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1
Stein, John. "Theories about Developmental Dyslexia." Brain Sciences 13, no. 2 (January 26, 2023): 208. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13020208.
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Despite proving its usefulness for over a century, the concept of developmental dyslexia (DD) is currently in severe disarray because of the recent introduction of the phonological theory of its causation. Since mastering the phonological principle is essential for all reading, failure to do so cannot be used to distinguish DD from the many other causes of such failure. To overcome this problem, many new psychological, signal detection, and neurological theories have been introduced recently. All these new theories converge on the idea that DD is fundamentally caused by impaired signalling of the timing of the visual and auditory cues that are essential for reading. These are provided by large ‘magnocellular’ neurones which respond rapidly to sensory transients. The evidence for this conclusion is overwhelming. Especially convincing are intervention studies that have shown that improving magnocellular function improves dyslexic children’s reading, together with cohort studies that have demonstrated that the magnocellular timing deficit is present in infants who later become dyslexic, long before they begin learning to read. The converse of the magnocellular deficit in dyslexics may be that they gain parvocellular abundance. This may often impart the exceptional ‘holistic’ talents that have been ascribed to them and that society needs to nurture.
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Waye, Mary M. Y., Lim K. Poo, and Connie S.-H. Ho. "Study of Genetic Association With DCDC2 and Developmental Dyslexia in Hong Kong Chinese Children." Clinical Practice & Epidemiology in Mental Health 13, no. 1 (August 21, 2017): 104–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1745017901713010104.
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Background: Doublecortin domain-containing 2 (DCDC2) is a doublecortin domain-containing gene family member and the doublecortin domain has been demonstrated to bind to tubulin and enhance microtubule polymerization. It has been associated with developmental dyslexia and this protein family member is thought to function in neuronal migration where it may affect the signaling of primary cilia. Objectives: The objective of the study is to find out if there is any association of genetic variants of DCDC2 with developmental dyslexia in Chinese children from Hong Kong. Methods: The dyslexic children were diagnosed as developmental dyslexia (DD) using the Hong Kong Test of Specific Learning Difficulties in Reading and Writing (HKT-SpLD) by the Department of Health, Hong Kong. Saliva specimens were collected and their genotypes of DCDC2 were studied by DNA sequencing or TaqMan Real Time PCR Assays. Results: The most significant marker is rs6940827 which is associated with DD with nominal p-value (0.011). However, this marker did not remain significant after multiple testing corrections and the adjusted p-value from permutation test was 0.1329. Using sliding window haplotype analysis, several haplotypes were found to be nominally associated with DD. The smallest nominal p values was 0.0036 (rs2996452-rs1318700, C-A). However, none of the p values could withstand the multiple testing corrections. Conclusion: Despite early findings that DCDC2 is a strong candidate for developmental dyslexia and that some of the genetic variants have been linked to brain structure and functions, our findings showed that DCDC2 is not strongly associated with dyslexia.
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Gabay, Yafit, Shai Gabay, Rachel Schiff, and Avishai Henik. "Visual and Auditory Interference Control of Attention in Developmental Dyslexia." Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 26, no. 4 (November 15, 2019): 407–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s135561771900122x.
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AbstractAn accumulating body of evidence highlights the contribution of general cognitive processes, such as attention, to language-related skills.Objective:The purpose of the present study was to explore how interference control (a subcomponent of selective attention) is affected in developmental dyslexia (DD) by means of control over simple stimulus-response mappings. Furthermore, we aimed to examine interference control in adults with DD across sensory modalities.Methods:The performance of 14 dyslexic adults and 14 matched controls was compared on visual/auditory Simon tasks, in which conflict was presented in terms of an incongruent mapping between the location of a visual/auditory stimulus and the appropriate motor response.Results:In the auditory task, dyslexic participants exhibited larger Simon effect costs; namely, they showed disproportionately larger reaction times (RTs)/errors costs when the auditory stimulus and response were incongruent relative to RT/errors costs of non-impaired readers. In the visual Simon task, both groups presented Simon effect costs to the same extent.Conclusion:These results indicate that the ability to control auditory selective attention is carried out less effectively in those with DD compared with visually controlled processing. The implications of this impaired process for the language-related skills of individuals with DD are discussed.
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Theodoridou, Daniela, Pavlos Christodoulides, Victoria Zakopoulou, and Maria Syrrou. "Developmental Dyslexia: Environment Matters." Brain Sciences 11, no. 6 (June 13, 2021): 782. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11060782.
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Developmental dyslexia (DD) is a multifactorial, specific learning disorder. Susceptibility genes have been identified, but there is growing evidence that environmental factors, and especially stress, may act as triggering factors that determine an individual’s risk of developing DD. In DD, as in most complex phenotypes, the presence of a genetic mutation fails to explain the broad phenotypic spectrum observed. Early life stress has been repeatedly associated with the risk of multifactorial disorders, due to its effects on chromatin regulation, gene expression, HPA axis function and its long-term effects on the systemic stress response. Based on recent evidence, we discuss the potential role of stress on DD occurrence, its putative epigenetic effects on the HPA axis of affected individuals, as well as the necessity of early and appropriate intervention, based on the individual stress-associated (endo)phenotype.
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Gabay, Yafit, Erik D. Thiessen, and Lori L. Holt. "Impaired Statistical Learning in Developmental Dyslexia." Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 58, no. 3 (June 2015): 934–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2015_jslhr-l-14-0324.
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Purpose Developmental dyslexia (DD) is commonly thought to arise from phonological impairments. However, an emerging perspective is that a more general procedural learning deficit, not specific to phonological processing, may underlie DD. The current study examined if individuals with DD are capable of extracting statistical regularities across sequences of passively experienced speech and nonspeech sounds. Such statistical learning is believed to be domain-general, to draw upon procedural learning systems, and to relate to language outcomes. Method DD and control groups were familiarized with a continuous stream of syllables or sine-wave tones, the ordering of which was defined by high or low transitional probabilities across adjacent stimulus pairs. Participants subsequently judged two 3-stimulus test items with either high or low statistical coherence as being the most similar to the sounds heard during familiarization. Results As with control participants, the DD group was sensitive to the transitional probability structure of the familiarization materials as evidenced by above-chance performance. However, the performance of participants with DD was significantly poorer than controls across linguistic and nonlinguistic stimuli. In addition, reading-related measures were significantly correlated with statistical learning performance of both speech and nonspeech material. Conclusion Results are discussed in light of procedural learning impairments among participants with DD.
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Lee, Joungmin, Woojeong Jang, Hyoeun Won, and Soyeong Pae. "Text Comprehension of Korean Developmental Dyslexic Children Considering Mode and Type of Texts." Communication Sciences & Disorders 26, no. 2 (June 30, 2021): 337–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.12963/csd.21816.
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Objectives: Korean developmental dyslexic upper grade children’s text comprehension abilities were investigated considering the mode of texts (reading vs listening) as well as the type of texts (narrative vs expository).Methods: Sixteen 5th to 6th graders with developmental dyslexia (DD) and grade and cognition-matched typically developing children (TD) participated in 4 text comprehension tasks. Each child responded to 32 questions, 8 in each text, tapping comprehension of texts counterbalancing the effect of mode and type of texts.Results: First, children with DD performed lower than TD children in text comprehension, reflecting developmental dyslexic Korean children’s performance cross linguistically even with the high orthographic transparency of Hangeul. Second, children with DD performed better in the mode of reading compared to the mode of listening, which was the same as the TD children. Third, the effect of type of text was meaningful to only children with DD, while TD children’s performance between narrative and expository text was not different.Conclusion: Korean upper grade children with DD seemed to rely heavily on the mode of reading in comprehending texts similarly to their grade-matched children, while children with DD had greater difficulties in comprehending the expository texts both in reading and listening modes compared to the narrative texts. Each child with DD’s developmental level of the type and mode of texts needs to be considered to support his/her text comprehension abilities. Further studies need to be extended to the Korean language considering the type of texts with the DIER model.
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Afonso, Olivia, Paz Suárez-Coalla, and Fernando Cuetos. "Writing Impairments in Spanish Children With Developmental Dyslexia." Journal of Learning Disabilities 53, no. 2 (September 17, 2019): 109–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022219419876255.
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This study investigated which components of the writing production process are impaired in Spanish children with developmental dyslexia (DD) aged 8 to 12 years. Children with and without dyslexia ( n = 60) were assessed in their use of the lexical and the sublexical routes of spelling as well as the orthographic working memory system by manipulating lexical frequency, phonology-to-orthography (P-O) consistency, and word length in a copying task and a spelling-to-dictation task. Results revealed that children with dyslexia produced longer written latencies than chronological age-matched (CA) controls, more errors than CA and reading age-matched (RA) controls, and writing durations similar to CA controls. Latencies were more affected by frequency, consistency, and length in the DD group and the RA group than in CA controls. Children in the DD and RA groups produced longer written latencies in the copying than in the spelling-to-dictation task, while controls in the CA group were not affected by the task. Results indicate that spelling impairments in Spanish children with dyslexia affect the relative involvement of lexical and sublexical information during handwriting. Meanwhile, effects on writing speed seem to be related to deficits in reading ability, and accuracy scores seem to be poorer than expected by children’s reading skill.
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CANTIANI, CHIARA, MARIA LUISA LORUSSO, PAOLO PEREGO, MASSIMO MOLTENI, and MARIA TERESA GUASTI. "Event-related potentials reveal anomalous morphosyntactic processing in developmental dyslexia." Applied Psycholinguistics 34, no. 6 (August 8, 2012): 1135–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0142716412000185.
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ABSTRACTIn the light of the literature describing oral language difficulties in developmental dyslexia (DD), event-related potentials were used in order to compare morphosyntactic processing in 16 adults with DD (aged 20–28 years) and unimpaired controls. Sentences including subject–verb agreement violations were presented auditorily, with grammaticality and subject number as main factors. Electrophysiological data revealed differences between groups concerning both the latency of the P600 component and the additional presence in the DD group of a negativity broadly diffused all over the scalp. Moreover, these electrophysiological anomalies increased when plural sentences were processed. On the whole, the results support the hypothesis of a linguistic deficit and of different language processing modalities in DD participants.
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Zou, Li, Kaiheng Zhu, Qi Jiang, Pei Xiao, Xiaoqian Wu, Bing Zhu, and Ranran Song. "Quality of life in Chinese children with developmental dyslexia: a cross-sectional study." BMJ Open 12, no. 1 (January 2022): e052278. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-052278.
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ObjectivesOur study aimed to compare the quality of life (QoL) between Chinese developmental dyslexia (DD) and healthy children.DesignA cross-sectional study.SettingThe participants were recruited from grades 3–6 in six primary schools in Tianmen, a city of Hubei Province, China.ParticipantsA total of 5679 students were recruited. After excluding children with visual and auditory dysfunction or psychiatric diseases or with a response rate on the scales or questionnaires of less than 90%, 5352 children were finally included in the analysis. DD children were diagnosed according to their clinical symptoms, which were mainly assessed by the Dyslexia Checklist for Chinese Children and the Pupil Rating Scale Revised Screening for Learning Disabilities.Outcome measuresThe QoL for DD and healthy children was appraised by the Quality of Life Scale for Children and Adolescents (QLSCA). Outcome measures included its four domain scores (psychosocial function, physiological and mental health, living environment and satisfaction with QoL) and total score.ResultsA total of 186 children were diagnosed with DD. The distribution of DD children in five levels of QoL was statistically different from that of healthy children (χ2=57.63, p<0.001). Compared with healthy children, the proportion of poor or worse QoL in DD was higher, and the proportion of moderate, better or good QoL was lower. The total QLSCA score in DD children was 3.475 lower than that in healthy children (B=−3.475, p=0.006). Psychosocial function, physiological and mental health, living environment and satisfaction with QoL of DD children were also inferior to those of healthy children.ConclusionThe QoL of DD was significantly lower than that of healthy children, prompting more public efforts to improve DD QoL.
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Werth, Reinhard. "Is Developmental Dyslexia Due to a Visual and Not a Phonological Impairment?" Brain Sciences 11, no. 10 (October 2, 2021): 1313. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11101313.
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It is a widely held belief that developmental dyslexia (DD) is a phonological disorder in which readers have difficulty associating graphemes with their corresponding phonemes. In contrast, the magnocellular theory of dyslexia assumes that DD is a visual disorder caused by dysfunctional magnocellular neural pathways. The review explores arguments for and against these theories. Recent results have shown that DD is caused by (1) a reduced ability to simultaneously recognize sequences of letters that make up words, (2) longer fixation times required to simultaneously recognize strings of letters, and (3) amplitudes of saccades that do not match the number of simultaneously recognized letters. It was shown that pseudowords that could not be recognized simultaneously were recognized almost without errors when the fixation time was extended. However, there is an individual maximum number of letters that each reader with DD can recognize simultaneously. Findings on the neurobiological basis of temporal summation have shown that a necessary prolongation of fixation times is due to impaired processing mechanisms of the visual system, presumably involving magnocells and parvocells. An area in the mid-fusiform gyrus also appears to play a significant role in the ability to simultaneously recognize words and pseudowords. The results also contradict the assumption that DD is due to a lack of eye movement control. The present research does not support the assumption that DD is caused by a phonological disorder but shows that DD is due to a visual processing dysfunction.
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Geertsema, Salomé, Mia Le Roux, Azima Bhorat, Aasimah Carrim, Mishkaah Valley, and Marien Graham. "Developmental dyslexia in private schools in South Africa: Educators’ perspectives." South African Journal of Education 42, no. 4 (November 30, 2022): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.15700/saje.v42n4a1992.
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In South Africa, as is globally, many people struggle with the challenges which emanate from developmental dyslexia (DD). It is thus important for educators to have adequate knowledge and a positive mindset regarding DD and the management thereof in the school context. One such important method of management is the accommodation of these learners in mainstream class. The quantitative survey study reported on here was aimed at determining the perspectives of educators in 2 private schools in the Tshwane South District, Gauteng, South Africa, regarding the knowledge of, attitude towards, and management of accommodations for learners with DD. We implemented a quantitative descriptive cross-sectional survey research approach where a self-administered questionnaire was administered after purposive sampling. Results indicate that the respondents, regardless of their qualifications, gender, or years of teaching experience, had limited knowledge of DD, but with a generally positive attitude towards inclusion and management of these learners. Furthermore, it was found that educators had an awareness of the terminology related to the accommodations that the education department granted these learners with DD. However, they were uncertain about the perceived path and nature of accommodations provided to learners. Specific details and related recommendations were explored.
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Dobó, Dorottya, Krisztina Sára Lukics, Ágnes Szőllősi, Kornél Németh, and Ágnes Lukács. "Statistical Learning and the Effect of Starting Small in Developmental Dyslexia." Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 64, no. 5 (May 11, 2021): 1621–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2020_jslhr-20-00145.
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Purpose Impairments in statistical learning abilities of individuals with developmental dyslexia (DD) have been demonstrated in word segmentation and in visual artificial grammar learning (AGL) tasks, but so far, little attention has been devoted to the AGL abilities of this population in the acoustic verbal domain. This study aimed to test whether adolescents with dyslexia have difficulties in extracting abstract patterns from auditory sequences of nonsense syllables based on a finite state grammar relative to typically developing (TD) peers. We also tested whether incremental presentation of stimuli of different lengths (starting small) has a facilitating effect on learning complex structures in dyslexia (and in TD) as opposed to presenting strings in random order. Method Thirty-one adolescents with DD and 31 age-matched control participants completed an AGL task. Participants passively listened to acoustic sequences of nonsense syllables generated by an artificial grammar in the training phase. In the test phase, they were presented with pairs of novel grammatical and nongrammatical sequences and were required to decide which member of a sequence pair was more similar to the material heard during training. Results Performance levels and the proportion of learners were smaller in participants with DD than in the control group. While the starting small effect was nominally present both in performance levels and in the number of learners in participants with DD, but not in the group with TD, the presentation of strings in incremental order did not statistically improve learning performance in either group. Conclusion Our results suggest that (a) statistical learning of abstract sequences in the acoustic domain is less efficient in people with dyslexia than in TD controls and (b) while incremental presentation of stimuli of different length did not improve learning in our study, the observed pattern of results suggests that the effects of different training designs should be explored further in developmental disorders.
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Reda, Flaminia, Maurizio Gorgoni, Aurora D'Atri, Serena Scarpelli, Matteo Carpi, Erica Di Cola, Deny Menghini, Stefano Vicari, Giacomo Stella, and Luigi De Gennaro. "Sleep-Related Declarative Memory Consolidation in Children and Adolescents with Developmental Dyslexia." Brain Sciences 11, no. 1 (January 8, 2021): 73. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11010073.
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Sleep has a crucial role in memory processes, and maturational changes in sleep electrophysiology are involved in cognitive development. Albeit both sleep and memory alterations have been observed in Developmental Dyslexia (DD), their relation in this population has been scarcely investigated, particularly concerning topographical aspects. The study aimed to compare sleep topography and associated sleep-related declarative memory consolidation in participants with DD and normal readers (NR). Eleven participants with DD and 18 NR (9–14 years old) underwent a whole-night polysomnography. They were administered a word pair task before and after sleep to assess for declarative memory consolidation. Memory performance and sleep features (macro and microstructural) were compared between the groups, and the intercorrelations between consolidation rate and sleep measures were assessed. DD showed a deeper worsening in memory after sleep compared to NR and reduced slow spindles in occipito-parietal and left fronto-central areas. Our results suggest specific alterations in local sleep EEG (i.e., sleep spindles) and in sleep-dependent memory consolidation processes in DD. We highlight the importance of a topographical approach, which might shed light on potential alteration in regional cortical oscillation dynamics in DD. The latter might represent a target for therapeutic interventions aimed at enhancing cognitive functioning in DD.
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Reda, Flaminia, Maurizio Gorgoni, Aurora D'Atri, Serena Scarpelli, Matteo Carpi, Erica Di Cola, Deny Menghini, Stefano Vicari, Giacomo Stella, and Luigi De Gennaro. "Sleep-Related Declarative Memory Consolidation in Children and Adolescents with Developmental Dyslexia." Brain Sciences 11, no. 1 (January 8, 2021): 73. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11010073.
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Sleep has a crucial role in memory processes, and maturational changes in sleep electrophysiology are involved in cognitive development. Albeit both sleep and memory alterations have been observed in Developmental Dyslexia (DD), their relation in this population has been scarcely investigated, particularly concerning topographical aspects. The study aimed to compare sleep topography and associated sleep-related declarative memory consolidation in participants with DD and normal readers (NR). Eleven participants with DD and 18 NR (9–14 years old) underwent a whole-night polysomnography. They were administered a word pair task before and after sleep to assess for declarative memory consolidation. Memory performance and sleep features (macro and microstructural) were compared between the groups, and the intercorrelations between consolidation rate and sleep measures were assessed. DD showed a deeper worsening in memory after sleep compared to NR and reduced slow spindles in occipito-parietal and left fronto-central areas. Our results suggest specific alterations in local sleep EEG (i.e., sleep spindles) and in sleep-dependent memory consolidation processes in DD. We highlight the importance of a topographical approach, which might shed light on potential alteration in regional cortical oscillation dynamics in DD. The latter might represent a target for therapeutic interventions aimed at enhancing cognitive functioning in DD.
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Murphy-Ruiz, Paulina C., Yolanda R. Penaloza-Lopez, Felipe Garcia-Pedroza, and Adrian Poblano. "Right cerebral hemisphere and central auditory processing in children with developmental dyslexia." Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria 71, no. 11 (November 2013): 883–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/0004-282x20130172.
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Objective We hypothesized that if the right hemisphere auditory processing abilities can be altered in children with developmental dyslexia (DD), we can detect dysfunction using specific tests. Method We performed an analytical comparative cross-sectional study. We studied 20 right-handed children with DD and 20 healthy right-handed control subjects (CS). Children in both groups were age, gender, and school-grade matched. Focusing on the right hemisphere’s contribution, we utilized tests to measure alterations in central auditory processing (CAP), such as determination of frequency patterns; sound duration; music pitch recognition; and identification of environmental sounds. We compared results among the two groups. Results Children with DD showed lower performance than CS in all CAP subtests, including those that preferentially engaged the cerebral right hemisphere. Conclusion Our data suggests a significant contribution of the right hemisphere in alterations of CAP in children with DD. Thus, right hemisphere CAP must be considered for examination and rehabilitation of children with DD.
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Bosch-Bayard, Jorge, Valeria Peluso, Lidice Galan, Pedro Valdes Sosa, and Giuseppe Chiarenza. "Clinical and Electrophysiological Differences between Subjects with Dysphonetic Dyslexia and Non-Specific Reading Delay." Brain Sciences 8, no. 9 (September 10, 2018): 172. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8090172.
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Reading is essentially a two-channel function, requiring the integration of intact visual and auditory processes both peripheral and central. It is essential for normal reading that these component processes go forward automatically. Based on this model, Boder described three main subtypes of dyslexia: dysphonetic dyslexia (DD), dyseidetic, mixed and besides a fourth group defined non-specific reading delay (NSRD). The subtypes are identified by an algorithm that considers the reading quotient and the % of errors in the spelling test. Chiarenza and Bindelli have developed the Direct Test of Reading and Spelling (DTRS), a computerized, modified and validated version to the Italian language of the Boder test. The sample consisted of 169 subjects with DD and 36 children with NSRD. The diagnosis of dyslexia was made according to the DSM-V criteria. The DTRS was used to identify the dyslexia subtypes and the NSRD group. 2–5 min of artefact-free EEG (electroencephalogram), recorded at rest with eyes closed, according to 10–20 system were analyzed. Stability based Biomarkers identification methodology was applied to the DTRS and the quantitative EEG (QEEG). The reading quotients and the errors of the reading and spelling test were significantly different in the two groups. The DD group had significantly higher activity in delta and theta bands compared to NSRD group in the frontal, central and parietal areas bilaterally. The classification equation for the QEEG, both at the scalp and the sources levels, obtained an area under the robust Receiver Operating Curve (ROC) of 0.73. However, we obtained a discrimination equation for the DTRS items which did not participate in the Boder classification algorithm, with a specificity and sensitivity of 0.94 to discriminate DD from NSRD. These results demonstrate for the first time the existence of different neuropsychological and neurophysiological patterns between children with DD and children with NSRD. They may also provide clinicians and therapists warning signals deriving from the anamnesis and the results of the DTRS that should lead to an earlier diagnosis of reading delay, which is usually very late diagnosed and therefore, untreated until the secondary school level.
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Kuester-Gruber, Stephan, Theda Faisst, Vera Schick, Giulia Righetti, Christoph Braun, Angelika Cordey-Henke, Matthias Klosinski, Ching-Chu Sun, and Susanne Trauzettel-Klosinski. "Is learning a logographic script easier than reading an alphabetic script for German children with dyslexia?" PLOS ONE 18, no. 2 (February 24, 2023): e0282200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282200.
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Purpose Developmental dyslexia in alphabetic languages (DD) is characterized by a phonological deficit. Since logographic scripts rely predominantly on visual and morphological processing, reading performance in DD can be assumed to be less impaired when reading logographic scripts. Methods 40 German-speaking children (18 with DD, 22 not reading-impaired—group C; 9–11 years) received Chinese lessons. Eye movements (EM) were recorded during naming single alphabetic words, pictures (confrontational) and Chinese characters to be named in German and Chinese. The main outcome variables were: Articulation latency, numbers and durations of fixations. Quality of life (QoL) was assessed by questionnaires. Results While reading alphabetic words, articulation latencies and numbers of fixations were significantly higher for group DD than for group C (AL-DD = 1.13, AL-C = 0.84, p< .001; FN-DD = 3.50; FN-C = 2.00, p< .001). For naming pictures and Chinese characters in German and in Chinese, no significant group differences were found for any of the EM variables. The percentage of correct answers was high for German naming (DD = 86.67%, C = 95.24%; p = .015) and lower for Chinese naming in both groups, but significantly lower in group DD, especially for Chinese naming (DD = 56.67%, C: 83.77%; p = .003). QoL differed between groups from the children’s perspective only at posttest. Parents of group DD perceived their children`s QoL to be lower compared with parents of group C at pre- and posttest. Conclusions Children with dyslexia performed as well as group C during naming Chinese characters in German and in Chinese regarding their EM variables, presumably because they processed Chinese characters by the visuo-spatial pathway with direct access to the semantic system. However, the significantly lower percentage of correct answers especially during Chinese naming showed that group DD had more difficulties naming Chinese characters than group C, which could be attributed to their phonological deficit, among other factors. Trial registration German clinical trials register (DRKS00015697).
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Simoës-Perlant, Aurélie, Marie-Pierre Thibault, Tonia Lanchantin, Céline Combes, Olga Volckaert-Legrier, and Pierre Largy. "How adolescents with dyslexia dysorthographia use texting." Written Language and Literacy 15, no. 1 (January 30, 2012): 65–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/wll.15.1.04sim.
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Adolescents with dyslexia dysorthographia have some phonological skill deficiency and/or visual-attention deficit. Knowing that these same skills are required to use SMS codes, the main objective of this study is to understand how these subjects use texting language. To understand this, we compared the SMSs of adolescents with dyslexia dysorthographia with the SMSs of typical writers in a dictation task. We analyzed the number and the type of SMS codes used by the subjects. This study shows less use of SMS codes in quantitative terms in adolescents with dyslexia dysorthographia (DD), but globally equivalent use in terms of quality, in comparison with normal writers. Keywords: adolescent; SMS language; dyslexia; dysorthographia; writing; development
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Lazzaro, Giulia, Cristiana Varuzza, Floriana Costanzo, Elisa Fucà, Silvia Di Vara, Maria Elena De Matteis, Stefano Vicari, and Deny Menghini. "Memory Deficits in Children with Developmental Dyslexia: A Reading-Level and Chronological-Age Matched Design." Brain Sciences 11, no. 1 (January 1, 2021): 40. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11010040.
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Developmental Dyslexia (DD) is considered a multifactorial deficit. Among the neurocognitive impairments identified in DD, it has been found that memory plays a particularly important role in reading and learning. The present study aims to investigate whether short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) deficits could be related to poor reading experience or could be causal factors in DD. To verify that memory deficits in DD did not simply reflect differences in reading experience, 16 children with DD were not only compared to 16 chronological age-matched children (CA) but also to 16 reading level-matched children (RL) in verbal, visual-object, and visual-spatial STM and LTM tasks. Children with DD performed as well as RL, but worse than CA in all STM tasks. Considering LTM, the three groups did not differ in Visual-Object and Visual-Spatial Learning tasks. In the Verbal LTM task, DD recalled significantly fewer words than CA but not RL, while CA and RL showed a similar performance. The present results suggest that when reading experience was equated, children with DD and typical readers did not differ in STM and LTM, especially in the verbal modality, weakening claims that memory has a causal effect in reading impairments.
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Del Tufo, Stephanie N., and F. Sayako Earle. "Skill Profiles of College Students With a History of Developmental Language Disorder and Developmental Dyslexia." Journal of Learning Disabilities 53, no. 3 (February 6, 2020): 228–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022219420904348.
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Developmental language disorder (DLD) and developmental dyslexia (DD) are two prevalent subtypes of Specific Learning Disabilities (SLDs; Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [5th ed.; DSM-5]). Yet, little information is available regarding the distinct challenges faced by adults with DLD and/or DD in college. The purpose of the present report is to characterize the relative strengths and challenges of college students with a history of DLD and/or DD, as this information is critical for providing appropriate institutional support. We examined the cognitive skill profiles of 352 college students (ages 18–35 years), using standardized and research-validated measures of reading, spoken language, nonverbal cognition, and self-reported childhood diagnostic history. We classified college students as having DLD ( n = 50), and/or DD ( n = 40), or as typically developed adults ( n = 132) according to procedures described for adults with DLD and DD. A structural equation model determined the cognitive, language, and reading measures predicted by the classification group. Adults with DLD demonstrated poor verbal working memory and speeded sentence-level reading. Adults with DD primarily demonstrated deficits in phonology-based skills. These results indicate that adults with DLD and/or DD continue to face similar challenges as they did during childhood, and thus may benefit from differentially targeted accommodations in college.
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Yang, Liping, Chunbo Li, Xiumei Li, Manman Zhai, Qingqing An, You Zhang, Jing Zhao, and Xuchu Weng. "Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia in Primary School Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis." Brain Sciences 12, no. 2 (February 10, 2022): 240. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12020240.
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Background: Developmental dyslexia (DD) is a specific learning disorder concerning reading acquisition that may has a lifelong negative impact on individuals. A reliable estimate of the prevalence of DD serves as the basis for diagnosis, intervention, and evidence-based health resource allocation and policy-making. Hence, the present meta-analysis aims to generate a reliable prevalence estimate of DD worldwide in primary school children and explore the potential variables related to that prevalence. Methods: Studies from the 1950s to June 2021 were collated using a combination of search terms related to DD and prevalence. Study quality was assessed using the STROBE guidelines according to the study design, with study heterogeneity assessed using the I2 statistic, and random-effects meta-analyses were conducted. Variations in the prevalence of DD in different subgroups were assessed via subgroup meta-analysis and meta-regression. Results: The pooled prevalence of DD was 7.10% (95% CI: 6.27–7.97%). The prevalence in boys was significantly higher than that in girls (boys: 9.22%, 95%CI, 8.07–10.44%; girls: 4.66%, 95% CI, 3.84–5.54%; p < 0.001), but no significant difference was found in the prevalence across different writing systems (alphabetic scripts: 7.26%, 95%CI, 5.94–8.71%; logographic scripts: 6.97%, 95%CI, 5.86–8.16%; p > 0.05) or across different orthographic depths (shallow: 7.13%, 95% CI, 5.23–9.30%; deep: 7.55%, 95% CI, 4.66–11.04%; p > 0.05). It is worth noting that most articles had small sample sizes with diverse operational definitions, making comparisons challenging. Conclusions: This study provides an estimation of worldwide DD prevalence in primary school children. The prevalence was higher in boys than in girls but was not significantly different across different writing systems.
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Bertoni, Sara, Sandro Franceschini, Giovanna Puccio, Martina Mancarella, Simone Gori, and Andrea Facoetti. "Action Video Games Enhance Attentional Control and Phonological Decoding in Children with Developmental Dyslexia." Brain Sciences 11, no. 2 (January 29, 2021): 171. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11020171.
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Reading acquisition is extremely difficult for about 5% of children because they are affected by a heritable neurobiological disorder called developmental dyslexia (DD). Intervention studies can be used to investigate the causal role of neurocognitive deficits in DD. Recently, it has been proposed that action video games (AVGs)—enhancing attentional control—could improve perception and working memory as well as reading skills. In a partial crossover intervention study, we investigated the effect of AVG and non-AVG training on attentional control using a conjunction visual search task in children with DD. We also measured the non-alphanumeric rapid automatized naming (RAN), phonological decoding and word reading before and after AVG and non-AVG training. After both video game training sessions no effect was found in non-alphanumeric RAN and in word reading performance. However, after only 12 h of AVG training the attentional control was improved (i.e., the set-size slopes were flatter in visual search) and phonological decoding speed was accelerated. Crucially, attentional control and phonological decoding speed were increased only in DD children whose video game score was highly efficient after the AVG training. We demonstrated that only an efficient AVG training induces a plasticity of the fronto-parietal attentional control linked to a selective phonological decoding improvement in children with DD.
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Ortiz, Andrés, Francisco J. Martinez-Murcia, Juan L. Luque, Almudena Giménez, Roberto Morales-Ortega, and Julio Ortega. "Dyslexia Diagnosis by EEG Temporal and Spectral Descriptors: An Anomaly Detection Approach." International Journal of Neural Systems 30, no. 07 (June 4, 2020): 2050029. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s012906572050029x.
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Diagnosis of learning difficulties is a challenging goal. There are huge number of factors involved in the evaluation procedure that present high variance among the population with the same difficulty. Diagnosis is usually performed by scoring subjects according to results obtained in different neuropsychological (performance-based) tests specifically designed to this end. One of the most frequent disorders is developmental dyslexia (DD), a specific difficulty in the acquisition of reading skills not related to mental age or inadequate schooling. Its prevalence is estimated between 5% and 12% of the population. Traditional tests for DD diagnosis aim to measure different behavioral variables involved in the reading process. In this paper, we propose a diagnostic method not based on behavioral variables but on involuntary neurophysiological responses to different auditory stimuli. The experiments performed use electroencephalography (EEG) signals to analyze the temporal behavior and the spectral content of the signal acquired from each electrode to extract relevant (temporal and spectral) features. Moreover, the relationship of the features extracted among electrodes allows to infer a connectivity-like model showing brain areas that process auditory stimuli in a synchronized way. Then an anomaly detection system based on the reconstruction residuals of an autoencoder using these features has been proposed. Hence, classification is performed by the proposed system based on the differences in the resulting connectivity models that have demonstrated to be a useful tool for differential diagnosis of DD as well as a method to step towards gaining a better knowledge of the brain processes involved in DD. The results corroborate that nonspeech stimulus modulated at specific frequencies related to the sampling processes developed in the brain to capture rhymes, syllables and phonemes produces effects in specific frequency bands that differentiate between controls and DD subjects. The proposed method showed relatively high sensitivity above 0.6, and up to 0.9 in some of the experiments.
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Martinez-Murcia, Francisco J., Andres Ortiz, Juan Manuel Gorriz, Javier Ramirez, Pedro Javier Lopez-Abarejo, Miguel Lopez-Zamora, and Juan Luis Luque. "EEG Connectivity Analysis Using Denoising Autoencoders for the Detection of Dyslexia." International Journal of Neural Systems 30, no. 07 (May 28, 2020): 2050037. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0129065720500379.
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The Temporal Sampling Framework (TSF) theorizes that the characteristic phonological difficulties of dyslexia are caused by an atypical oscillatory sampling at one or more temporal rates. The LEEDUCA study conducted a series of Electroencephalography (EEG) experiments on children listening to amplitude modulated (AM) noise with slow-rythmic prosodic (0.5–1[Formula: see text]Hz), syllabic (4–8[Formula: see text]Hz) or the phoneme (12–40[Formula: see text]Hz) rates, aimed at detecting differences in perception of oscillatory sampling that could be associated with dyslexia. The purpose of this work is to check whether these differences exist and how they are related to children’s performance in different language and cognitive tasks commonly used to detect dyslexia. To this purpose, temporal and spectral inter-channel EEG connectivity was estimated, and a denoising autoencoder (DAE) was trained to learn a low-dimensional representation of the connectivity matrices. This representation was studied via correlation and classification analysis, which revealed ability in detecting dyslexic subjects with an accuracy higher than 0.8, and balanced accuracy around 0.7. Some features of the DAE representation were significantly correlated ([Formula: see text]) with children’s performance in language and cognitive tasks of the phonological hypothesis category such as phonological awareness and rapid symbolic naming, as well as reading efficiency and reading comprehension. Finally, a deeper analysis of the adjacency matrix revealed a reduced bilateral connection between electrodes of the temporal lobe (roughly the primary auditory cortex) in DD subjects, as well as an increased connectivity of the F7 electrode, placed roughly on Broca’s area. These results pave the way for a complementary assessment of dyslexia using more objective methodologies such as EEG.
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Frey, Aline, Clément François, Julie Chobert, Jean-Luc Velay, Michel Habib, and Mireille Besson. "Music Training Positively Influences the Preattentive Perception of Voice Onset Time in Children with Dyslexia: A Longitudinal Study." Brain Sciences 9, no. 4 (April 21, 2019): 91. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9040091.
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Previous results showed a positive influence of music training on linguistic abilities at both attentive and preattentive levels. Here, we investigate whether six months of active music training is more efficient than painting training to improve the preattentive processing of phonological parameters based on durations that are often impaired in children with developmental dyslexia (DD). Results were also compared to a control group of Typically Developing (TD) children matched on reading age. We used a Test–Training–Retest procedure and analysed the Mismatch Negativity (MMN) and the N1 and N250 components of the Event-Related Potentials to syllables that differed in Voice Onset Time (VOT), vowel duration, and vowel frequency. Results were clear-cut in showing a normalization of the preattentive processing of VOT in children with DD after music training but not after painting training. They also revealed increased N250 amplitude to duration deviant stimuli in children with DD after music but not painting training, and no training effect on the preattentive processing of frequency. These findings are discussed in view of recent theories of dyslexia pointing to deficits in processing the temporal structure of speech. They clearly encourage the use of active music training for the rehabilitation of children with language impairments.
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Kuhn, Jörg-Tobias. "Developmental Dyscalculia." Zeitschrift für Psychologie 223, no. 2 (July 10, 2015): 69–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000205.
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Developmental dyscalculia (DD) is a specific learning disorder that affects the acquisition of arithmetic skills and number processing in children. A high comorbidity between DD and other neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g., dyslexia, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD]) as well as substantial heterogeneity in cognitive profiles have been reported. Current studies indicate that DD is persistent, has a genetic component, and is related to functional and structural alterations of brain areas involved in magnitude representation. Recent neuronal and behavioral evidence is presented, showing that DD entails (a) impairments in two preverbal core systems of number, an approximate system for estimating larger magnitudes and an exact system for representing small magnitudes, (b) deficits in symbolic number processing, (c) aberrant and nonadaptive neuronal activation in basic magnitude processing and calculation, (d) dysfunctional arithmetic fact retrieval and persistent use of counting strategies in calculation, and (e) deficits in visuospatial working memory and the central executive. Finally, open research questions, including the role of domain-general cognitive resources in DD, causes and developmental consequences of comorbidity, as well as design and evaluation of interventions for DD, are briefly discussed.
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Taskov, Tihomir, and Juliana Dushanova. "Improving Functional Connectivity in Developmental Dyslexia through Combined Neurofeedback and Visual Training." Symmetry 14, no. 2 (February 13, 2022): 369. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sym14020369.
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This study examined the effects of combined neurofeedback (NF) and visual training (VT) on children with developmental dyslexia (DD). Although NF is the first noninvasive approach to support neurological disorders, the mechanisms of its effects on the brain functional connectivity are still unclear. A key question is whether the functional connectivities of the EEG frequency networks change after the combined NF–VT training of DD children (postD). NF sessions of voluntary α/θ rhythm control were applied in a low-spatial-frequency (LSF) illusion contrast discrimination, which provides feedback with visual cues to improve the brain signals and cognitive abilities in DD children. The measures of connectivity, which are defined by small-world propensity, were sensitive to the properties of the brain electrical oscillations in the quantitative EEG-NF training. In the high-contrast LSF illusion, the z-NF reduced the α/θ scores in the frontal areas, and in the right ventral temporal, occipital–temporal, and middle occipital areas in the postD (vs. the preD) because of their suppression in the local hub θ-network and the altered global characteristics of the functional θ-frequency network. In the low-contrast condition, the z-NF stimulated increases in the α/θ scores, which induced hubs in the left-side α-frequency network of the postD, and changes in the global characteristics of the functional α-frequency network. Because of the anterior, superior, and middle temporal deficits affecting the ventral and occipital–temporal pathways, the z-NF–VT compensated for the more ventral brain regions, mainly in the left hemispheres of the postD group in the low-contrast LSF illusion. Compared to pretraining, the NF–VT increased the segregation of the α, β (low-contrast), and θ networks (high-contrast), as well as the γ2-network integration (both contrasts) after the termination of the training of the children with developmental dyslexia. The remediation compensated more for the dorsal (prefrontal, premotor, occipital–parietal connectivities) dysfunction of the θ network in the developmental dyslexia in the high-contrast LSF illusion. Our findings provide neurobehavioral evidence for the exquisite brain functional plasticity and direct effect of NF–VT on cognitive disabilities in DD children.
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Mascheretti, Sara, Valentina Riva, Bei Feng, Vittoria Trezzi, Chiara Andreola, Roberto Giorda, Marco Villa, et al. "The Mediation Role of Dynamic Multisensory Processing Using Molecular Genetic Data in Dyslexia." Brain Sciences 10, no. 12 (December 16, 2020): 993. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci10120993.
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Although substantial heritability has been reported and candidate genes have been identified, we are far from understanding the etiopathogenetic pathways underlying developmental dyslexia (DD). Reading-related endophenotypes (EPs) have been established. Until now it was unknown whether they mediated the pathway from gene to reading (dis)ability. Thus, in a sample of 223 siblings from nuclear families with DD and 79 unrelated typical readers, we tested four EPs (i.e., rapid auditory processing, rapid automatized naming, multisensory nonspatial attention and visual motion processing) and 20 markers spanning five DD-candidate genes (i.e., DYX1C1, DCDC2, KIAA0319, ROBO1 and GRIN2B) using a multiple-predictor/multiple-mediator framework. Our results show that rapid auditory and visual motion processing are mediators in the pathway from ROBO1-rs9853895 to reading. Specifically, the T/T genotype group predicts impairments in rapid auditory and visual motion processing which, in turn, predict poorer reading skills. Our results suggest that ROBO1 is related to reading via multisensory temporal processing. These findings support the use of EPs as an effective approach to disentangling the complex pathways between candidate genes and behavior.
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Lin, Yuhang, Xuanzhi Zhang, Qingjun Huang, Laiwen Lv, Anyan Huang, Ai Li, Kusheng Wu, and Yanhong Huang. "The Prevalence of Dyslexia in Primary School Children and Their Chinese Literacy Assessment in Shantou, China." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 19 (September 29, 2020): 7140. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17197140.
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The epidemiological studies of Chinese developmental dyslexia (DD) in China are still limited. In addition, literacy assessment has seldom been performed for children with dyslexia, due to lack of uniform assessment tools. This study was aimed at investigating the prevalence rate of children with dyslexia, and to evaluate their Chinese reading ability. A total of 2955 students aged 7–12 years were enrolled by randomized cluster sampling. The study was divided into three stages. In stage I, all participating students were asked to finish the Combined Raven Test (CRT) and Chinese Vocabulary Test and Assessment Scale. In stage II, the Chinese teachers and parents of the children with suspected dyslexia were interviewed by psychiatrists, and finished the Dyslexia Checklist for Chinese Children (DCCC). In stage III, these children were evaluated by child psychiatrists for the diagnosis with or without dyslexia, according to the fifth edition of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), and their Chinese literacy was further evaluated by using the Chinese Reading Ability Test (CRAT). The prevalence rate of children with dyslexia was 5.4% in Shantou city, 8.4% in boys and 2.3% in girls, with a gender ratio of 3.7:1.0. Children with dyslexia scored lower in all the five subscales of the CRAT tests. including phonological awareness, morphological awareness, rapid automatized naming, orthographic awareness, and reading ability than the control group (all p < 0.001). This study suggested that the prevalence rate of Chinese dyslexia in Shantou city is roughly equivalent to that previously reported in China. Children with dyslexia have a relatively lower Chinese reading ability in all assessments.
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Mascheretti, Sara, Denis Peruzzo, Chiara Andreola, Martina Villa, Tommaso Ciceri, Vittoria Trezzi, Cecilia Marino, and Filippo Arrigoni. "Selecting the Most Relevant Brain Regions to Classify Children with Developmental Dyslexia and Typical Readers by Using Complex Magnocellular Stimuli and Multiple Kernel Learning." Brain Sciences 11, no. 6 (May 28, 2021): 722. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11060722.
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Increasing evidence supports the presence of deficits in the visual magnocellular (M) system in developmental dyslexia (DD). The M system is related to the fronto-parietal attentional network. Previous neuroimaging studies have revealed reduced/absent activation within the visual M pathway in DD, but they have failed to characterize the extensive brain network activated by M stimuli. We performed a multivariate pattern analysis on a Region of Interest (ROI) level to differentiate between children with DD and age-matched typical readers (TRs) by combining full-field sinusoidal gratings, controlled for spatial and temporal frequencies and luminance contrast, and a coherent motion (CM) sensitivity task at 6%-CML6, 15%-CML15 and 40%-CML40. ROIs spanning the entire visual dorsal stream and ventral attention network (VAN) had higher discriminative weights and showed higher act1ivation in TRs than in children with DD. Of the two tasks, CM had the greatest weight when classifying TRs and children with DD in most of the ROIs spanning these streams. For the CML6, activation within the right superior parietal cortex positively correlated with reading skills. Our approach highlighted the dorsal stream and the VAN as highly discriminative areas between children with DD and TRs and allowed for a better characterization of the “dorsal stream vulnerability” underlying DD.
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van den Bunt, Mark R., Margriet A. Groen, Takayuki Ito, Ana A. Francisco, Vincent L. Gracco, Ken R. Pugh, and Ludo Verhoeven. "Increased Response to Altered Auditory Feedback in Dyslexia: A Weaker Sensorimotor Magnet Implied in the Phonological Deficit." Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 60, no. 3 (March 2017): 654–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/2016_jslhr-l-16-0201.
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Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine whether developmental dyslexia (DD) is characterized by deficiencies in speech sensory and motor feedforward and feedback mechanisms, which are involved in the modulation of phonological representations. Method A total of 42 adult native speakers of Dutch (22 adults with DD; 20 participants who were typically reading controls) were asked to produce /bep/ while the first formant (F1) of the /e/ was not altered (baseline), increased (ramp), held at maximal perturbation (hold), and not altered again (after-effect). The F1 of the produced utterance was measured for each trial and used for statistical analyses. The measured F1s produced during each phase were entered in a linear mixed-effects model. Results Participants with DD adapted more strongly during the ramp phase and returned to baseline to a lesser extent when feedback was back to normal (after-effect phase) when compared with the typically reading group. In this study, a faster deviation from baseline during the ramp phase, a stronger adaptation response during the hold phase, and a slower return to baseline during the after-effect phase were associated with poorer reading and phonological abilities. Conclusion The data of the current study are consistent with the notion that the phonological deficit in DD is associated with a weaker sensorimotor magnet for phonological representations.
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D’Elia, Daniela, Luna Carpinelli, and Giulia Savarese. "Exploratory and Descriptive Comparison Using the WAIS-IV and LSC-SUA of the Cognitive Profile of Italian University Students with Reading Comprehension Disorder (RCD) vs. Decoding Difficulties—Dyslexia." Youth 3, no. 1 (February 26, 2023): 351–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/youth3010023.
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Background: The “Guidelines for the Management of Specific Learning Disorders” provide clear diagnostic and evaluative guidance on Reading Comprehension Disorder (RCD), as suggested by the DSM-5. The present study investigated the relationship between cognitive abilities in university students with RCD compared to students with Decoding Difficulties—i.e., dyslexia (DD)—and examined possible diagnostic procedures for RCD in young adults. Methods: Twenty university students from the University of Salerno “Disabilities/SLD Help Desk” participated. The sample was divided into the RCD Group (10) and DD Group (10). They were administered (a) the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) to assess their cognitive profile; and (b) the LSC-SUA-Reading tests for the assessment of text comprehension, writing, and calculation skills. Results: With regard to their cognitive profile, the DD Group had a lower mean of FSIQ (91.90 ± 5.82 vs. 92.50 ± 2.41). The RCD Group showed higher means in the subscales of CPI (94.80 ± 5.77), WMI (91.80 ± 78.80), and PSI (101.20 ± 6.20). Text comprehension assessment showed high averages in the DD Group (Track A = 11.50 ± 1.08; Track B = 11.40 ± 0.95). Conclusions: A valid psychodiagnostic model to examine reading comprehension skills for adults must assess the interaction between higher-level linguistic and cognitive processes in order to best define the pathways of skill enhancement.
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van den Bos, Kees P. "Word-reading development, the double-deficit hypothesis, and the diagnosis of dyslexia." Educational and Child Psychology 25, no. 3 (2008): 51–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.53841/bpsecp.2008.25.3.51.
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In this study, it was hypothesised that with age, word-readingspeedgets better explained by reading-related word-holistic or lexicalvariables than by word-analyticorsub lexicalvariables. At an operational level these conceptual groups of variables were measured by continuous-naming tasks, and tasks which require phonemic manipulations, respectively.The tasks were administered to randomly sampled readers at cross-sectional age levels of 8, 10, 12 and 14 years of age. After data reduction, and at each age level, the word-reading variable was regressed on phonemic performance and alphanumeric naming (numbers and letters). As predicted, with age, alphanumeric naming speed increasingly contributed unique variance to reading speed, whereas unique phonemic contributions declined.The second part of the study applied Wolf and Bowers’ (1999) double deficit hypothesis. For each of the variables word-reading, alphanumeric naming, and phonemic performance, and at each age level, four normative proficiency levels (level 1 = poor; 2 = below average; 3 = above average; 4 = high) were distinguished, and combinations of naming and phonemic performance levels were defined as double, single, or no-deficit categories. At various age and reading proficiency levels, reading scores were compared as a function of deficit categories. A double cognitive deficit (DD) was highly predictive for (very) poor reading performance. It is proposed to consider DD readers as ‘classic dyslexics’. Discussion about the remaining profiles, theoretical and practical issues, and implications for remedial support and policy is provided.
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Totev, Tsvetalin, Tihomir Taskov, and Juliana Dushanova. "A Wireless EEG System for Neurofeedback Training." Applied Sciences 13, no. 1 (December 21, 2022): 96. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app13010096.
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This paper presents a mobile, easy-to-maintain wireless electroencephalograph (EEG) system designed for work with children in a school environment. This EEG data acquisition platform is a small-sized, battery-powered system with a high sampling rate that is scalable to different channel numbers. The system was validated in a study of live z-score neurofeedback training for quantitative EEG (zNF-qEEG) for typical-reading children and those with developmental dyslexia (DD). This system reads and controls real-time neurofeedback (zNF) signals, synchronizing visual stimuli (low spatial frequency (LSF) illusions) with the alpha/theta (z-α/θ) score neural oscillations. The NF sessions were applied during discrimination of LSF illusions with different contrasts. Visual feedback was provided with color cues to remodulate neural activity in children with DD and their cognitive abilities. The combined zNF-qEEG and training with different visual magnocellular and parvocellular tasks (VTs) compensated for the deficits in the temporal areas affecting the occipitotemporal pathway more in the left-hemispheric ventral brain areas of the post-training children with dyslexia in the low-contrast LSF illusion and dorsal dysfunction in the high-contrast LSF illusion. The better α/θ scores for postD in the temporoparietal and middle occipital regions can be associated with an improvement in special frequency processing, while the better scores in the precentral and parietal cortices were due to an advancement in the temporal processing of the illusion. The improvements in the reading speeds were twice as high after 4 months of qEEG z-NF-VT training, with three times fewer omitted words and errors.
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Bellocchi, Stéphanie, Vincent Henry, and Amaria Baghdadli. "Visual Attention Processes and Oculomotor Control in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Brief Review and Future Directions." Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology 16, no. 1 (2017): 77–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/1945-8959.16.1.77.
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Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is defined as persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction, and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests or activities Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed., DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). However, individuals with ASD show clearly atypical visual patterns. So far, indications of abnormal visual attention and oculomotor control concerning stimuli independent of social function in ASD have been found. The same findings have been shown in individuals suffering of other neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g., developmental coordination disorder and developmental dyslexia [DD]). Furthermore, visual attention processes and oculomotor control are supposed to be subserved by the magnocellular visual system, which has been found, in turn, to be dysfunctional in ASD and other neurodevelopmental disabilities (i.e., DD). The purpose of this article is to briefly review the link between oculomotor control and visual attention processes and ASD, and to discuss the specificity and overlap of eye movement findings between ASD and other neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Isabela Ciola de Castro, Mauro Muszkat, Vânia Carvalho Lima, Sueli Rizzutti, and Clara Brandão de Ávila. "Treating developmental dyslexia using transcranial stimulation combined with a reading stimulation program: A pilot study." World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences 7, no. 3 (September 30, 2021): 080–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.30574/wjbphs.2021.7.3.0105.
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Objective: Evaluate the effect of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) combined with reading therapy on the performance of reading tasks in a serie of cases of children and adolescents with developmental dyslexia (DD). Method: (IRB/UNIFESP number:1281/2017). Four dyslexic students (two children and two adolescents) were evaluated with regards to rate and accuracy of reading fluency on three occasions: pre-intervention as well as one and six months after intervention. The intervention consisted of five consecutive sessions of active tDCS (1 mA for 20 minutes), followed by a two-day interval and another five sessions of tDCS combined with cognitive skills stimulation of phonological processing and decoding of words. Anodal tDCS was administered over the left parieto-occipital cortex, with the cathode placed over contralateral deltoid muscle. Each session was preceded by execution of semantic-lexical and phonological evocation tasks. Data were analyzed using Friedman test and JT method for analysis of clinical significance and the reliable change index. Results: Improvements were found in text reading rate and accuracy and word accuracy at the one-month and six-month evaluation. A significant increase was found in correct reading of words and pseudowords six months after intervention. Most of the improvements were reliable, with clinical significance in some cases. Conclusion: Transcranial direct current stimulation combined with a reading stimulation program proved effective at improving reading skills in these participants.
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Dosi, Ifigeneia. "Decontextualized Language Skills in Children with Developmental Language Disorder and Developmental Dyslexia: Evidence from a Word Definition Task." European Journal of Education and Pedagogy 3, no. 5 (October 4, 2022): 80–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.24018/ejedu.2022.3.5.399.
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The present study investigates the development of decontextualized language skills, by means of a word definition task, in children with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) & Developmental Dyslexia (DD). Although these disorders have a common basis and have studied for different aspects of language abilities, no studies, to date, have compared them in terms of their word definitional skills. Addressing this gap, the present study examined thirty-six children with DLD, or DD or typically developing (TD) age-matched children. All participants were tested on their expressive vocabulary, non-verbal abilities and on their definitional skills. In the definitional task they had to define 16 words (8 nouns, 4 verbs, and 4 adjectives; simple vs. compound, abstract vs. concrete) orally. Definitions were evaluated on both content and form. Results have shown that more decontextualized language was used by the TD group than by the two impaired groups and the DD group exhibited the use of more decontextualized language than the DLD group. By contrast, no differences were found among the groups in form. Delving into different word characteristics more demanding were found to be abstract and compound words. DLD group faced more difficulties than the other groups in compound abstract nouns. Fewer differences were found in verbs suggesting that formal definitions of verbs are equally demanding for all groups. Findings suggest that these two disorders have more similarities in most of the categories in terms of the use of decontextualized language. The present study offers new knowledge on the development of definitional skills and indicates that research should investigate them in the light of interrelation of different word characteristics; otherwise the picture we get can be misleading.
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Huang, Anyan, Kusheng Wu, Anna Li, Xuanzhi Zhang, Yuhang Lin, and Yanhong Huang. "The Reliability and Validity of an Assessment Tool for Developmental Dyslexia in Chinese Children." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 10 (May 22, 2020): 3660. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17103660.
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Developmental dyslexia (DD) is a common neurobehavioral disorder in children. It refers to the phenomenon in which children with normal intelligence lag significantly behind their peers in reading ability. In China, there is no unified standard for the assessment of dyslexia due to the use of simplified and traditional Chinese characters in different regions. This study was aimed at analyzing the reliability and validity of the self-developed Chinese dyslexia assessment tool named Chinese Reading Ability Test (CRAT), which was suitable for students of grade 3 to 5 in primary school. We randomly selected three primary schools in Shantou city of China, including two in the central district and one in the surrounding district. A total of 1492 students of grades 3 through 5 were recruited. We assessed the reliability of CRAT by test–retest reliability and internal consistency. The validity assessment was realized by discriminant validity, content validity and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). For reliability, the test–retest correlation coefficient of the total score of the CRAT was 0.671. The difference between the test–retest was not statistically significant. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the CRAT was 0.75. For validity, the correlation coefficient between the score of each subscale and the total score of the scale ranged from 0.29 to 0.73. The indexes of the three structural equation models all meet the standard (p > 0.05, χ2/df < 2.00, RMSEA < 0.05, GFI > 0.90, AGFI > 0.90, NFI > 0.90, CFI > 0.90 and IFI > 0.90). The fitting effects of the models were good. The CRAT has sufficient reliability and validity which could be used for the assessment and auxiliary diagnosis of Chinese Dyslexia in primary school students of grade 3 to 5.
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Mihaylova, Milena Slavcheva, Nadejda Bogdanova Bocheva, Miroslava Dimitrova Stefanova, Bilyana Zaharieva Genova, Tsvetalin Totev Totev, Kalina Ivanova Racheva, Katerina Atanasova Shtereva, and Svetla Nikolaeva Staykova. "Visual noise effect on reading in three developmental disorders: ASD, ADHD, and DD." Autism & Developmental Language Impairments 7 (January 2022): 239694152211061. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/23969415221106119.
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Background and aims Developmental disorders such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and Developmental Dyslexia (DD) are reported to have more visual problems, oral language difficulties, and diminished reading skills in addition to their different diagnostic features. Moreover, these conditions also have increased internal noise and probably an impaired ability of external noise filtering. The aim of the present study was to compare the reading performance of these groups in the presence of external visual noise which disrupts the automatic reading processes through the degradation of letters. Methods Sixty-four children and adolescents in four groups, ASD, ADHD, DD, and TD, participated in the study. Two types of stimuli were used – unrelated words and pseudowords. The noise was generated by exchanging a fixed number of pixels between the black symbols and the white background distorting the letters. The task of the participants was to read aloud the words or pseudowords. The reading time for a single letter string, word or pseudoword, was calculated, and the proportion of errors was assessed in order to describe the reading performance. Results The results obtained showed that the reading of unrelated words and pseudowords differs in the separate groups of participants and is affected differently by the added visual noise. In the no-noise condition, the group with TD had the shortest time for reading words and short pseudowords, followed by the group with ASD, while their reading of long pseudowords was slightly slower than that of the ASD group. The noise increase evoked variations in the reading of groups with ASD and ADHD, which differed from the no-noise condition and the control group with TD. The lowest proportion of errors was observed in readers with TD. The reading performance of the DD group was the worst at all noise levels, with the most prolonged reading time and the highest proportion of errors. At the highest noise level, the participants from all groups read the words and pseudowords with similar reading speed and accuracy. Conclusions In reading words and pseudowords, the ASD, ADHD, and DD groups show difficulties specific for each disorder revealed in a prolonged reading time and a higher proportion of errors. The dissimilarity in reading abilities of the groups with different development is most evident when the accuracy and reading speed are linked together. Implications The use of noise that degrades the letter structure in the present study allowed us to separate the groups with ASD, ADHD, and DD and disclose specifics in the reading process of each disorder. Error type analysis may provide a basis to improve the educational strategies by appropriately structuring the learning process of children with TD, ASD, ADHD, and DD.
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Casani, Emanuele. "Distinguishing DD from SLI. Language profiles of Italian dyslexic children with and without specific language impairment." Pragmalinguistica, Monográfico 2 (2020): 45–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.25267/pragmalinguistica.2020.iextra2.03.
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Aleci, Carlo, and Claudio Rosa. "A Self-report Oriented Toward Visuoperceptive and Visuomotor Alterations for the Early Identification of Dyslexic Children." Archives of Current Research International, December 31, 2020, 23–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/acri/2020/v20i830217.
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Background: Early diagnosis is the main requisite for rehabilitating children suspected to suffer from dyslexia, and self-reports may be as reliable as ordinary screenings, but far less expensive. Research shows that the visual function can be involved in the pathogenesis of dyslexia so that self-reports should inquire about visual signs as well. A questionnaire made of 21 items that provide scores based on the visual signs commonly reported by dyslexics and on the most relevant comorbidities according to the literature has been devised. The aim of this exploratory study is to evaluate its potential for the early identification of dyslexic children.
Methods: The AAP-DD is a set of 21 items subdivided into 4 sections that inquire about visual signs (section S), fatty acid deficiency, inheritance of dyslexia, and related conditions in children and parents. Each item is assigned a specific visuomotor and visuosensory weight in the form of a coefficient. The parents of twenty-three dyslexic children (9.34±0.80 years) and twenty-four normal readers filled the questionnaire. To assess the correspondence between the outcome of the questionnaire and the actual visual function of each participant, spatial relationship perception and ocular movements have been tested psychophysically.
Results: The score of the dyslexic sample was almost double (i.e. worse) compared to the control group (P <.0001). Sensitivity and specificity were, respectively, 87% and 62%. Section S was the most informative, accounting for up to 41% of the variance of the reading rate. Correlation between the DEM and the AAP-DD scores suggests the questionnaire reflects the actual visuomotor condition of the subject.
Conclusion: The AAP-DD seems promising to screen children at risk for dyslexia, and is, therefore, worth to be further investigated in a larger population. The obtained results support the role of the visual function in the pathogenesis of this condition.
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Aleci, Carlo, and Claudio Rosa. "A Self-report Oriented Toward Visuoperceptive and Visuomotor Alterations for the Early Identification of Dyslexic Children." Archives of Current Research International, December 31, 2020, 23–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.9734/acri/2020/v20i830217.
Full textAbstract:
Background: Early diagnosis is the main requisite for rehabilitating children suspected to suffer from dyslexia, and self-reports may be as reliable as ordinary screenings, but far less expensive. Research shows that the visual function can be involved in the pathogenesis of dyslexia so that self-reports should inquire about visual signs as well. A questionnaire made of 21 items that provide scores based on the visual signs commonly reported by dyslexics and on the most relevant comorbidities according to the literature has been devised. The aim of this exploratory study is to evaluate its potential for the early identification of dyslexic children.
Methods: The AAP-DD is a set of 21 items subdivided into 4 sections that inquire about visual signs (section S), fatty acid deficiency, inheritance of dyslexia, and related conditions in children and parents. Each item is assigned a specific visuomotor and visuosensory weight in the form of a coefficient. The parents of twenty-three dyslexic children (9.34±0.80 years) and twenty-four normal readers filled the questionnaire. To assess the correspondence between the outcome of the questionnaire and the actual visual function of each participant, spatial relationship perception and ocular movements have been tested psychophysically.
Results: The score of the dyslexic sample was almost double (i.e. worse) compared to the control group (P <.0001). Sensitivity and specificity were, respectively, 87% and 62%. Section S was the most informative, accounting for up to 41% of the variance of the reading rate. Correlation between the DEM and the AAP-DD scores suggests the questionnaire reflects the actual visuomotor condition of the subject.
Conclusion: The AAP-DD seems promising to screen children at risk for dyslexia, and is, therefore, worth to be further investigated in a larger population. The obtained results support the role of the visual function in the pathogenesis of this condition.
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Zhang, Linjun, Zhichao Xia, Yang Zhao, Hua Shu, and Yang Zhang. "Recent Advances in Chinese Developmental Dyslexia." Annual Review of Linguistics 9, no. 1 (November 1, 2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-030421-065648.
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Chinese developmental dyslexia (DD) research provides important insights into the language-universal and language-specific mechanisms underlying dyslexia. In this article, we review recent advances in Chinese DD. Converging behavioral evidence suggests that, while phonological and rapid automatized naming deficits are language universal, orthographic and morphological deficits are specific to the linguistic properties of Chinese. At the neural level, hypoactivation in the left superior temporal/inferior frontal regions in dyslexic children across Chinese and alphabetic languages may indicate a shared phonological processing deficit, whereas hyperactivation in the right inferior occipital/middle temporal regions and atypical activation in the left frontal areas in Chinese dyslexic children may indicate a language-specific compensatory strategy for impaired visual-spatial analysis and a morphological deficit in Chinese DD, respectively. The findings call for further theoretical endeavors to understand the language-universal and Chinese-specific neurobiological mechanisms underlying dyslexia and to design more effective and efficient intervention programs. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Linguistics, Volume 9 is January 2023. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Liu, Zhengyan, Junjun Li, Hong-Yan Bi, Min Xu, and Yang Yang. "Disruption of Functional Brain Networks Underlies the Handwriting Deficit in Children With Developmental Dyslexia." Frontiers in Neuroscience 16 (July 18, 2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2022.919440.
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Developmental dyslexia (DD) is a neurological-based learning disorder that affects 5-17.5% of children. Handwriting difficulty is a prevailing symptom of dyslexia, but its neural mechanisms remain elusive. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), this study examined functional brain networks associated with handwriting in a copying task in Chinese children with DD (n = 17) and age-matched children (n = 36). We found that dyslexics showed reduced network connectivity between the sensory-motor network (SMN) and the visual network (VN), and between the default mode network (DMN) and the ventral attention network (VAN) during handwriting, but not during drawing geometric figures. Moreover, the connectivity strength of the networks showing group differences was correlated with handwriting speed, reading and working memory, suggesting that the handwriting deficit in DD is linked with disruption of a large-scale brain network supporting motoric, linguistic and executive control processes. Taken together, this study demonstrates the alternations of functional brain networks that underly the handwriting deficit in Chinese dyslexia, providing a new clue for the neural basis of DD.
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Stein, John. "The visual basis of reading and reading difficulties." Frontiers in Neuroscience 16 (November 23, 2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2022.1004027.
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Most of our knowledge about the neural networks mediating reading has derived from studies of developmental dyslexia (DD). For much of the 20th C. this was diagnosed on the basis of finding a discrepancy between children’s unexpectedly low reading and spelling scores compared with their normal or high oral and non-verbal reasoning ability. This discrepancy criterion has now been replaced by the claim that the main feature of dyslexia is a phonological deficit, and it is now argued that we should test for this to identify dyslexia. However, grasping the phonological principle is essential for all learning to read; so every poor reader will show a phonological deficit. The phonological theory does not explain why dyslexic people, in particular, fail; so this phonological criterion makes it impossible to distinguish DD from any of the many other causes of reading failure. Currently therefore, there is no agreement about precisely how we should identify it. Yet, if we understood the specific neural pathways that underlie failure to acquire phonological skills specifically in people with dyslexia, we should be able to develop reliable means of identifying it. An important, though not the only, cause in people with dyslexia is impaired development of the brain’s rapid visual temporal processing systems; these are required for sequencing the order of the letters in a word accurately. Such temporal, “transient,” processing is carried out primarily by a distinct set of “magnocellular” (M-) neurones in the visual system; and the development of these has been found to be impaired in many people with dyslexia. Likewise, auditory sequencing of the sounds in a word is mediated by the auditory temporal processing system whose development is impaired in many dyslexics. Together these two deficits can therefore explain their problems with acquiring the phonological principle. Assessing poor readers’ visual and auditory temporal processing skills should enable dyslexia to be reliably distinguished from other causes of reading failure and this will suggest principled ways of helping these children to learn to read, such as sensory training, yellow or blue filters or omega 3 fatty acid supplements. This will enable us to diagnose DD with confidence, and thus to develop educational plans targeted to exploit each individual child’s strengths and compensate for his weaknesses.
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Wajuihian, S. O. "Neurobiology of developmental dyslexia Part 2: A review of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies of the corpus callosum." African Vision and Eye Health 71, no. 1 (December 12, 2012). http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/aveh.v71i1.66.
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This paper forms part two of a review of the neurobiology of developmental dyslexia (DD) and here the focus is on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the corpus callosum (CC) of dyslexic and non-dyslexic subjects. The CC is a bundle of nerve fibres connecting the left and the right hemisphere of the brain. Due to the role of this structure in inter-hemispheric transfer and integration between thehemispheres, the CC is significant in the search for the neurobiological basis of DD. (S Afr Optom 2012 71(1) 39-45)
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Wajuihian, S. O. "Neurobiology of developmental dyslexia Part 2: A review of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies of the corpus callosum." African Vision and Eye Health 71, no. 2 (December 12, 2012). http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/aveh.v71i2.74.
Full textAbstract:
This paper forms part two of a review of the neurobiology of developmental dyslexia (DD) and here the focus is on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)of the corpus callosum (CC) of dyslexic and non-dyslexic subjects. The CC is a bundle of nerve fibres connecting the left and the right hemisphere of the brain. Due to the role of this structure in inter-hemispheric transfer and integration between the hemispheres, the CC is significant in the search for the neurobiological basis of DD. (S Afr Optom 2012 71(1) 39-45)
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Fernández-Andrés, M. Inmaculada, Pilar Tejero, and Ximena Vélez-Calvo. "Visual Attention, Orthographic Word Recognition, and Executive Functioning in Children With ADHD, Dyslexia, or ADHD + Dyslexia." Journal of Attention Disorders, August 16, 2019, 108705471986463. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1087054719864637.
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Objective: The current study examined the differences in visual selective attention, orthographic word recognition, and executive functioning. Method: One hundred and forty Ecuadorian children in third and fifth grades of elementary school (8-10 years old) participated in the study—35 with only dyslexia (DD), 35 with the combined type of attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD-C), 35 with disorders (DD + ADHD-C), and 35 typical development children (TD). Results: The Ecuadorian children with DD and/or ADHD-C in this age range usually have difficulties in visual selective attention, and also in orthographic word recognition. The executive functioning results showed that such functioning was worse in the ADHD-C groups (with or without DD), but not in the DD group, supporting the dissociation between DD and ADHD-C in executive functioning in this population. Conclusion: The DD + ADHD-C comorbidity produces worse deficits compared to DD, but not compared to ADHD-C, supporting the idea that there are common factors in DD and ADHD-C.
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Wajuihian, S. O. "Neurobiology of developmental dyslexia: Part 1: A review of evidence from autopsy and structural neuro-imaging studies." African Vision and Eye Health 70, no. 4 (December 12, 2011). http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/aveh.v70i4.117.
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Developmental dyslexia (DD) is a language-based neurological disorder which impairs readingability but does not result from low intelligence,lack of motivation, sensory impairment, or inadequate instruction. Although the neurological basisof dyslexia has long been assumed, the exact natureof the altered brain structure associated with DD remains unknown and has been a subject of autopsyand neuro-imaging research. Autopsy studies provide consistent evidence of symmetry of the planum temporale (PT), thalamus and cortical malformations, whereas results from structural imaging studies such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are inconsistent. To address the possible etiology of DD, this paper reviews evidence from autopsy and structural imaging studies on developmental dyslexia and discusses possible methodological sources of some inconsistent results. The role of the optometrist in the multidisciplinary management of dyslexia is highlighted. (S Afr Optom 2011 70(4) 191-202)
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Pereira, Christa L. Watson, Ran Zhou, Mark A. Pitt, Jay I. Myung, P. Justin Rossi, Eduardo Caverzasi, Esther Rah, et al. "Probabilistic Decision-Making in Children With Dyslexia." Frontiers in Neuroscience 16 (June 13, 2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2022.782306.
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BackgroundNeurocognitive mechanisms underlying developmental dyslexia (dD) remain poorly characterized apart from phonological and/or visual processing deficits. Assuming such deficits, the process of learning complex tasks like reading requires the learner to make decisions (i.e., word pronunciation) based on uncertain information (e.g., aberrant phonological percepts)—a cognitive process known as probabilistic decision making, which has been linked to the striatum. We investigate (1) the relationship between dD and probabilistic decision-making and (2) the association between the volume of striatal structures and probabilistic decision-making in dD and typical readers.MethodsTwenty four children diagnosed with dD underwent a comprehensive evaluation and MRI scanning (3T). Children with dD were compared to age-matched typical readers (n = 11) on a probabilistic, risk/reward fishing task that utilized a Bayesian cognitive model with game parameters of risk propensity (γ+) and behavioral consistency (β), as well as an overall adjusted score (average number of casts, excluding forced-fail trials). Volumes of striatal structures (caudate, putamen, and nucleus accumbens) were analyzed between groups and associated with game parameters.ResultsdD was associated with greater risk propensity and decreased behavioral consistency estimates compared to typical readers. Cognitive model parameters associated with timed pseudoword reading across groups. Risk propensity related to caudate volumes, particularly in the dD group.ConclusionDecision-making processes differentiate dD, associate with the caudate, and may impact learning mechanisms. This study suggests the need for further research into domain-general probabilistic decision-making in dD, neurocognitive mechanisms, and targeted interventions in dD.