided into two groups of zero cycle work and ground cycle work. The work of the zero cycle includes the preparation of the construction site, earthworks, work on the construction of foundations for buildings, pumping units and technological equipment, work on the construction of underground pipelines and utilities. The work of the ground cycle includes work on the construction of buildings for pumping and compressor shops and auxiliary buildings, installation work on installation and fixing on the foundations in the design position of pumping units. Compressor stations (CS) have been installed along the pipeline route to maintain a certain flow rate of the transported gas and to ensure optimal pressure in the pipeline. A modern compressor station is a complex engineering structure that provides the basic technological processes for the preparation and transportation of natural gas. Keywords: compressor stations, gas pipeline, building structure, Booster compressor stations.

The deformation modulus and permissible stress are two independent parameters that depict the carrying capacity of foundations, including earthworks and ballast layer. Nevertheless, while designing the track superstructure or controlling its state, they are considered separate to each other, even though they are terms of the same measure. The scientific problem is due to the practical necessity of unified building rules and standards. The carrying capacity of earthworks and foundations is regulated with standards based both on deformation and on stress criteria, which are not related to each other. This plays particularly important role for railway ballast layer, as an intermediate between the solids and soil. The objective of the present research is to estimate the relationship between deformation modulus and the strength of ballast layer. An overview of modern approaches according to the relation between the stiffness, deformation modulus, elasticity and strength of soils and crushed stone is done. The strength of ballast layer is considered depending on the experimental test: the direct shear test, compressive strength in the uniaxial or biaxial stress state. Load transfer model in crushed stone is proposed. The load transfer angle and cone of loading distribution are determined based on the load transfer and compressive strength models. The relation between deformation modulus and strength is derived from two simple laboratory experiments with cohesionless ballast material. The experiment tests have shown that the ballast stiffness as well as its strength are influenced with the support stress. The measurement of elastic and residual settlements for the different support stress values enables to determine the relation. It can be potentially used for the development of methods for the ballast compaction control, unification of construction norms. The research result should be considered as an approach for unification of two different ways to reflect the carrying capacity of ballast layer.

The historical development of limit state design in geotechnical engineering is reviewed. Total and partial factors of safety used for the design of land–based and offshore structures are compared. It is found that the factors of safety in different codes for the ultimate and serviceability limit states design of earthworks, earth retaining structures, and land-based and offshore foundations are very similar. Partial factors in the ultimate limit state design are linked to the variability of the loads and soil parameters, the design approximations, and construction tolerances. They influence the nominal probability of failure of the type of structure considered and the seriousness of failure, which differ for land-based and offshore structures. These probabilities are compared with human fatality risks of common experiences. The serviceability limit states are governed by structural and operational constraints and the intended service life of the land-based or offshore structure. The corresponding partial factors are generally taken as unity. Key words : codes, earth structures, foundations, human risks, limit states design, probability of failures, factors of safety.

Abstract Field testing is often a very reliable way to determine the mechanical properties of soil materials and in some cases the most appropriate and unique way to obtain accurate measurements. Geotechnical engineers and engineering geologists perform geotechnical investigations to obtain information on the physical and mechanical properties of soil and rock underlying (and sometimes adjacent to) a site to design earthworks and foundations for proposed structures. The object of the present work is the recording of the geotechnical data of the center and districts of the city of Larissa, the knowledge of which is necessary for the construction and erection of construction works, as well as the characteristics and points that need special attention in each area. Finally important conclusions refer to the construction culture, that project authorities and contractors should draw on, accordingly.

The article contains the factors determining the choice of methods for organizing the construction and production of construction and installation work for the construction of high-rise buildings. There are also indicated specific features of their underground parts, characterized by powerful slab-pile foundations, large volumes of earthworks, reinforced bases and foundations for assembly cranes. The work cycle is considered when using reinforced concrete, steel and combined skeletons of high-rise buildings; the areas of application of flow, separate and complex methods are being disclosed. The main conditions for the erection of high-rise buildings and their components are singled out: the choice of formwork systems, delivery and lifting of concrete mixes, installation of reinforcement, the formation of lifting and transporting and auxiliary equipment. The article prescribes the reserves of reduction in the duration of construction due to the creation of: complex mechanized technologies for the efficient construction of foundations in various soil conditions, including in the heaving, swelling, hindered, subsidence, bulk, water-saturated forms; complex mechanized technologies for the erection of monolithic reinforced concrete structures, taking into account the winter conditions of production and the use of mobile concrete-laying complexes and new generation machines; modular formwork systems, distinguished by their versatility, ease, simplicity in operation suitable for complex high-rise construction; more perfect methodology and the development of a set of progressive organizational and technological solutions that ensure a rational relationship between the processes of production and their maximum overlap in time and space.

The application of methods of improvement of ground bases in subsidence areas is an urgent issue today. This is evidenced by the continuing difficulties with the operation of transport structures. This study presents experimental studies of soil reinforcement. An important factor is to determine the properties of the soil, so the paper presents the results of laboratory tests. The angle of internal friction and the deformation increases to a greater extent when the reinforcing element is embedded in the ground, which will increase the bearing capacity of the foundations and reduce the deformability and settlement of the soil mass. The use of a reinforcing element in the ground not only makes it possible to improve the physical and mechanical properties of the soil but also gives an economic effect. It allows you to reduce the cost of the volume of earthworks. The results obtained in this study have considerable potential for eliminating problems arising from the construction of structures in subsidence areas.

Most of the infrastructure investments and earthworks not requiring deep foundations are usually designed in the vadose zone to avoid excessive groundwater-structure interactions. The mechanical behaviour of soil material, under partially saturated conditions, is greatly influenced by pore-water tension, known as soil suction, and the characteristics of the Soil Water Retention Curve (SWRC). In the present paper, the SWRC of a silty sand was determined using two different experimental methods. In the first method, a modified pore water pressure transducer was used for suction monitoring, while the specimen was allowed to change its moisture content by natural evaporation. For the second method, a modified consolidation cell fitted with a high air entry value ceramic disc on the base pedestal was used. Suction was applied using the axis translation technique by utilising pore air and pore water pressure controllers, while moisture was monitored using a volumetric measurement system. Through the determination of the SWRC for the silty sand, this paper intends to compare the abovementioned testing methods basedon the produced SWRCs and to reveal advantages and limitations.

Currently, in the design of large industrial enterprises, modern building information models (BIM) are being introduced and further used at the construction site. The construction industry is transitioning to digitalization of information modeling processes using spatial data and electronic document management. Therefore, it is proposed to use unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and terrestrial laser scanners more efficiently for geodetic monitoring of the construction of industrial facilities of mining enterprises. With the systematic monitoring of construction, a full-fledged master plan is created, which reflects all deviations from the project, including works that were not provided for in the project documentation. It is known that using UAVs to collect spatial data, it is possible to control earthworks, pile fields, foundations, temporary roads and landscaping. Structures such as metal and reinforced concrete columns, trusses, beams, technological equipment, complex above-ground pipelines and facades are advisable to be monitored using a ground-based laser scanner. All the data obtained during geodetic monitoring can be combined in a single project and jointly used for a comprehensive solution of various applied engineering problems both in the process of monitoring buildings and structures being erected, and during their operation.

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a widely used methodology for quantifying environmental impacts associated with the life cycle stages of a system. LCA utilizes inventory of energy and materials to calculate the emissions from the life cycle stages and characterize the emissions into environmental impacts. LCA is applicable to complex systems like geo-structures, but its application in geotechnical engineering has been lacking because it is not mandatory in current practice. Given that geotechnical constructions involve land transformations through earthworks and construction of large-scale concrete and/or steel structures (e.g., bridge abutments, retaining structures, and tunnels), geotechnical engineering can play a vital role in sustainable development by ensuring that the resources are consumed responsibly with minimal emissions to the environment. LCA can help designers determine the most environment-friendly option among design alternatives. It can also help in optimizing designs by varying the parameters that affect the environmental impacts or emissions of interest. In this paper, the process of performing LCA is described with drilled shaft foundations as examples. Sample calculations related to the quantification part of LCA are provided, and sample results are interpreted to demonstrate the usefulness of information obtained from LCA.

In this paper, the author reflects on the relationship between environmental aesthetics and land art. By considering their historical development, the author first addresses the terminology problem which prompted him to understand land art as a hypernym – i.e. a term that semantically encompasses other art practices (e.g. “Earth art”, “Earthworks”, “Site art”, “Arte Povera”, “Environment(al) art”, and “Ecological art”). Moreover, by considering certain features of land art (e.g. integration, interruption, involvement, implementation, and imagining), the author proposes a thesis according to which land art represents not only a contemporary art movement but also a new form of the aesthetic experience of nature. In the further development of this thesis, the author focuses on two aesthetic principles of land art – participation and entropy – which in the history of aesthetic theory have been almost non-existent, pushed to the margins, or completely neglected. Finally, by finding solid theoretical foundations for this thesis in Ronald W. Hepburn’s ground-breaking essay “Contemporary Aesthetics and the Neglect of Natural Beauty” (1984), as well as some land art projects (e.g. Robert Smithson, Spiral Jetty, 1970), the author emphasises the strong theoretical connection between environmental aesthetics and land art.

Introduction. A part of the methods for designing earthworks and foundations is based on solutions for predicting the stress state of soils under the action of an external load, which do not take into account the structural features of the material. This is in conflict with current studies, which indicate that changes in the moisture content, density, and shape of material particles entail changes in the mechanism of stress state formation. According to some research, when the type of soil, moisture content and density of the mass change, both its mechanical characteristics and the stress state change, which requires consideration in the design of earthworks and building foundations.The method of research. To study the stress state arising in sandy soil with different mechanical characteristics, experimental studies were carried out to determine the pressures in sand of different density and moisture under the action of an external load from a round stamp with an area of 500 cm2. To do this, at a depth of 5, 15, 25, 40 cm along the axis of a round stamp in an array of sand of medium size, mesdoses were set, after which the pressures were measured when the load was applied. For each value of density and moisture created during the experiment, the mechanical characteristics of the sandy soil were determined.Results. The analysis of the existing dependencies for predicting the maximum principal stresses showed that the Kandaurov and Frohlich’s solutions are the only ones that give a connection between the formation of the stress state and mechanical characteristics and allow predicting the minimum principal stresses. The influence of the mechanical characteristics of sandy soil (the angle of internal friction and the modulus of elasticity at different density and humidity) on the Frohlich’s parameter and the distribution capacity coefficient of the medium of the Kandaurov’s solution was established.Conclusion. The analysis of the results of experimental studies made it possible to derive dependencies for predicting the maximum principal stresses of sandy soil at points located at different depths along the axis of a loaded round stamp. The proposed dependencies are a modification of Kandaurov and Frohlich’s solutions, which take into account the relationship between the mechanical characteristics of sandy soil and the parameters of the distribution capacity of the medium.

The construction industry faces many challenges with problems related to construction waste as it takes up time and effort without adding value to clients. A concept in project management, namely lean construction, has the main focus of minimizing waste and providing added value to a construction project. The purpose of this study was to know the existence of non-physical waste, its causative factors, and how lean construction can be implemented to minimize non-physical waste in earthworks, foundations and basement 2 of the Sanggala Hotel and Office Building Project. The study was carried out by observation, document study, and questionnaires to identify non-physical waste. This study showed that the non-physical waste that most often occurs in related project was equipment breakdown frequently with a weight of 0.086. Meanwhile, the non-physical waste variable that has the greatest impact on causing time overrun on the project was delayed schedule with a weight of 0.080. Equipment breakdown frequently is influenced dominantly by the equipment shortage. Delayed schedule is influenced dominantly by licensing problems. In general, lean construction approaches such as Construction Meetings, Preventive And Predictive Maintenance, and Fail-Safe For Quality And Safety can be applied by contractors to minimize non-physical waste that was dominant in the project. Keywords: Lean Construction, Non-Physical Waste, Waste

Abstract The construction industry faces many challenges with problems related to construction waste as it takes up time and effort without adding value to clients. A concept in project management, namely lean construction, has the main focus of minimizing waste and providing added value to a construction project. The purpose of this study was to know the existence of non-physical waste, its causative factors, and how lean construction can be implemented to minimize non-physical waste in earthworks, foundations and basement 2 of the Sanggala Hotel and Office Building Project. The study was carried out by observation, document study, and questionnaires to identify non-physical waste. This study showed that the non-physical waste that most often occurs in related project was equipment breakdown frequently with a weight of 0.086. Meanwhile, the non-physical waste variable that has the greatest impact on causing time overrun on the project was delayed schedule with a weight of 0.080. Equipment breakdown frequently is influenced dominantly by the equipment shortage. Delayed schedule is influenced dominantly by licensing problems. In general, lean construction approaches such as Construction Meetings, Preventive And Predictive Maintenance, and Fail-Safe For Quality And Safety can be applied by contractors to minimize non-physical waste that was dominant in the project. Keywords: Lean Construction, Non-Physical Waste, Waste

The sand-covered coastal plain connecting the Cape Peninsula mountain chain to the southwestern Cape mainland is known as the Cape Flats. The whitish windblown sands covering this area of approximately 460 km2, referred to as the Quaternary sands of the Cape Flats, provide founding for the rapid and ongoing development in the area. A knowledge of the geotechnical properties and engineering behaviour of these sands is essential for design of suitable foundations for proposed structures and earthworks associated with such developments. By combining, analysing and interpreting the wealth of existing and available geotechnical information from previous and new soil investigations undertaken in the area, the Quaternary-aged sands of the Witzand, Springfontyn and Langebaan Formations from the Cape Flats were characterised in terms of their physical properties and engineering behaviour. The sands from the study area were classified based on their grading, Atterberg limits, maximum dry density and optimum moisture content, minimum dry density, California Bearing Ratio (CBR), erodibility and corrosivity, and characterised in terms of their compressibility, shear strength, permeability, volumetric behaviour during shear including liquefaction potential, in-situ density and moisture content and specific gravity. The Cape Flats sands were found to be highly variable (with both inter- and intra-formation variation), with a wide range in many material properties, principally a function of soil texture, gradation and degree of cementation. The findings of this research may be used to form initial appreciation of the likely properties of the material and potential problem areas.

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is becoming an increasingly important environmental systems analysis tool in the construction sector for the identification of measures and strategies to reduce the environmental impact of buildings throughout the whole value chain. Geotechnical processes, such as earthworks, ground improvement and foundation construction, are often energy- and resource-intensive. Geotechnical works can thus play an important role in moving towards more sustainable building construction practices. This article reviews recent applications of LCA of buildings, including foundations as the focus or part of the system studied, based on the ISO 14040/44 standards. The system boundaries of geotechnical works are defined and a conceptual model for LCA of geotechnical works in building construction is proposed. The results of the literature review showed that the application of LCA to the building substructure is currently under development, but still in a fragmented state. There is a need for a unified framework for LCA of geotechnical works in building construction, especially regarding the definition of the functional unit, the choice of system boundaries, the appropriateness of inventory data, and the selection of impact categories. The conceptual model focuses on the demonstration of inventory flows and system boundaries and can serve as a basis for scope definition in future LCA studies of geotechnical works in building construction. It may also support effective communication between different actors and stakeholders regarding environmental sustainability in the construction sector.

he design of multifunctional technological systems is based on well-known theories of operations research using production building systems of various levels and purposes, as well as system engineering, decision-making and optimization methods. Taking into account the provisions of efficiency and reliability systems.Production building systems, as a class of functional systems, are created and designed to implement certain tasks, which can be specialized (one task) or multifunctional (several tasks) The result of the formation of such systems is the final useful result, which is achieved through interaction and, accordingly, the mutual influence of its participants. Dynamics and the ability to change in the process of system implementation are provided by models that have similar structures and sets of indicators and parameters for the subject and product of work. Its main component can be shown in the form of systematized information about the phenomena and patterns that manifest in them. They form the theoretical foundations of the relevant aspect of technology.The decomposition of complex systems into component subsystems in order to optimize their elements is solved by formalizing design procedures and creates a method of designing multifunctional systems.Expanding the universal capabilities of construction and road machines by equipping them with additional interchangeable working bodies allows for a flexible approach to the design of multifunctional technological systems.Their effectiveness is especially evident in the design and implementation of multifunctional systems during earthworks, landscaping works, as well as the construction of agro-industrial structures from light and especially light metal structures

The practice of construction in the conditions of compacted urban development shows that the construction work is likely to lead to a number of dangerous events, which are caused by additional loads on the structures of nearby facilities. The probability, nature, rate of development of undesirable processes and the degree of their danger depends on many factors that will be discussed in the article. Each building, structure or individual structure has a functional purpose, is operated under certain conditions and must meet safety requirements, ie the requirements of preventing accidents and collapses of the building as a whole or its components that may pose a danger to health and human life, or harm the environment and cause other emergencies. Significant experience has been gained in the reliability of buildings and structures in terms of determining the indicators of reliable and trouble-free operation of construction sites under normal operating conditions, ie work in the design mode. However, the vast majority of facilities in real operating conditions under the influence of various unforeseen and uncertain factors of influence, changing the design boundary conditions creates a direct risk of destruction. Monitoring is one of the main ways to prevent and make the necessary decisions in a timely manner to ensure the integrity of buildings and structures in compacted buildings in cases where new construction has a negative impact on these facilities. According to the research results, it is established that the main factors that determine the compacted conditions in the area of the pit and earthworks are the distance from the pit to the adjacent buildings and roads; soil base properties; the depth of the pit. The main reasons for the deformation of existing buildings during the new construction next to them, which is primarily the installation of ditches, is the increase in stresses in the base under the foundations of the surrounding buildings. The foundations of buildings work together with the soil base, and the development of their excessive deformations, uneven sediments and rolls leads to the destruction or further reduction of the serviceability of the responsible structural elements of the facilities in operation. The article presents the main compensatory measures for the protection of adjacent buildings during new construction.

Problem statement. The beginning of the production of vegetables in protected soil on an industrial basis in Ukraine was marked by the construction in the 80s of the last century of greenhouses from the structures of the Antratsyt Luhansk region prefabricated greenhouse plant. A new impetus to the development of greenhouse vegetable growing was provided by the commissioning of energy-saving modern winter greenhouses built in the period from 2005 to 2015. Greenhouse vegetable growing is not standing still, but is actively expanding around the world. Further development of this area is possible with the introduction of new technologies for construction and operation of greenhouses, as well as their design solutions. The development of greenhouse vegetable growing is an important economic task. The design and technological features of modern greenhouses of the fifth generation of the semi-closed type are shown, which allow to provide high yields at lower consumption of material resources. A study of the complexity of the construction of greenhouses, identified low-mechanized, manual processes. The purpose of the article is to show ways to improve the design and technological parameters of modern greenhouses. In order to ensure energy savings and increase yields. Results. The analysis of normative documents on design and construction of greenhouses is performed. It is shown that greenhouses, the so-called "semi-closed type", allow to obtain high vegetable yields and energy savings. The most mechanized processes for the construction of greenhouses are earthworks and foundations. Much of the manual labor takes place during the installation of the metal frame, glazing and heating systems. Scientific novelty and practical significance. For the first time the value of labor intensity and duration during the construction of greenhouses was obtained, their dependences on the main factors influencing the performance of construction and installation works were established. This allows at the stage of development of design and technological documentation to determine rational ways of performing work.

In March of 2021, the Berlin-based company cmp continued geophysical prospection works at the ancient city of Artashat-Artaxata (Ararat Province, Armenia). The city was founded by Artashes-Artaxias I in the early 2nd century BC and served as his capital. First magnetic measurements were conducted by the Eastern Atlas company in September 2018. In 2021, during the 5-day survey a total surface of approximately 19.5 ha was investigated by use of the LEA MAX magnetic gradiometer array. This system was configured with seven fluxgate gradiometer probes, similar to the system used in the first survey of 2018. The investigated areas of the Eastern Lower City of Artaxata, located to the south of the investigated field of 2018, had good surface conditions with a moderate amount of sources causing disturbance. However, the general level of the magnetic gradient values measured was significantly lower compared to the 2018 data. Despite the lower magnetic field intensity, a continuation of linear structures towards the south was observed. These lines, most likely reflecting streets and pathways, criss-cross the central part of the Eastern Lower City in a NW–SE and NE–SW direction and exhibit partly positive, partly negative magnetic anomalies. Attached to them, some isolated spots with building remains were identified. The negative linear anomalies point to remains of limestone foundations, as detected in the northern part of the Lower City. The low magnetic intensity and fragmentation of the observed structures are most likely due to severe destruction of the ancient layers by 20th-century earthworks for agricultural purposes. Moreover, the southern part of the surveyed area was affected by major changes caused by modern quarries at Hills XI and XII. In general, the results of the two magnetic prospection campaigns greatly aid our understanding of the archaeological situation in the area of the Eastern Lower City of Artaxata, justifying further investigations that will surely contribute to greater contextualization of the identified archaeological structures. The full data sets are also published in open access on Zenodo.

Purpose. The research is aimed to obtain some missing data on the morphology of river sands within the city, in particular, reliable quantitative indicators that can be used in the calculation of soil bases. Methodology. According to the experimental-analytical method, a complex soil morphology was used, which takes into account the shape and nature of the grain surface in the entire sand volume studied. Morphological assessment was carried out not only for individual sand particles, but also for the entire volume of the soil studied, due to this an important factor in the formation of the shape and nature of the sand grain surface is the mineral composition of sand. For the most of the studied sands, quartz was the predominant mineral. In further studies, it is planned to study the Dnipro River sands of deeper horizons, which would make it possible to obtain data on the formation of contacts between sand grains, which can be lamellar or other shapes. Findings. This paper presents the results of determining morphological indicator, as well as studying the shape and nature of the surface of alluvial sand grains of the 1st floodplain terrace of the Dnieper River valley in the area of Monastyrskyi Island in the central part of the city. The results of similar works on the study of a number of genetic types of Quaternary sands of various genesis in the Dnieper River valley were also analyzed. Due to this analysis, data were obtained on the morphology of monomineral oligomictic alluvial sands, the shape and nature of the alluvium sand grains surface. Originality. For the first time for the central region of the city, some basic morphological characteristics of river Quaternary sands of the Dnieper River valley were obtained. It is also possible to note the tendency of decrease of morphology indicator in river sands of the Dnieper valley from sources to the mouth. Practical value. With all confidence, the results of the studies carried out can be implemented in the sandy soils of the foundations of buildings and structures of the city, as well as to artificial earthworks, in particular, alluvial massifs.

Introduction: Geophysical characterization refers to the collection of information associated with subsurface features. Geotechnical involves engineering structural performance studies which are used to obtain information on the physical properties of soil and rock around a site to design earthworks and foundations for proposed structures and for repair of distress to earthworks and structures caused by subsurface conditions. Aim: The study was aimed at characterizing the subsurface formations for the purpose of determining its capacity to withstand engineering structures. Materials and Methods: Geophysical techniques involving eight (8) vertical electrical sounding (VES) and Wenner array were carried out with two (2) traverses. Geotechnical investigation involving cone penetration test (CPT) was also carried out. Results: The results obtained were presented as 1D resistivity profiles and Pseudo-sections of 2-D. Three (3) geo-electric layers were delineated within the study area and these comprise of topsoil, peat or clay and silty sand. The CPT results were used in the calculation of bearing capacity using Bustamante and Gianeselli equation for pile foundations and Meyehorf equation to determine the maximum load the materials can withstand respectively. Conclusion: The shallow subsurface geology was adjudged to be mechanically unstable with low penetration resistance values up to the depth of 11m. The methods conformed and confirmed that shallow foundation was considered unsuitable for the intended engineering structure. Keywords: Meyehorf, Bustamante and Gianeselli, Subsurface, Geology, Unstable, Foundation.

Compaction is essential in earthworks of civil infrastructures, such as dam embankments, building foundations, roads, and other transport infrastructures. The nuclear method is a non-destructive test that has been one of the most used field tests in the quality control of compaction for a long time due to its easy operation and accuracy. The technique uses nuclear equipment to measure soil and aggregates' moisture content and in-situ density. The fidelity of the method according to Portuguese technology is still unknown. The paper has two main objectives: (1) to describe the application of the non-destructive testing method to the quality control of compaction; (2) to present the repeatability and reproducibility of the method in its application to the case of soils based on proficiency tests. The paper presents the methodology followed in carrying out the proficiency tests and analysing the results related to the method's fidelity. The work points out the most critical aspects of the test and presents the repeatability and reproducibility related to in situ density and moisture content in the cases of direct transmission and backscatter measurements.

The Northeast Texas Archeological Society, in conjunction with the East Texas, Dallas, and Tarrant County archeological societies, reinstated archaeological investigations at the Marshall Powder Mill (41HS17) in 1994 following several years of delicate negotiations with the landowner about the value of preserving this archaeological site. The Marshall Powder Mill manufactured gunpowder, small arms and cannon, and refurbished weaponry, and was one of several arsenals that served the Trans-Mississippi Department of the Confederate States of America from 1863 to 1865. None have been thoroughly investigated archaeologically, however, thereby ignoring a major aspect of the Confederacy's war effort, and an important industrial enterprise. Building foundations, earthworks, roads, and an artificial channel race remain essentially undisturbed within the Loop 390 corridor and the privately-owned portions of the site; the eastern one-third of the site has been destroyed by a modern lumber mill. Although the site is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, there is no concerted plan for preservation of this Civil War military-industrial complex. Little historical documentation exists as to the number and types of buildings, their locations, or the activities that were conducted at the Marshall Powder Mill. The single map in the National Archives was captured by Federal troops in 1864, and only indicates a few of the buildings and none of the earthworks. Apparently the Confederates were concerned with security, and the commander, Major George D. Alexander, destroyed or removed all records prior to Federal occupation of the site in 1865. Therefore, the archaeological remains speak the clearest about the Marshall Powder Mill's buildings and their functions, and may be the only sure means of reconstructing the layout and design of the arsenal, as well as ancillary fortifications, buildings, and structures around Marshall that date to the Civil War period.

Town and ditchStatus after 30 years of archaeology in early Horsens Our understanding of the origins and development of the town of Horsens has been significantly altered by the archaeological excavations carried out over the last 30 years. New information about the town’s history discovered during this time has either confirmed or revolutionised archaeologists’ perception of how Horsens developed during its earliest years and up to the middle of the 14th century.Modern-day Horsens covers a large area, but until about 150 years ago the town was largely located on the southeastern corner of a large headland, with natural boundaries on all sides. To the south, east and north it was bordered by Horsens fjord (Fig. 1.1) and the fjord inlet Nørrestrand (Fig. 1.3). To the west it was bordered by the meadows alongside the rivers Store Hansted Å (Fig. 1.5) and Bygholm Å (Fig. 1.4).The earliest settlement, from the Viking Age, was found close to where Bygholm Å empties into the fjord; where a small spit of land created a natural harbour (Figs. 1.9 and 2.10). Until the end of the 19th century the town therefore effectively lay enclosed on a small plateau, bordered to the south by the river and to the north by a marshy, hilly area (Figs. 1.8 and 2.1-2).The approximate extent and layout of Horsens in the Viking period is known: Pithouses and deposits indicating human activity (Fig. 3.1-4) have been found in, and south of, the modern street of Borgergade. The whole area is believed to have been delimited by a ditch (Figs. 3.2-3 and 7), which may have had earthworks associated with it (fig. 3.5). Pithouses and postholes have also been found east of the ditch (fig. 3.8-10), in an area just north of the river mouth. The relationship between the two separate settlements is still unclear, but the last signs of activity in both areas are from the 10th century AD. The graveyard belonging to the Viking Age settlement was located to the west, in modern-day Søndergade (fig. 3.7).There were changes to the settlement in the 11th century. In the area within the ditches, pithouses were replaced by a vegetation layer and at the end of the century a large, curved-walled house was built west of the ditch on what would later become the town’s market square (fig. 3.6). It is highly unlikely that the settlement was completely abandoned, and there is a major overlap between the areas where finds from the Viking Age have been recorded and where the town developed during the Middle Ages. This is especially true for the area around Borgergade, which appears to have been surrounded by various ditches located in almost the same place during both the Viking Age and the Middle Ages (fig. 4).Our knowledge and understanding of the earliest stages of the town are still fragmentary, with few finds from this time. The evidence is open to different interpretations, and it is still unclear what status the settlement had and in what context the Viking Age settlement should be perceived. In the Early Middle Ages, the town was still centred around Borgergade (fig. 5). The town was still surrounded by a ditch in the early 12th century (fig. 5.1-3, Figs. 4, 6 and 7), but in the middle of the century the ditch was filled in and the unconsolidated areas above it were secured with piles (fig. 5.4). The filling in of the ditch should be seen in conjunction with the ending of various conflicts over the Danish Crown in 1157, which made defensive earthworks around the town unnecessary. Only a few remains from the 12th century – a house and a well (fig. 5.6 and 5.8), have been found outside the Borgergade area. Compared with other early Danish towns, Horsens’ church occupies an unusual position. According to written sources, the town had only one parish in the Middle Ages and the main church was located outside the town. This situation is seen in several Danish towns, predominantly the earliest examples, whereas the church was given a prominent location in towns founded later. Conversely, towns with only one parish are thought to be a later phenomenon, because the parish structure was established at the same time as the town. There is no simple explanation for why the church location and parish structure developed differently in Horsens, but archaeological traces of other religious activities may indicate that ecclesiastical developments in Horsens were more complex than currently understood. When the defensive ditches were filled in in the mid-12th century, a valuable source of information was lost in relation to an understanding of the town during the 13th century.The development of Horsens in the 12th century is characterised by the emergence of several ecclesiastical institutions. These were in addition to the already established Our Lady’s (Vor Frue) church (fig. 8.8) and were in an area corresponding to the town’s known area during the 14th century. The grandest building was St. James’ (Sankt Jakobs) chapel in what later became the town square. This is a monumental, supposedly royal, chapel on which building work began in 1225 (fig. 8.7). East of this, a Franciscan monastery was founded in 1261 (fig. 8.9). Horsens may have had a further ecclesiastical institution, located where the town hall was later built (fig. 8.5). Remains of foundations, burials and a house, dated by a coin to the reign of Eric V. Klipping (1249-86), have been found there. The town’s home for lepers (Sankt Jørgensgård), located by road leading into the town from the southwest, may also have been founded in the 13th century (Fig 8.10).Secular buildings are almost exclusively seen in the same area as the older settlement around Borgergade (fig. 8.1-8, fig. 9). A major hindrance to mapping the extent of the town at this time is that its outer limits, in the form of ditches or larger moats, are unknown. There are, however, reasons to believe that the town experienced growth and expansion like that of the ecclesiastical community. Scattered finds from this period are recorded from the part of the town that is traditionally dated to the 14th century (fig. 8.4).The early part of the 14th century is the period which has left the clearest traces in Horsens’ history. Investigations in the 1990s indicated that a completely new layout was established for the town around 1300, which is in keeping with developments in the rest of Europe. From the central square (fig. 10.1), hosting the royal chapel, four roads radiated outwards – the pre-existing Borgergade (fig. 10.2) and three new roads (fig. 10.3-5). A moat of significant size was dug around the new town and, to a major degree, this defined Horsens for the rest of the Middle Ages (fig. 10.8). It is unknown to what extent the moat and the plots were part of the original town plan, or whether they first came later, but there is a clear correlation between the three (fig. 12)There is evidence to suggest that while the moat was being dug around the town, a defensive ditch was also being dug around the chapel in the square. The fort or castle in the square dates from the early 14th century and was connected with the peasant uprising against the Danish king, Eric VI Menved, in Jutland in 1313.The strategic wisdom of the time would not have considered the positioning of the fortifications to be optimal, being in the middle of the town and at the foot of the northern hills. The fortification is therefore considered to have been a temporary measure. But while it existed, the defensive ditch was maintained, and its course possibly altered (fig. 11). The fortification in the square was therefore a predominant part of the townscape for several decades, until it was replaced by the royal fortress Bygholm, to the west of the town (fig. 1.10).The buildings and layout established in Horsens in the early 14th century affected the town’s development throughout the Middle Ages. It must be assumed that the king had an important role in the town’s growth during this period as is seen elsewhere in Europe.As the king’s influence in the town diminished, the activities of the town council became gradually more prominent during the 14th century, and it must have been especially clear after 1350. The diminishing role of the king also meant that a new player entered the scene – the Order of Saint John. The order seems to have had a central role in the town during the Late Middle Ages. Even though the archaeological evidence relating to Horsens’ earliest days remains sparse, it indicates a town whose development was strongly affected by a central influence, with little to suggest that this development was unorganised.