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1
LERNER, HEATHER, LES CHRISTIDIS, ANITA GAMAUF, CAROLE GRIFFITHS, ELISABETH HARING, CHRISTOPHER J. HUDDLESTON, SONIA KABRA, et al. "Phylogeny and new taxonomy of the Booted Eagles (Accipitriformes: Aquilinae)." Zootaxa 4216, no. 4 (January 9, 2017): 301. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4216.4.1.
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We present a phylogeny of all booted eagles (38 extant and one extinct species) based on analysis of published sequences from seven loci. We find molecular support for five major clades within the booted eagles: Nisaetus (10 species), Spizaetus (4 species), Clanga (3 species), Hieraaetus (6 species) and Aquila (11 species), requiring generic changes for 14 taxa. Additionally, we recommend that the Long-crested Eagle (Lophaetus occipitalis) and the Black Eagle (Ictinaetus malaiensis) remain in their monotypic genera, due to their distinctive morphology. We apply the recently resurrected genus Clanga for the spotted eagles (previously Aquila spp.) to resolve the paraphyly of the genus Aquila such that the clade including the Booted Eagle (H. pennatus), Little Eagle (H. morphnoides), Pygmy Eagle (H. weiskei), Ayres’s Eagle (H. ayresii) and Wahlberg’s Eagle (H. wahlbergi) can remain in the genus Hieraaetus. The Rufous-bellied Eagle should be retained in the genus Lophotriorchis. For consistency in English names, we recommend that the term “hawk-eagles” be used only for the species in the genera Nisaetus and Spizaetus. We suggest following new or modified English names: Cassin’s Eagle (Aquila africana), Bonaparte’s Eagle (A. spilogaster), Ayres’s Eagle (Hieraaetus ayresii), and Black-and-chestnut Hawk-Eagle (Spizaetus isidori).
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Trope, Megan. "Grey Snow Eagle House: A Partner in Conservation of Eagles." Wildlife Rehabilitation Bulletin 30, no. 1 (June 30, 2012): 31–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.53607/wrb.v30.60.
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The Grey Snow Eagle House provides rehabilitative care for injured eagles and permanently houses non–releasable eagles at the facility. Since not all rehabilitators are familiar with the facility and some rehabilitators may have an eagle US Fish & Wildlife Service has instructed go to the facility, information on the Grey Snow Eagle House is provided in this paper for a better understanding.
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Debus, S. J. S., Jerry Olsen, Susan Trost, and Esteban Fuentes. "Breeding diets of the Little Eagle Hieraaetus morphnoides and Wedge-tailed Eagle Aquila audax in the Australian Capital Territory in 2011–2019." Australian Field Ornithology 38 (2021): 19–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.20938/afo38019028.
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The diets of the Little Eagle Hieraaetus morphnoides and Wedge-tailed Eagle Aquila audax breeding sympatrically in the Australian Capital Territory during 2011–2019 were compared by analysis of pellets and prey remains (six Little Eagle territories and 13 Wedge-tailed Eagle territories; 69 and 49 collections for a total of 232 and 256 prey items, respectively). Little Eagles took 33% mammals (29% European Rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus), 44% birds, 6% reptiles and 17% insects by number, and 65% mammals (62% Rabbits), 27% birds, 8% reptiles and <1% insects by biomass. Wedge-tailed Eagles took 59% mammals (23% Rabbits and 19% macropods), 38% birds, 1% reptiles, <1% fish and 1% insects by number, and 89% mammals (20% Rabbits, 38% macropods), 10% birds, and <1% reptiles, fish and insects by biomass. Indices of dietary diversity (Shannon Index and Standardised Food Niche Breadth) were 2.57 vs 3.07 and 0.19 vs 0.24, respectively; Geometric Mean Prey Weights (GMPW) were 164 vs 1392 g, but discounting a biased sample of insects in many pellets from two fledglings, Little Eagle GMPW was more like 340 g. Dietary proportions and some metrics for both species appear to have changed little since the preceding decade, although Wedge-tailed Eagle dietary diversity increased slightly and dietary overlap (80%) increased greatly, concomitantly with some pairs of Wedge-tailed Eagles replacing pairs of Little Eagles. Intraguild predation occurred, including Wedge-tailed Eagle predation on Little Eagles.
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Olsen, Jerry, Brian Cooke, Susan Trost, and David Judge. "Is wedge-tailed eagle, Aquila audax, survival and breeding success closely linked to the abundance of European rabbits, Oryctolagus cuniculus?" Wildlife Research 41, no. 2 (2014): 95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr14033.
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Context Some ecologists argue that nesting success and abundance of wedge-tailed eagles (Aquila audax) are strongly linked to the abundance of introduced wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Consequently, concerns were expressed about eagle population viability when the biological control agent rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) heavily reduced rabbit numbers. However, observations following the spread of rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD) in Australia and Spain (where Aquila adalberti is an equivalent of A. audax) question this assertion. Eagle numbers did not fall even though rabbits declined regionally by up to 90% in both countries. Aims To reconsider the assumption of a strong link between rabbit abundance and wedge-tailed eagle breeding and population maintenance. Dispelling misconceptions, if any, about the eagles’ dependence on rabbits would benefit the future management of both eagles and rabbits. Methods We reviewed the literature associated with claims that eagles were heavily dependent on rabbits and asked whether these views could be substantiated given the lack of changes in eagle abundance following the spread of RHD. Data on eagle egg-clutch size and nesting success were also reviewed. Conclusions There is little evidence that eagles depend heavily on rabbits as prey. Instead, as rabbits decline, more kangaroos, reptiles and birds are eaten, partly because more native prey becomes available. Eagles have a high proportion of rabbits in their diets mainly where degradation of natural ecosystems, including that caused by rabbits, results in native prey being rare or unavailable. There has been minimal variation in average clutch size following major perturbations in rabbit population size. Implications Rather than perpetuating the idea that high populations of rabbits are needed for wedge-tailed eagle conservation, resources would be better re-directed into understanding continental-scale eagle population dynamics. This would provide a more rational framework to assist decisions on future biological control agents for rabbits.
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Bekmansurov, Rinur H., Igor V. Karyakin, and Elena P. Shnayder. "On eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca) breeding in atypical habitat under competitive conditions with other eagle species." Slovak Raptor Journal 9, no. 1 (June 30, 2015): 95–104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/srj-2015-0007.
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Abstract In the paper we describe two cases of eastern imperial eagle breeding in the former nests of greater spotted eagle and white-tailed eagle observed in the Tatarstan Republic, Russia. In both cases, eastern imperial eagles occupied non-favourable habitats they never used before - a vast alder forest in the wetlands and an island in a reservoir. The possible reasons that made the eagles expand their breeding ranges in the Volga region ofRussia are discussed in this paper
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Đekić, Đorđe, and Dragana Milić. "Motif of single-headed and double-headed eagle in Raška in the XIII century." Bastina, no. 56 (2022): 319–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.5937/bastina32-36210.
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The motif of a single-headed and double-headed eagle first appeared in Serbian medieval art under the influence of the Byzantine Empire or Christian tradition. This motif was used by the Byzantine Empire as a symbol of royal dignity and as a representation of saints. Since the eagle is regarded as a symbol of Jesus Christ, the resurrection, the Holy Evangelist John, and etc., Christian influence is more visible in literature. The use of the eagle as a motif in Raška was heightened during Grand župan Stefan Nemanja's reign and continued through his successors. Studenica monastery depicts both single-headed and double-headed eagle motifs. A single-headed eagle is a fresco painted in a double circle, and a doubleheaded eagle is a fresco painted as kolasta azdija, which represents a motif of golden double-headed eagles in double circles. Kolasta azdija can be found on the gowns of King Stefan the First-Crowned and his son King Radoslav in the Žiča monastery. A motif of a red double-headed eagle was also used as a decorative element of the St. George's wall and cloak. At Mileševa monastery, golden encircled double-headed eagles adorned the gowns of King Stefan the First-Crowned and his sons Radoslav and Vladislav. The motif of single-headed eagles in circles can be found as a unique example on Knez Stefan's gown in the Morača monastery. An eagle can be found as a motif in manuscripts, on the seal, and as part of the church's interior decoration. During King Uroš I and his successors' reigns, double-headed eagles vanished as a symbol of royal dignity, but they remained as a Christian symbol until the end of the XIII century.
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Annisa, Mariana Fikriyanti, and Susanti Withaningsih. "DNA sexing for gender determination of Changeable Hawk-Eagle (Nisaetus cirrhatus, Gmelin, 1788)." E3S Web of Conferences 249 (2021): 03012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202124903012.
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The Changeable hawk-eagle (Brontok eagle) is a protected bird species. It is one of the most frequently hunted and traded birds in Indonesia. The processes of being traded changes this bird natural behaviour. Therefore, a rehabilitation effort to return the eagle’s behaviour to conform to its natural habits is needed. The ultimate goal of rehabilitation is to release the changeable hawk-eagle back into its natural habitat. In conservation and breeding programs, efforts to determine the sex of eagles to be released are very important to help increase the population of changeable hawk-eagles in their habitat by looking at the sex ratio. At the present, sex determination at the Kamojang Conservation Eagle Center (Pusat Konservasi Elang Kamojang or PKEK) uses the morphometric method. This research used the DNA sexing method with primers 2550F and 2718R to determine the sex of Changeable hawk-eagles in PKEK by extracting DNA from blood samples of 30 eagles. Comparison of DNA sexing results and morphometric data showed differences. This proves that DNA sexing, is suitable in determining changeable hawk-eagles’ sex.
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Duan, Haibin, and Xiaobin Xu. "Create Machine Vision Inspired by Eagle Eye." Research 2022 (June 2, 2022): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.34133/2022/9891728.
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Eagle, a representative species in the raptor world, has the sharpest visual acuity among all animals. The reputation of the “clairvoyance” is employed to describe an eagle. The excellent visual skills of eagles depend on their unique eye structures and special visual principles. The powerful vision perception mechanisms of the eagle bring abundant inspiration for traditional visual applications. Biological eagle eye vision technology provides a creative way to solve visual perception issues of “Knowing What is Where by Seeing.” The theoretical research and practical works of eagle vision would contribute to the development of machine vision, or even artificial intelligence (AI) in the real world. Furthermore, eagle eye vision also provides feasible ideas for the popularization of new concepts in the virtual world in the future.
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Jones, I. M., R. W. Butler, and R. C. Ydenberg. "Recent switch by the Great Blue Heron Ardea herodias fannini in the Pacific northwest to associative nesting with Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) to gain predator protection." Canadian Journal of Zoology 91, no. 7 (July 2013): 489–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjz-2012-0323.
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The Great Blue Heron Ardea herodias fannini Chapman, 1901 in the Pacific northwest appears to have modified nesting behaviour in response to the strong recent recovery of the Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus (L., 1766)) population. Previously undescribed, herons now often nest in close association with some breeding eagles, even though eagles depredate heron nestlings, are implicated in the recent reproductive decline of herons, and may induce abandonment of heron breeding colonies. We tested the hypothesis that breeding herons gain protection from the territorial behaviour of eagles. Natural observations and simulated incursions showed that nesting eagles actively repel other eagles within at least 250 m around the nest site, thereby establishing a relatively safe place for herons to nest. Surveys showed that 70% of heron nests and 19% of heron colonies were located within 200 m of eagle nests with high reproductive success. These herons had greater reproductive success than those nesting far from eagle nests.
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Restrepo-Cardona, Juan Sebastián, Fabricio Narváez, Sebastián Kohn, Félix Hernán Vargas, and Santiago Zuluaga. "Human Persecution is An Important Threat to the Conservation of the Endangered Black-and-Chestnut Eagle in Northern Andes." Tropical Conservation Science 16 (January 2023): 194008292311523. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/19400829231152353.
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Background and Research Aims The Black-and-chestnut Eagle ( Spizaetus isidori) has a total population of fewer than 1000 adult individuals, and is categorized as Endangered at the global level. The northern Andes (Ecuador and Colombia) represent one of the last population strongholds of the species. In this study, we analyzed human persecution of the Black-and-chestnut Eagle as retaliation or as a preventive measure against poultry predation, as well as other threats that have affected the species in this geographical region between 2000 and 2022. Methods In order to understand the human persecution and other threats faced by the Black-and-chestnut Eagle in the northern Andes, we compiled records of immature and adult individuals of the species that had been shot, captured, or had presented evidence of any other affectations during the last 23 years. Results We found a total of 96 Black-and-chestnut Eagles affected by different threats. Human persecution of the species to prevent poultry predation was the motive in 81% (46 of 57) of the cases of shot eagles, 67% (10 of 15) of those captured illegally, 30% (3 of 10) of those in which the cause of affectation was undetermined and for one individual that had been stabbed. Immature eagles were more affected than adult eagles by human persecution. Black-and-chestnut Eagles were also affected by electrocution, illegal trafficking and collision with vehicle. Conclusion Human persecution as retaliation or as a preventive measure against poultry predation is an important threat to the conservation of the Black-and-chestnut Eagle in northern Andes. Implications for Conservation Strict application of laws at human persecution sites, identification and monitoring of areas with high risk of human-eagle conflict, development of environmental educational programs, strengthening of the technical capacities of rural communities, maintaining or even increasing forest cover, and reducing the exposure of poultry by using enclosures are key for Black-and-chestnut Eagle conservation in the northern Andes.
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CARO, JESÚS, DIEGO ONTIVEROS, MANUEL PIZARRO, and JUAN M. PLEGUEZUELOS. "Habitat features of settlement areas used by floaters of Bonelli’s and Golden Eagles." Bird Conservation International 21, no. 1 (April 23, 2010): 59–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959270910000213.
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SummaryBonelli’s Eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus and Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos are two declining species, in which floaters tend to be located outside of breeding territories during the dispersal period, in so-called settlement areas. We studied settlement areas for both these long-lived raptors in the southern Iberian Peninsula, to gain a better understanding of the ecological requirements of the eagles during their long pre-adult stage, a period accounting for around 80% of the species’ mortality. Eagle abundance was calculated by road censuses, and habitat characteristics of settlement and non-settlement areas compared by General Discriminant Analysis (GDA) and Logistic Regression (LR). The best model of GDA and LR incorporated the abundance of main prey for eagles (rabbits, partridges) and orchard surface area, and explained 100% of eagle presence; the best model selected by GDA also included habitat heterogeneity. Both eagles tended to share settlement areas in the southern Iberian Peninsula and, when they did not, the mean annual temperature and slope appeared to explain the segregation between the two species. Management measures for the conservation of both threatened species during the dispersal period should be focused on identifying settlement areas, maintaining high prey densities and maximum habitat heterogeneity.
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Slater, Peter, Hugo Rainey, and Klaus Zuberbühler. "The responses of black-casqued hornbills to predator vocalisations and primate alarm calls." Behaviour 141, no. 10 (2004): 1263–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1568539042729658.
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AbstractBlack-casqued hornbills (Ceratogymna atrata) forage in small flocks in the tropical forests of West Africa, often in the vicinity of primate groups, including Diana and Campbell's monkeys (Cercopithecus diana, C. campbelli). Previous work has shown that these monkey species produce acoustically distinct alarm calls to crowned eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus) and leopards (Panthera pardus), two of their main predators. Black-casqued hornbills are highly vulnerable to crowned eagles, but not leopards, suggesting that individuals may respond differently to these two predators. We analysed the vocal response of these birds to field playbacks conducted on different monkey species in Taï National Park, Ivory Coast. We tested six stimuli, three of which related to the presence of a crowned eagle (eagle shrieks, Diana and Campbell's eagle alarm calls) and three to the presence of a leopard (leopard growls, Diana and Campbell's leopard alarm calls). Results showed that hornbills consistently distinguished between eagle- and leopard-related stimuli, suggesting that birds attended to the predator class associated with the various stimuli. Second, within eagle-related stimuli, hornbills responded more strongly to the actual predator vocalizations than the associated alarm calls. One interpretation of these data is that birds were sensitive to the precision of information concerning the location of the eagle. We discuss these results in light of previous data on hornbill behaviour and cognitive capacities.
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Harvey, C. J., T. P. Good, and S. F. Pearson. "Top–down influence of resident and overwintering Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) in a model marine ecosystem." Canadian Journal of Zoology 90, no. 7 (July 2012): 903–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/z2012-059.
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Conservation of predators presents challenges when predators affect prey populations that provide ecosystem services. Near Puget Sound, resident and overwintering populations of Bald Eagle ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus (L., 1766)) have expanded in recent decades. We modeled the potential impact of Bald Eagles on marine food-web structure. Bald Eagles caused trophic cascade dynamics through mid-level predators (seabirds) to lower trophic levels (fishes, benthic invertebrates), particularly when seabirds were more abundant in eagle diets. Resident Bald Eagles affected food-web structure more than overwintering eagles, despite the latters’ greater abundance. Predator avoidance behavior by nearshore diving birds and herbivorous birds exacerbated trophic cascade effects, but only in a narrow range of species. Variability in the number of overwintering Bald Eagles, which come to the area to feed on salmon carcasses (primarily chum salmon, Oncorhynchus keta (Walbaum in Artedi, 1792)), had little effect on the food web. Our results indicate that Bald Eagles are important to marine food-web structure, owing to their high consumption rates and the high consumption rates of their seabird prey, but uncertainty about eagle diets limits our full understanding of their impact. In systems where Bald Eagles affect large seabird breeding colonies, their role in food-web structure is likely greater.
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JENKINS, ANDREW R., KOOS H. DE GOEDE, LOVELATER SEBELE, and MEGAN DIAMOND. "Brokering a settlement between eagles and industry: sustainable management of large raptors nesting on power infrastructure." Bird Conservation International 23, no. 2 (May 2, 2013): 232–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959270913000208.
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SummaryIn the Karoo region of South Africa, eagles nesting on high voltage power pylons are responsible for frequent short-circuits or faults, which reduce the quality of commercial power supply and escalate costs to the country’s energy supplier, Eskom. Between 2002 and 2006 we conducted annual helicopter surveys of eagle nests on 1,400 km of power line and located 139 large nest structures, making up 96 eagle territories occupied by three species: Martial EaglePolemaetus bellicosus(66 pairs), Verreaux’s EagleAquila verreauxii(13 pairs) and Tawny EagleAquila rapax(17 pairs), and detailed 357 pair-years of breeding activity, including 241 breeding attempts. Roost sites and active nests were associated with line faulting, and more so at particular pylon configurations. We developed a three-step management plan to reduce eagle-related faulting while still accommodating eagles on the power lines: (i) all (potentially) problematic nests were relocated from high-risk positions above the power conductors, to specially provided platforms placed below the conductors; (ii) perch deterrents were installed above the conductors on all nest pylons and on high-risk pylons up to 10 structures on both sides of each nest tower; and (iii) the welfare of the eagles was monitored before and after management. In this way, line faulting was reduced on actively managed lines by > 75%, with no obvious deleterious effects on the eagle population. The study revealed that: (i) power lines can support substantial breeding populations of threatened large raptors, (ii) these birds can be a source of commercially significant line faulting, and (iii) nest relocations and perch deterrents are effective in reducing faulting without negatively impacting eagle populations.
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Rajchard, Josef, and Jan Procházka. "Restoration of sea eagle population: A review." Current Zoology 55, no. 5 (October 1, 2009): 315–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/czoolo/55.5.315.
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Abstract The population density of the white-tailed sea eagle Haliaeetus albicilla is very low in many countries. In last twenty years, the sea eagle population in South Bohemia was restored by strict protection subsidized by reintroduction. The active help consisted of feeding during winter and building of artificial nests. A new sea eagle breeding population arose in the Třeboň basin area in the early 1980’s. Until this time sea eagles had used former breeding places only for wintering, probably coming from the Baltic. The South Bohemian sea eagle population is very unique: it exists in a densely man-occupied landscape, mainly in areas with very intensive carp breeding in artificial fishponds and was partly artficially (help to wintering birds and reintroduction of some individuals) restored. The experience from South Bohemia may have importance for populations of the sea eagle in other areas of its occurence, primarily in the continental conditions
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Väli, Ülo. "Monitoring of spotted eagles in Estonia in 1994–2014: Stability of the lesser spotted eagle (Aquila pomarina) and decline of the greater spotted eagle (A. clanga)." Slovak Raptor Journal 9, no. 1 (June 30, 2015): 55–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/srj-2015-0004.
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Abstract Population trends of the lesser and greater spotted eagle in Estonia were comparatively estimated using data obtained in 1994-2014 from the monitoring scheme of common raptors and from special plots for monitoring of spotted eagles. Both approaches had pros and cons, but resulted in similar population trends. The numbers of the lesser spotted eagle have had minor fluctuations over the last two decades but the overall trend is stable; the current population size is estimated as 600-700 pairs. The number of greater spotted eagle breeding territories (pure-species and mixed pairs pooled) have significantly decreased, for example by 14% per year in 2004-2010, though in recent years the numbers seem to be stabilised at a critically low level. The decline of pure-species pairs was somewhat steeper than that ofmixed pairs, their proportion decreasing from a third to a quarter of the greater spotted eagle breeding territories. Altogether 5-10 breeding territories of the greater spotted eagle may be found nowadays in Estonia.
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Lewis, Richard E. "A rain-forest raptor in danger." Oryx 20, no. 3 (July 1986): 170–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605300020032.
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Living in the rain forests of the Philippines is one of the largest and rarest eagles in the world, the Philippine eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi.This magnificent bird is in danger of extinction due to the pressures of land development and human persecution. The author spent three0 years, from 1982 to 1985, helping to study the eagle, both in the wild and captivity, as part of a team dedicated to its conservation. The eagle has become the symbol of the conservation movement in the Philippines, and linked with its survival are a host of endemic species that share the same forest habitat.
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Baranov, Aleksander Alekseyevich, and Anastasia Nikolaevna Erinkova. "The steppe eagle (Aquila nipalensis Hodgson, 1833) and the Eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca Savigny, 1809) study on the territory of Central Siberia in the XX-XXI centuries." Samara Journal of Science 8, no. 4 (November 29, 2019): 10–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/snv201984101.
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This paper deals with the study of the steppe eagle ( Aquila nipalensis Hodgson, 1833) and the Eastern imperial eagle ( Aquila heliaca Savigny, 1809). The authors consider the research periods of these bird species: the beginning of the XX century to the 60th, 60-80th, 80-90th, and 90th of the XXI century and 2000. The authors use the materials of the researches and expeditions made in the XX-XXI centuries on the territory of Central Siberia. They also analyze the borders change of the steppe eagle and the Eastern imperial eagle habitat. The authors carried out a detailed analysis of these types study - they created an interactive map of the steppe eagle and the Eastern imperial eagle places of nesting and revealed an approximate border of their habitat. The study was carried out in four hollows: Uvs Lake Basin; Uregnursk Hollow; Tuva Depression; Minusinsk Hollow, located in Krasnoyarsk Krai, Tuva and Khakassia, the part of the territory of Southern and Central Altai. These eagles habitat border changes are a consequence of deep changes in activity of these types that undoubtedly will lead to a deeper study of this subject.
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Duerr, Adam E., Amy E. Parsons, Laura R. Nagy, Michael J. Kuehn, and Peter H. Bloom. "Effectiveness of an artificial intelligence-based system to curtail wind turbines to reduce eagle collisions." PLOS ONE 18, no. 1 (January 26, 2023): e0278754. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278754.
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Operating wind-power projects often includes protecting volant wildlife. One method for doing this uses an automated system to detect, identify (through use of artificial intelligence; AI), track animals (targets) and curtail turbines when risk of a collision is high. However, assessments of the effectiveness, in terms of identification accuracy and subsequent turbine curtailment of such systems are lacking. Over 1 year, we assessed such an automated system installed at a wind project in California, USA to determine its identification accuracy and rates at which "virtual” curtailments were ordered (without slowing turbines), for eagles (intended targets) and non-eagle targets. The system correctly identified 77% of eagles and 85% of non-eagles. Curtailment orders occurred 6 times more frequently for non-eagle targets (5,439) than for eagle targets (850). Greater abundance of common ravens that were misidentified as eagles influenced the effectiveness of the system by greatly increasing unintended curtailment orders. The balance between costs (price of the IdentiFlight system, reduced energy generation, turbine wear and maintenance) and benefits (reduced collisions between intended target species and turbines) may depend upon the biological setting, speed at which operators can curtail turbines, and the objectives of the operator when considering the IdentiFlight system.
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Dharma, Agus Pambudi, M. Meitiyani, Winda Sulpia, Wilda Rosalina, and Ahmad Rizky Mudzakir. "JENIS BURUNG PEMANGSA DI RESORT TEGALLEGA TAMAN NASIONAL GUNUNG GEDE PANGRANGO." Jurnal Biosilampari : Jurnal Biologi 5, no. 1 (December 12, 2022): 17–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.31540/biosilampari.v5i1.1790.
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The presence of birds of prey at the ecosystems in Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park (TNGGP) is very important as the top predator that helps stabilizing the pyramid or food chain. This study purpose to examine the diversity of raptors at Tegallega Resort in TNGGP. Fieldwork had been conducted from June 2021 to Maret 2022 and Oktober 2022 at this resort. Data collection used 1 km line transect where the point counts applied. Three line transects with 1 km in between distance were visited 11 times during the field data collection. The result shows that Tegallega Resort has five raptor species: crested serpent-eagle Spilornis cheela, changeable hawk-eagle Nisaetus limnaeetus, javan hawk-eagle N. bartelsi, Eurasian sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus, and barn owl Tyto alba. The eagles and hawk are protected by Indonesian regulations, while the owl is least concern species according to IUCN Redlist. When found the eagles flies in circles (soaring) with a sound when the weather is sunny and hot.
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Gibson, Marjorie J. "Bald Eagles in Alaska Following the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill." International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings 1991, no. 1 (March 1, 1991): 229–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.7901/2169-3358-1991-1-229.
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ABSTRACT Despite initial concerns about the impact of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on bald eagles in Prince William Sound, accumulating evidence indicates that the area's eagle population is doing well. This paper presents and discusses the 1989 data collected during the Prince William Sound and Kodiak Island Eagle Capture and Short-term Rehabilitation Programs, as well as 1990 data from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's operational field surveys.
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Katzner, Todd E., Evgeny A. Bragin, Steven T. Knick, and Andrew T. Smith. "Coexistence in a Multispecies Assemblage of Eagles in Central Asia." Condor 105, no. 3 (August 1, 2003): 538–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/condor/105.3.538.
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Abstract We evaluated factors that permit species coexistence in an exceptional assemblage of similar raptor species at the Naurzum Zapovednik (a national nature reserve) in north-central Kazakhstan. White-tailed Sea-Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca), Golden Eagle (A. chrysaetos), and Steppe Eagle (A. nipalensis) all breed at the Zapovednik. Steppe Eagle use of nesting resources was distinct from that of tree-nesting species. We evaluated differences in nest tree and nest habitat characteristics, nest dimensions and positions, and nest spacing among the three forest-dwelling eagle species to distinguish between the effects of inter- and intraspecific resource limitations on species coexistence. Although the different species bred in similar habitat and sometimes reused other species' nests, the dimensions, positions and locations of their nests often differed. These differences did not appear to result from interspecific competition. Nest spacing trends were also species specific; Imperial Eagles generally nested farther from other eagle nests than did Golden Eagles and White-tailed Sea-Eagles. Intraspecific variation in habitat, physical characteristics, and spacing patterns of Imperial Eagle nests was extensive throughout the nature reserve. Although interspecific partitioning of nesting habitat may allow coexistence of ground-nesting Steppe Eagles, interspecific competition did not appear to be a primary determinant of the use of nest habitat, space, or nests by tree-nesting species. Rather, interspecific effects appeared secondary to intraspecific effects in determining coexistence of tree-nesting eagles at this site. Coexistencia en una Asamblea Multiespecífica de Águilas en Asia Central Resumen. Evaluamos los factores que permiten la coexistencia de varias especies de aves rapaces similares en Naurzum Zapovednik, una reserva natural nacional, en la región norcentral de Kazakhstan. Las águilas Haliaeetus albicilla, Aquila heliaca, A. chrysaetos y A. nipalensis se reproducen en Zapovednik. El uso de los recursos de nidificación por A. nipalensis fue diferente al de las otras especies, las cuales nidifican en árboles. Evaluamos las diferencias en los árboles y características de los hábitats de nidificación y las dimensiones, posición y distribución de los nidos entre las tres especies de águilas que habitan ambientes boscosos, para distinguir entre los efectos de limitación por recursos a nivel interespecífico e intraespecífico sobre la coexistencia de estas especies. A pesar de que las diferentes especies se reprodujeron en hábitats similares y a veces reutilizaron los nidos de otras especies, las dimensiones, posiciones y localizaciones de sus nidos difirieron a menudo. Estas diferencias no parecen ser un resultado de competencia interespecífica. Las tendencias de la distribución en el espacio de los nidos también fueron especie-específicas; Las águilas de la especie A. heliaca nidificaron generalmente más alejadas de nidos de las otras especies que las águilas H. albicilla y A. chrysaetos. La variación intraespecífica en el hábitat, características físicas y patrones de distribución de A. heliaca fue considerable a través de la reserva natural. A pesar de que la partición interespecífica del hábitat de nidificación podría permitir la coexistencia de la especie A. nipalensis (la cual nidifica sobre el suelo), la competencia interespecífica no pareció ser importante en determinar el uso del hábitat de nidificación, de los nidos o su distribución para las especies de águilas que nidifican en árboles. En cambio, los efectos interespecíficos parecieron ser secundarios con relación a los efectos intraespecífcos en determinar la coexistencia de las águilas que nidifican en árboles en este sitio.
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MACIOROWSKI, GRZEGORZ, and PAWEŁ MIRSKI. "Habitat alteration enables hybridisation between Lesser Spotted and Greater Spotted Eagles in north-east Poland." Bird Conservation International 24, no. 2 (August 28, 2013): 152–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959270913000348.
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SummaryWetlands in the Biebrza Valley, north-east Poland, are inhabited by two closely related Aquila species: the more numerous Lesser Spotted Eagle A. pomarina prefers human-transformed landscapes, whereas the very rare Greater Spotted Eagle A. clanga is associated with natural marshy landscapes. At least since the last decade of the 20th century, these two species have been known to hybridise in the broad zone of their sympatric occurrence in Europe. The aim of the present study was to compare habitat preferences of both spotted eagle species in order to detect which environmental factors could increase the probability of hybridisation. We analysed nesting and hunting habitats for 148 breeding territories (61 of A. pomarina, 56 of A. clanga and 31 of mixed pairs). As expected, the presence of breeding Greater Spotted Eagles was associated with non-transformed marshy landscapes, whereas Lesser Spotted Eagles clearly preferred human-transformed areas. We hypothesised that mixed pairs should occur in intermediate habitat, confirming this assumption by analysing several variables: distance to human settlements, distance to open areas, and proportion of wetlands, shrublands, grasslands, agricultural mosaic and arable land. Results of this study suggest that some landscape changes can enable two species with different habitat requirements to inhabit the same area and hybridise. This scenario has potential conservation implications for the rarer species, Greater Spotted Eagle, which has narrower habitat preferences.
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Probst, Remo, Larisa Bogdea, Dan S. Bandacu, Mirko Bohuš, Svilen Cheshmedzhiev, Ákos Gáborik, Siegfried Geissler, et al. "The first comprehensive estimate of the winter population of the White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla along the Danube/ Prva celostna ocena zimske populacije belorepca Haliaeetus albicilla vzdolž Donave." Acrocephalus 35, no. 162-163 (December 1, 2014): 115–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/acro-2014-0006.
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Abstract In January 2014, the first ever comprehensive winter census of the Whitetailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla along the Danube River was conducted, using mostly point and transect counts. Altogether, 550-700 eagles were counted. The upper range of the estimate may in fact be more realistic because 615 km of the Danube were not surveyed. Birds were observed in every country along the Danube. Hotspots of occurrences were (1) the Central Danube floodplains - the area encompassing the lower Hungarian section (Danube- Drava National Park), Kopački rit Nature Park (Croatia), and the Gornje Podunavlje Special Nature Reserve (Serbia); and (2) the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve. According to the Action Plan for the conservation of the White-tailed Eagle along the Danube, future winter counts should be made regularly, and lower variation in the resulting eagle numbers achieved by a higher degree of synchronization between individual countries. This study reinforces the importance of protected areas along the Danube as a backbone for the conservation of White-tailed Eagles and biodiversity.
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Pačenovský, Samuel, Peter Chrašč, and Matej Repel. "Nesting by the Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo) in a nest of the whitetailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla)." Slovak Raptor Journal 6, no. 1 (January 1, 2012): 37–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/v10262-012-0066-7.
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Abstract In 2011 and 201 2 two breedings by a pair of Eurasian eagle owls were observed in an old white-tailed eagles’ nest at Blatná Polianka in the Senianske rybníky SPA. The nest was situated in a grey poplar tree 1 5-20 m above the ground in a treebuffer by the rivulet Okna, in open lowland landscape without woodland, just with linear tree vegetation and scattered trees. In 2011 incubation of the clutch was observed and the female was present in the nest even at the end ofApril, when the fledglings were probably already present in the nest, but no more data on their further success were obtained. In 201 2 the pair of Eurasian eagle owls bred in the same nest again, but in May the nest was already abandoned and we suppose predation of the clutch, probably by ravens. This occasion is the third known breeding attempt by the Eurasian eagle owl in a raptor nest built in a tree, and the first known occasion of breeding in a white-tailed eagles’ nest in Slovakia. The obtained data also document the further spreading of the species in the Dolný Zemplín region into unusual habitats of a lowland agricultural landscape with very few trees.
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Dravecký, Miroslav, Boris Maderič, Karol Šotnár, Štefan Danko, Stanislav Harvančík, Ján Kicko, Dušan Karaska, et al. "Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina) colour ringing programme and its first results in the period 2000-2008 in Slovakia." Slovak Raptor Journal 2, no. 1 (January 1, 2008): 27–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/v10262-012-0016-4.
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Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina) colour ringing programme and its first results in the period 2000-2008 in Slovakia In Slovakia during 2000-2008, 636 Lesser Spotted Eagles (Aquila pomarina) were marked with readable colour rings with double figure code. This is the highest number of Lesser Spotted Eagles marked in such a way in Europe. From this sample, 621 ind. (97.6 %) were chicks at the nest and 15 ind. (2.4 %) were adult birds which were trapped and consequently ringed. In this period, 2 colour series of rings have been used in Slovakia. In 2000 the ringing started with yellow rings, and up until the end of 2008, 631 ex. (616 young and 15 adults) were ringed. In 2008, the ringing started with light blue series of rings and 5 young at the nest were ringed. In addition to readable rings, aluminium ornithological rings of the Ringing Centres of Czech Republic (NM Praha) and Slovakia (NM Bratislava) have been used. The yellow series was used in fewer numbers also in Germany and Poland for marking the Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina), the Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga), and eventually their hybrids. In this article the authors reported first observations in Slovakia of such marked Lesser Spotted Eagles in the field. Observed eagles were 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 and 8 years old. Some of them were already breeding and were observed taking care of their chicks.
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Karyakin, Igor V., Elvira G. Nikolenko, Elena P. Shnayder, Ludmila S. Zinevich, Genriyetta I. Pulikova, Natalya G. Andreyenkova, Kordian Bartoszuk, Márton Horváth, Tibor Juhász, and Matyas Prommer. "Wind power development in Eastern Kazakhstan threatens migration of eagles." Raptors Conservation, no. 43 (December 31, 2021): 108–213. http://dx.doi.org/10.19074/1814-8654-2021-43-108-213.
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On the basis of data obtained from ARGOS/GPS and GPS/GSM tracking of 34 eagles (4 Steppe Eagles (Aquila nipalensis) from Central KZ, 1 Steppe Eagle from Southern Ural region, 22 Steppe Eagles, 5 Eastern Imperial Eagles (Aquila heliaca) from the ASR and 2 Greater Spotted Eagles (Aquila clanga) from the from the Altai-Sayan Ecoregion), we have defined the main flyways, terms, and other parameters of migration of eagles through Eastern Kazakhstan. We have outlined the borders of the migration corridor and estimate the number of migrants passing through it. The study highlights the importance of the Karatau ridge for eagles from the vast territories of Russia and Kazakhstan. But we are also concerned about the development of wind farms with horizontal-axis wind turbines that expose ultimate danger for raptors in the Karatau migration corridor. One of them already exists – the Zhanatas Wind-Power Station. Here we calculated the possible negative impact on the eagle population from the existing and projected wind farms of the Karatau ridge and give our recommendations for neutralizing the damage from the development of the electric power industry in Karatau.
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Pulikova, Genriyetta I., Alyona G. Kaptyonkina, and Sergey Yu Tugarev. "Steppe Eagle in the East Kazakhstan Region." Raptors Conservation, no. 42 (May 2021): 34–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.19074/1814-8654-2021-42-34-54.
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Fieldwork aimed at studying the population structure and demographic indices of the breeding groups of Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis) in the southwestern part of the East Kazakhstan region was conducted from June 24 to July 20, 2020. In total, we recorded 79 adult Steppe Eagles. Within 4 sampled plots, 44 breeding territories of Steppe Eagles were visited, including 11 successful nests with a total of 11 nestlings found. The occupation of breeding territories was 95.45%, and the share of active nests from the number of occupied territories was 69.05%. The share of successful nests makes 25% and of unsuccessful – 31.82% from the total number of breeding territories. All broods found have only 1 nestling, making on average (n=29) 0.38±0.49 nestlings per active nest. In all sampled plots we observe a high proportion of nests with failed breeding (48.28% of active nests). The distribution density of Steppe Eagle breeding territories was 1.16–2.81/100 km2, on average 1.88/100 km2. The density of successful nests was 0.38–0.53/100 km2, on average 0.47/100 km2. The overall Steppe Eagle population inhabited suitable breeding habitats of the East Kazakhstan region was estimated in the range from 1110 to 2368 breeding pairs, on average 1617 pairs.
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Trail, Pepper W. "Identifying Bald Versus Golden Eagle Bones: A Primer for Wildlife Biologists and Law Enforcement Officers." Journal of Fish and Wildlife Management 8, no. 2 (July 1, 2017): 596–610. http://dx.doi.org/10.3996/042017-jfwm-035.
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Abstract Remains of bald eagles Haliaeetus leucocephalus and golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos are regularly encountered in avian mortality surveys and wildlife crime investigations. These species exhibit well-documented plumage differences, allowing identification in most instances when feathers are present. However, skeletal remains are much more difficult to identify and may be the only material available after mortality events (e.g., decomposed remains associated with power lines or wind turbines). Eagle bones are also sometimes incorporated into crafted items without other associated remains. I describe and illustrate shape-based osteological characters that have been determined to be reliable for distinguishing most major bones of bald versus golden eagles. Using the annotated photographs provided as a guide, nonspecialists will be able to identify eagle skeletal remains with high accuracy. This information will be of interest to wildlife law enforcement officers; state, federal, and tribal wildlife biologists documenting avian mortality; and anthropologists and archaeologists.
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Stephan, Claudia, and Klaus Zuberbühler. "Social familiarity affects Diana monkey ( Cercopithecus diana diana ) alarm call responses in habitat-specific ways." Royal Society Open Science 3, no. 2 (February 2016): 150639. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150639.
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Male Diana monkeys produce loud and acoustically distinct alarm calls to leopards and eagles that propagate over long distances, much beyond the immediate group. Calling is often contagious, with neighbouring males responding to each other’s calls, indicating that harem males communicate both to local group members and distant competitors. Here, we tested whether male Diana monkeys responding to each other’s alarm calls discriminated familiar from unfamiliar callers in two populations in Taï Forest (Ivory Coast) and on Tiwai Island (Sierra Leone). At both sites, we found specific acoustic markers in male alarm call responses that discriminated familiar from unfamiliar callers, but response patterns were site-specific. On Tiwai Island, males responded to familiar males’ eagle alarms with ‘standard’ eagle alarm calls, whereas unfamiliar males triggered acoustically atypical eagle alarms. The opposite was found in Taï Forest where males responded to unfamiliar males’ eagle alarm calls with ‘standard’ eagle alarms, and with atypical eagle alarms to familiar males’ calls. Moreover, only Taï, but not Tiwai, males also marked familiarity with the caller in their leopard-induced alarms. We concluded that male Diana monkeys encode not only predator type but also signaller familiarity in their alarm calls, although in population-specific ways. We explain these inter-site differences in vocal behaviour in terms of differences in predation pressure and population density. We discuss the adaptive function and implications of this behaviour for the origins of acoustic flexibility in primate communication.
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Meyburg, Bernd-Ulrich, Kai Graszynski, Torsten Langgemach, Paul Sömmer, and Ugis Bergmanis. "Cainism, nestling management in Germany in 2004-2007 and satellite tracking of juveniles in the Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina)." Slovak Raptor Journal 2, no. 1 (January 1, 2008): 53–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/v10262-012-0018-2.
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Cainism, nestling management in Germany in 2004-2007 and satellite tracking of juveniles in the Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina)The Lesser Spotted Eagle belongs to a species with obligatory cainism, which means that in the natural state it is rare that two young eagles fledge, although as a rule two chick's hatch. The breeding population in Germany is at the western edge of the species' range and is declining (a 23% decrease between 1993 and 2007). Local extinction can be anticipated and therefore nestling management has been implemented in the German federal state of Brandenburg since 2004 as a conservation measure by using human intervention to prevent the death of the younger sibling. This is in addition to other methods such as nest-site protection, habitat preservation, legislation etc. Furthermore, in 2007, second hatched eagle chicks (Abels) from Latvia were translocated for the first time. The managed pairs (nests physically inspected) were on average more successful than the unmanaged pairs (nests not physically inspected). It cannot be determined as to whether the inspection of the nests had a negative effect on breeding. Breeding success of the pairs present in Brandenburg, including non-breeders, increased by 57 % in 2007 due to nestling management, and that of the managed pairs alone by 67 %. In 2007 the behaviour of six young eagles was studied using satellite telemetry. This study determined that the Abels migrated as well as the first hatched eagle chicks (Cains), and that their survival chances were equally good. The Abels imported from Latvia migrated in two out of three cases along the same route as the German Lesser Spotted Eagles to the Bosporus. One Latvian Abel which fledged in Germany was tracked by satellite to Zambia where many Lesser Spotted Eagles winter. A German Abel wintered North of the Equator in the Sudan and neighbouring countries for over six months and started its return migration on 27 April 2008.
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Danko, Štefan, and Boris Maderič. "Nesting of the Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina) at its hatching site." Slovak Raptor Journal 2, no. 1 (January 1, 2008): 77–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/v10262-012-0020-8.
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Nesting of the Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina) at its hatching site Colour rings with alphanumeric codes have been used on the Lesser Spotted Eagles since 2000. On April 24, 2007 an eagle with a yellow ring I9 was photographed in the "Ondavská vrchovina" highlands near the village of Lieskovec in Humenné district. It was found out that the eagle was ringed on the same site on July 4, 2002 as a chick on the nest. After further observations the adult male was spotted feeding its chick in the nest, which was located only 130 m from the one it hatched at. If it could be proved that the female at the nesting site, which has been regularly surveyed since 1985 has not changed, nesting of a son and a mother could not to be ruled out in this case.
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Walters, K. E., J. D. Reynolds, and R. C. Ydenberg. "Ideal free eagles: Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) distribution in relation to Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) availability on four spawning rivers." Canadian Journal of Zoology 99, no. 9 (September 2021): 792–800. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjz-2020-0191.
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The movement of individuals according to the availability of resources has a fundamental effect on animal distributions. In the Pacific Northwest, Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus (Linnaeus, 1766)) rely heavily on scavenging opportunities during the non-breeding period, and their distribution and movements are thought to be strongly influenced by the availability of post-spawning Pacific salmon (genus Oncorhynchus Suckley, 1861) carcasses. We surveyed the abundance of eagles and salmon on four adjacent rivers on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada, during the 2017 fall spawning season. Salmon began to arrive in late September, peaked in abundance in mid-November, and were absent after early December. The seasonal progression of Bald Eagle abundance matched that of salmon carcass availability. The slope of proportional eagle–salmon relationship was significantly positive, though lower than the 1:1 match predicted by Ideal Free Distribution theory. The numerical response of Bald Eagles to salmon abundance was elevated on one of the rivers, potentially due to physical features such as sandbars and mudflats that increased the availability of carcasses and provided access points for eagles.
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Solanou, Maria, Eirini Trypidaki, Elisavet Georgopoulou, Konstantinos Damianakis, Afroditi Kardamaki, and Stavros M. Xirouchakis. "Selection of Nesting Habitat and Insular Niche Separation of Two Sympatric Aquila Species." Diversity 14, no. 12 (December 18, 2022): 1136. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/d14121136.
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Aquila chrysaetos and Aquila fasciata are two congeneric eagle species distributed in the Mediterranean region which are supposed to compete for similar breeding and foraging resources. In the present study, bioclimatic, topographic, and human-related habitat parameters were investigated for 64 and 75 nest sites of Golden and Bonelli’s eagles, respectively. The nests were found during fieldwork undertaken from 1995–2020. Overall, the habitat parameters that best discriminated nest site selection were associated with elevation, temperature, and land use with topographic variables being most powerful for niche separation. Univariate analysis, regression, and species distribution modeling identified a strong association of the species with altitude pinpointing the Golden eagle’s mountainous and continental character and the Bonelli’s eagle being a lowland and coastal species. Golden eagle nests were situated away from human settlements on steep cliffs in higher altitude areas with transitional woodland-shrub vegetation. In contrast Bonelli’s eagle nests were located on low-altitude warmer zones, closer to the coast and human settlements with more natural grasslands in their vicinity. The ecological niche separation of the two species was best described by altitude and temperature, though no clear-cut evidence was detected for their competitive exclusion. Inter-specific nearest neighboring distance was found statistically significant only for the Golden eagle which seems to be less tolerant in its co-existence with the Bonelli’s eagle. Conservation measures for both species should target territories under human pressure, though more research should focus on the species range use and habitat heterogeneity within overlapping territories.
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Arandian, Behdad, Amin Iraji, Hossein Alaei, Suraparb Keawsawasvong, and Moncef L. Nehdi. "White-Tailed Eagle Algorithm for Global Optimization and Low-Cost and Low-CO2 Emission Design of Retaining Structures." Sustainability 14, no. 17 (August 26, 2022): 10673. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su141710673.
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This study proposes a new metaheuristic optimization algorithm, namely the white-tailed eagle algorithm (WEA), for global optimization and optimum design of retaining structures. Metaheuristic optimization methods are now broadly implemented to address problems in a variety of scientific domains. These algorithms are typically inspired by the natural behavior of an agent, which can be humans, animals, plants, or any physical agent. However, a specific metaheuristic algorithm (MA) may not be able to find the optimal solution for every situation. As a result, researchers will aim to propose and discover new methods in order to identify the best solutions to a variety of problems. The white-tailed eagle algorithm (WEA) is a simple but effective nature-inspired algorithm inspired by the social life and hunting activity of white-tailed eagles. The WEA’s hunting is divided into two phases. In the first phase (exploration), white-tailed eagles seek prey inside the searching region. The eagle goes inside the designated space according to the position of the best eagle to find the optimum hunting position (exploitation). The proposed approach is tested using 13 unimodal and multimodal benchmark test functions, and the results are compared to those obtained by some well-established optimization methods. In addition, the new algorithm automates the optimum design of retaining structures under seismic load, considering two objectives: economic cost and CO2 emissions. The results of the experiments and comparisons reveal that the WEA is a high-performance algorithm that can effectively explore the decision space and outperform almost all comparative algorithms in the majority of the problems.
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Shukov, P. M. "Swamps as habitats of rare raptor species in the Nizhny Novgorod region." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1093, no. 1 (September 1, 2022): 012028. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1093/1/012028.
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Abstract This article presents relevant contribution to the distribution and number of six species of birds of prey listed in the Red Data Book of RF, in the territory of swamps in the Nizhny Novgorod region. Three species of rare birds of prey in the Nizhny Novgorod region demonstrate a very strong relationship with the swamps of the region - Golden Eagle, Short-toed Eagle and Osprey. All the nesting sites of Golden Eagles are rigidly connected with bog complexes; 66.1% sites of the Short-toed Eagle sites are located in swamps. Osprey can also nest along rivers, but, most likely, the loss of densely located nesting sites in bogs (45.8%) will lead to catastrophic consequences for the species. The Greater Spotted Eagle and White-Tailed Eagle are associated with swamps for the second time, and their rates are 11.8% and 11.7%. Earlier the Peregrine Falcon in the region had a significant percentage of nesting sites in wetlands (26.7%), but now seems to be lost as a breeding species. The total percentage of neting sites located in wetlands for all raptor species listed in the Red Data Book of RF in the Nizhny Novgorod region is 39.5%. All the species under consideration are bioindicators of wetlands and adjacent habitats and allow assessing the conditions of this habitat.
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McDonald, Paul. "Book Review: Australasian Eagles and Eagle-like Birds." Australian Field Ornithology 34 (2017): 137–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.20938/afo34137138.
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Sarasola, José Hernán, and Juan José Maceda. "Past and current evidence of persecution of the Endangered crowned eagle Harpyhaliaetus coronatus in Argentina." Oryx 40, no. 3 (July 2006): 347–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0030605306001013.
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The crowned eagle Harpyhaliaetus coronatus is a large Neotropical eagle categorized as Endangered throughout its range. However, the threats to this species are poorly understood. We present data on the causes of death of crowned eagles in semi-arid forests of La Pampa province, central Argentina. Data was obtained from field surveys and from interviews with 62 local landowners during 1999–2004. Over this period five eagles were shot, one killed by a car, one was found dead in a cattle water trough, and one was found in captivity. From the interviews information was obtained about a further 10 cases of eagles being shot, disturbed or trapped. Five (13%) of 38 interviewed landowners who positively identified the species admitted having killed or disturbed eagles in the past but only two (5%) mentioned predation of eagles upon livestock as a problem. Persecution seems to be a significant threat to this species in central Argentina and future research and conservation action should be focused not only on gaining a better knowledge of the biology of the species but also on conservation and educational programmes involving local people.
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Mikuš, Jaroslav, Michal Noga, and Vladimír Nemček. "First breeding of the Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) in the "Borská nížina" lowland (SW Slovakia)." Slovak Raptor Journal 2, no. 1 (January 1, 2008): 87–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/v10262-012-0022-6.
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First breeding of the Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) in the "Borská nížina" lowland (SW Slovakia) In 2007, breeding of the Imperial Eagle in locality "Devínske jazero" lake (near the village of "Vysoká pri Morave", SW Slovakia) was observed. The pair fledged 2 young. This was the first recorded breeding of this species in the "Záhorie" region. The eagles also bred the following year, 2008. During breeding, a change of male occurred so the nest remained unproductive (one fertile egg was found in the nest). Both cases suggest the current trend of occupying new sites in the Southwestern part of its breeding range.
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RAZAFIMANJATO, GILBERT, THE SEING SAM, MARIUS RAKOTONDRATSIMA, LILY-ARISON RENE DE ROLAND, and RUSSELL THORSTROM. "Population status of the Madagascar Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vociferoides in 2005–2006." Bird Conservation International 24, no. 1 (March 28, 2013): 88–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959270913000038.
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SummaryCoastal and inland surveys for the endemic and “Critically Endangered” Madagascar Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vociferoides were conducted in western Madagascar from Antsiranana in the north to Manja in the south during the 2005 and 2006 breeding seasons (May–October). Surveys covered typical Madagascar Fish Eagle habitat: lakes, rivers, mangroves, estuaries, and marine islands within their known distribution. In total, 287 individuals were encountered, including 98 breeding pairs (196 individuals), 23 breeding trios (69 individuals), 15 single adults and seven immature birds. Of these 287 birds, 128 individuals (44.6%) were observed on lakes; 116 (40.4%) in coastal areas, consisting of 103 (35.9%) in mangroves and 13 (4.5%) in estuaries; 32 (11.2%) on marine islands and 11 (3.8%) on rivers. There was an increase between surveys in 1995 and this study in the number of Madagascar Fish Eagles counted, from 222 to 287, and in the number of pairs from 99 to 121. This study confirms that the Madagascar Fish Eagle population is still low due to human persecution (hunting, collection of eggs and nestlings), overfishing and habitat destruction. We recommend monitoring fish eagles annually at the higher concentration sites to evaluate human activities and conducting a population survey every five years throughout western and northern Madagascar.
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Lu, Jingbo, Dongjie He, and Jingling Xue. "Eagle." ACM Transactions on Software Engineering and Methodology 30, no. 4 (July 2021): 1–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3450492.
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Object sensitivity is widely used as a context abstraction for computing the points-to information context-sensitively for object-oriented programming languages such as Java. Due to the combinatorial explosion of contexts in large object-oriented programs, k -object-sensitive pointer analysis (under k -limiting), denoted k -obj , is often inefficient even when it is scalable for small values of k , where k ⩽ 2 holds typically. A recent popular approach for accelerating k -obj trades precision for efficiency by instructing k -obj to analyze only some methods in a program context-sensitively, determined heuristically by a pre-analysis. In this article, we investigate how to develop a fundamentally different approach, Eagle , for designing a pre-analysis that can make k -obj run significantly faster while maintaining its precision. The novelty of Eagle is to enable k -obj to analyze a method with partial context sensitivity (i.e., context-sensitively for only some of its selected variables/allocation sites) by solving a context-free-language (CFL) reachability problem based on a new CFL-reachability formulation of k -obj . By regularizing one CFL for specifying field accesses and using another CFL for specifying method calls, we have formulated Eagle as a fully context-sensitive taint analysis (without k -limiting) that is both effective (by selecting the variables/allocation sites to be analyzed by k -obj context-insensitively so as to reduce the number of context-sensitive facts inferred by k -obj in the program) and efficient (by running linearly in terms of the number of pointer assignment edges in the program). As Eagle represents the first precision-preserving pre-analysis, our evaluation focuses on demonstrating its significant performance benefits in accelerating k -obj for a set of popular Java benchmarks and applications, with call graph construction, may-fail-casting, and polymorphic call detection as three important client analyses.
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Williams, Brooke. "Eagle." Ecopsychology 6, no. 2 (June 2014): 122–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/eco.2014.0021.
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Anderson, Patricia K. "Eagle." Anthrozoös 29, no. 3 (August 17, 2016): 527–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2016.1215487.
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Lenin, K. "Real Power Loss Minimization and Voltage Stability Enhancement by Hybridization of Eagle Strategy with Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm." Journal of the Institute of Engineering 14, no. 1 (June 4, 2018): 22–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jie.v14i1.20066.
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In this paper, Hybridization of Eagle Strategy (ES) with Particle Swarm Optimization is proposed to solve the optimal reactive power dispatch Problem. Proposed hybridization of Eagle Strategy with Particle Swarm Optimization (EPSO) enhances the search in rigorous mode. Eagle strategy has been instigating by the foraging behaviour of golden eagles. This stratagem has two important parameters: arbitrary search and exhaustive chase. At first it explores the search space globally, and then in the second case the strategy makes an intensive local search with using an effective local optimizer method. So, Particle Swarm Optimization has been enhanced using ES and employed to solve reactive power optimization problem. In order to appraise the efficiency of the projected EPSO algorithm, it has been tested in standard IEEE 30 bus system and compared other reported algorithms. Results show’s that EPSO algorithm is more efficient in plummeting the real power loss and voltage index also enhanced. Journal of the Institute of Engineering, 2018, 14(1): 22-34
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Asselin, N. C., M. S. Scott, J. Larkin, and C. Artuso. "Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) breeding in Wapusk National Park, Manitoba." Canadian Field-Naturalist 127, no. 2 (October 29, 2013): 180. http://dx.doi.org/10.22621/cfn.v127i2.1450.
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The North American subspecies of the Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) is of conservation concern throughout Canada. The species is not currently known to breed in Manitoba. In 2011 and 2012, during the course of surveys in Wapusk National Park of Canada in northeastern Manitoba, seven pairs of Golden Eagles and one sub-adult were observed. The identification of nests in proximity to three pairs, the presence of an adult at one nest, and visible white down feathers on two nests confirm breeding and extend the breeding range of the Golden Eagle into Manitoba, where breeding was previously uncertain. The three occupied nests were 14 km (n = 2) and 31 km (n = 1) from the nearest adjacent occupied nest identified. Foraging on Canada Goose (Branta canadensis) goslings was observed. Further research is needed to determine the overall nest density and the diet of Golden Eagles in northeastern Manitoba.
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Ibanez, Jayson, Anna Mae Sumaya, Giovanne Tampos, and Dennis Salvador. "Preventing Philippine Eagle hunting: what are we missing?" Journal of Threatened Taxa 8, no. 13 (November 26, 2016): 9505. http://dx.doi.org/10.11609/jott.2301.8.13.9505-9511.
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Two pieces of information are minimally required to conserve endangered raptor species — (i) an estimate of its remaining global population, and (ii) the main factors responsible for its decline. Data suggest that no more than 400 adult pairs of the Critically Endangered Philippine Eagle could remain in the wild. As to what is causing population decline, shooting and hunting continue to be the primary factor while forest habitat loss is another. This paper reflects on the growing incident of human-caused deaths in Philippine Eagles, prominently on Mindanao Island where estimates suggest more than half of the eagle’s wild population exists. By analyzing data from eagle rescues, surveys, and field monitoring through radio and satellite tracking techniques, this paper shows that shooting and trapping is a “clear and present” danger which may potentially drive the population to extinction even when suitable forest habitats still exist. Cases of death within the last decade show that the nature and/or extent of law enforcement, conservation education, and population and habitat monitoring fall short of being effective deterrents to eagle persecution in the wild. We review emerging theories on wildlife crime and cases of community-based species conservation to justify a holistic and grounded approach to preventing eagle poaching as an alternative to the conservation status quo.
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Mlíkovský, Jiří. "The Food of the White-tailed Sea Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) at Lake Baikal, East Siberia." Slovak Raptor Journal 3, no. 1 (January 1, 2009): 35–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/v10262-012-0031-5.
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The Food of the White-tailed Sea Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) at Lake Baikal, East Siberia A long-term study (1991-2001) of the food of White-tailed Sea Eagles in the Svâtoj Nos wetlands at Lake Baikal, Northeastern Russia, revealed that these eagles feed predominantly on water birds, mainly ducks. Anecdotal data from the Selenga Delta in Southeastern Lake Baikal indicate that White-tailed Sea Eagles generally prefer birds as their prey in the Lake Baikal area.
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Sanaiotti, TM, TG Junqueira, V. Palhares, FH Aguiar-Silva, LMP Henriques, G. Oliveira, VY Guimarães, et al. "Abundance of Harpy and Crested Eagles from a reservoir-impact area in the Low- and Mid-Xingu River." Brazilian Journal of Biology 75, no. 3 suppl 1 (August 2015): 190–204. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.00614bm.
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Abstract In the Brazilian Amazon, two monospecific genera, the Harpy Eagle and Crested Eagle have low densities and are classified by IUCN as Near Threatened due to habitat loss, deforestation, habitat degradation and hunting. In this study, we evaluate occurrence of these large raptors using the environmental surveys database from Belo Monte Hydroelectric Power Plant. Integrating the dataset from two methods, we plotted a distribution map along the Xingu River, including records over a 276-km stretch of river. Terrestrial surveys (RAPELD method) were more efficient for detecting large raptors than standardized aquatic surveys, although the latter were complementary in areas without modules. About 53% of the records were obtained during activities of wildlife rescue/flushing, vegetation suppression or in transit. Between 2012 and 2014, four Harpy Eagles were removed from the wild; two shooting victims, one injured by collision with power lines and one hit by a vehicle. Also, seven nests were mapped. The mean distance between Harpy Eagle records was 15 km along the river channel, with a mean of 20 km between nests near the channel, which allowed us to estimate 20 possible pairs using the alluvial forest, riverine forest and forest fragments. Territories of another ten pairs will probably be affected by inundation of the Volta Grande channel, which is far from the main river. The average distance between Crested Eagle records was 16 km along the river channel. The only nest found was 1.3 km away from a Harpy Eagle nest. The remnant forests are under threat of being replaced by cattle pastures, so we recommend that permanently protected riparian vegetation borders (APP) be guaranteed, and that forest fragments within 5 km of the river be conserved to maintain eagle populations.
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Ahmad, Shakeel, Romaan Hayat Khattak, Liwei Teng, Khansa Kaneez, and Zhensheng Liu. "Factors Affecting Habitat Selection of Endangered Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis) in Pakistan: Implications for Raptors Conservation." Diversity 14, no. 12 (December 17, 2022): 1135. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/d14121135.
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The steppe eagle (Aquila nipalensis) is an endangered migratory raptor species that migrates in winter to Pakistan and neighbouring countries. In Pakistan, the species migrate at the end of autumn and utilise different habitats across the country. Very little information is available about the species’ population status, distribution, and factors affecting its distribution in Pakistan. In the present study, we predicted the distribution of steppe eagles in Pakistan associated with different environmental variables. We used 149 presence points of the species from an online source (GBIF), published literature, and wildlife photographers. The MaxEnt analysis showed that highly suitable habitats were mostly present in Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK), federally administered areas and surrounding areas, southern areas of Sindh Province, and some parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) Province. In addition, some patches were also predicted by MaxEnt in Balochistan Province. Human population density (27.0%), chicken density (16.6%), temperature seasonality (11.1%), and rivers (10.3%) were identified as the main environmental factors that affect the habitat distribution of steppe eagle in Pakistan. Only a small percentage (2.62%) of the total Pakistan area was estimated to be a highly suitable area for steppe eagles, while 20.58% and 7.46% were identified as the least and moderately suitable areas, respectively. Conservation of identified habitats and mitigation of anthropogenic impacts to conserve this endangered eagle species are recommended for immediate and long-term conservation across Pakistan.
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NIJMAN, VINCENT. "The endemic Bawean Serpent-eagle Spilornis baweanus: habitat use, abundance and conservation." Bird Conservation International 16, no. 2 (June 2006): 131–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0959270906000219.
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The Bawean Serpent-eagle Spilornis baweanus is endemic to the 190 km2 island of Bawean in the Java Sea (Indonesia) where it is the only resident diurnal raptor. A 15 day study in 2002 revealed that the species is present in small numbers throughout the island. The eagle's abundance was assessed by an island-wide survey and by sampling 28 1 km2 plots covering five habitat types. There was a strong positive correlation between abundance and contact time in plots. Compared with other habitat types, the number of, and contact time with, serpent-eagles was higher in tall forest. The species was not recorded in mangrove and coastal forest. There was no correlation between the eagle's abundance and the nearest distance to villages. Based on the distribution of forest and the abundance of adult pairs within these forests, the available habitat totals 92 km2, in which some 60–75 adult serpent-eagles remain. Semi-structured interviews with the islanders revealed that recreational hunting poses the largest threat to the survival of the Bawean Serpent-eagle, and that the increase in recreational hunting was a relatively recent phenomenon. The forest on Bawean, including that in two reserves, is poorly protected and illegal logging and burning are widespread. The low degree of habitat protection, the severe threat posed by hunting and the very small population size of the eagle qualify the species to be included in the IUCN Red List as Critically Endangered. In order to safeguard the Bawean Serpent-eagle hunting must be stopped immediately and the remaining habitat needs to be better protected. This is probably best achieved by a conservation body in which local and regional authorities and NGOs cooperate.