Academic literature on the topic 'Dual layer LCD'

Abstract Groundwater for potable uses containing high fluoride is a worldwide threat to human health. Electrocoagulation is a sustainable approach for decentralized treatment. This study aims to analyse the economic and environmental impacts of electrocoagulation applied at different scale in rural area of northern China by life cycle cost (LCC) and life cycle assessment (LCA) methods. Decentralized treatment for defluoridization in rural Fangshan District, Beijing, where the groundwater quality is typical in northern China, is surveyed as a case study. Three scenarios were evaluated. In scenario 1 (S1) all domestic water is electrocoagulated at community scale without dual water supply system. In scenario 2 (S2) only water for potable uses is electrocoagulated at community scale and raw water and treated water are distributed via dual water pipeline systems. In scenario 3 (S3) water for potable uses is electrocoagulated at household scale. Life cycle assessment is performed with openLCA software and Ecoinvent database. S1 has the highest impacts for eutrophication and global warming. S2 has the lowest impact for toxicity but highest impact for ozone layer depletion. S3 has the lowest impact for global warming and acidification but highest impact for human toxicity. S2 is the costliest while S3 is the most economical. In this case, life cycle cost and global warming impact are the most restricted factors so electrocoagulation at household scale is recommended.

2007/2008
The intensity of natural light can span over 10 orders of magnitude from starlight to direct sunlight. Even in a single scene, the luminance of the bright areas can be thousands or millions of times greater than the luminance in the dark areas; the ratio between the maximum and the minimum luminance values is commonly known as dynamic range or contrast. The human visual system is able to operate in an extremely wide range of luminance conditions without saturation and at the same time it can perceive fine details which involve small luminance differences. Our eyes achieve this ability by modulating their response as a function of the local mean luminance with a process known as local adaptation. In particular, the visual sensation is not linked to the absolute luminance, but rather to its spatial and temporal variation. One consequence of the local adaptation capability of the eye is that the objects in a scene maintain their appearance even if the light source illuminating the scene changes significantly. On the other hand, the technologies used for the acquisition and reproduction of digital images are able to handle correctly a significantly smaller luminance range of 2 to 3 orders of magnitude at most. Therefore, a high dynamic range (HDR) image poses several challenges and requires the use of appropriate techniques. These elementary observations define the context in which the entire research work described in this Thesis has been performed. As indicated below, different fields have been considered; they range from the acquisition of HDR images to their display, from visual quality evaluation to medical applications, and include some developments on a recently proposed class of display equipment. An HDR image can be captured by taking multiple photographs with different exposure times or by using high dynamic range sensors; moreover, synthetic HDR images can be generated with computer graphics by means of physically-based algorithms which often involve advanced lighting simulations. An HDR image, although acquired correctly, can not be displayed on a conventional monitor. The white level of most devices is limited to a few hundred cd/m² by technological constraints, primarily linked to the power consumption and heat dissipation; the black level also has a non negligible luminance, in particular for devices based on the liquid crystal technology. However, thanks to the aforementioned properties of the human visual system, an exact reproduction of the luminance in the original scene is not strictly necessary in order to produce a similar sensation in the observer. For this purpose, dynamic range reduction algorithms have been developed which attenuate the large luminance variations in an image while preserving as far as possible the fine details. The most simple dynamic range reduction algorithms map each pixel individually with the same nonlinear function commonly known as tone mapping curve. One operator we propose, based on a modified logarithmic function, has a low computational cost and contains one single user-adjustable parameter. However, the methods belonging to this category can reduce the visibility of the details in some portions of the image. More advanced methods also take into account the pixel neighborhood. This approach can achieve a better preservation of the details, but the loss of one-to-one mapping from input luminances to display values can lead to the formation of gradient reversal effects, which typically appear as halos around the object boundaries. Different solutions to this problem have been attempted. One method we introduce is able to avoid the formation of halos and intrinsically prevents any clipping of the output display values. The method is formulated as a constrained optimization problem, which is solved efficiently by means of appropriate numerical methods. In specific applications, such as the medical one, the use of dynamic range reduction algorithms is discouraged because any artifacts introduced by the processing can lead to an incorrect diagnosis. In particular, a one-to-one mapping from the physical data (for instance, a tissue density in radiographic techniques) to the display value is often an essential requirement. For this purpose, high dynamic range displays, capable of reproducing images with a wide luminance range and possibly a higher bit depth, are under active development. Dual layer LCD displays, for instance, use two liquid crystal panels stacked one on top of the other over an enhanced backlight unit in order to achieve a dynamic range of 4 ÷ 5 orders of magnitude. The grayscale reproduction accuracy is also increased, although a “bit depth” can not be defined unambiguously because the luminance levels obtained by the combination of the two panels are partially overlapped and unevenly spaced. A dual layer LCD display, however, requires the use of complex splitting algorithms in order to generate the two images which drive the two liquid crystal panels. A splitting algorithm should compensate multiple sources of error, including the parallax introduced by the viewing angle, the gray-level clipping introduced by the limited dynamic range of the panels, the visibility of the reconstruction error, and glare effects introduced by an unwanted light scattering between the two panels. For these reasons, complex constrained optimization techniques are necessary. We propose an objective function which incorporates all the desired constraints and requirements and can be minimized efficiently by means of appropriate techniques based on multigrid methods. The quality assessment of high dynamic range images requires the development of appropriate techniques. By their own nature, dynamic range reduction algorithms change the luminance values of an image significantly and make most image fidelity metrics inapplicable. Some particular aspects of the methods can be quantified by means of appropriate operators; for instance, we introduce an expression which describes the detail attenuation introduced by a tone mapping curve. In general, a subjective quality assessment is preferably performed by means of appropriate psychophysical experiments. We conducted a set of experiments, targeted specifically at measuring the level of agreement between different users when adjusting the parameter of the modified logarithmic mapping method we propose. The experimental results show a strong correlation between the user-adjusted parameter and the image statistics, and suggest a simple technique for the automatic adjustment of this parameter. On the other hand, the quality assessment in the medical field is preferably performed by means of objective methods. In particular, task-based quality measures evaluate by means of appropriate observer studies the clinical validity of the image used to perform a specific diagnostic task. We conducted a set of observer studies following this approach, targeted specifically at measuring the clinical benefit introduced by a high dynamic range display based on the dual layer LCD technology over a conventional display with a low dynamic range and 8-bit quantization. Observer studies are often time consuming and difficult to organize; in order to increase the number of tests, the human observers can be partially replaced by appropriate software applications, known as model observers or computational observers, which simulate the diagnostic task by means of statistical classification techniques. This thesis is structured as follows. Chapter 1 contains a brief background of concepts related to the physiology of human vision and to the electronic reproduction of images. The description we make is by no means complete and is only intended to introduce some concepts which will be extensively used in the following. Chapter 2 describes the technique of high dynamic range image acquisition by means of multiple exposures. In Chapter 3 we introduce the dynamic range reduction algorithms, providing an overview of the state of the art and proposing some improvements and novel techniques. In Chapter 4 we address the topic of quality assessment in dynamic range reduction algorithms; in particular, we introduce an operator which describes the detail attenuation introduced by tone mapping curves and describe a set of psychophysical experiments we conducted for the adjustment of the parameter in the modified logarithmic mapping method we propose. In Chapter 5 we move to the topic of medical images and describe the techniques used to map the density data of radiographic images to display luminances. We point out some limitations of the current technical recommendation and propose an improvement. In Chapter 6 we describe in detail the dual layer LCD prototype and propose different splitting algorithms for the generation of the two images which drive the two liquid crystal panels. In Chapter 7 we propose one possible technique for the estimation of the equivalent bit depth of a dual layer LCD display, based on a statistical analysis of the quantization noise. Finally, in Chapter 8 we address the topic of objective quality assessment in medical images and describe a set of observer studies we conducted in order to quantify the clinical benefit introduced by a high dynamic range display. No general conclusions are offered; the breadth of the subjects has suggested to draw more focused comments at the end of the individual chapters.
XXI Ciclo
1982

The content of this thesis was carried out within the framework of the global magnetic confinement fusion (MCF) effort. The flagship project for MCF is the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), currently under construction and due for commissioning in 2025. ITER is an unprecedented device that pushes the limits of technology and physics across all sectors, and the field of plasma diagnostics is no exception. Thomson scattering (TS) is one of the most powerful diagnostics available to fusion devices, providing high resolution spatial and temporal profiles of the plasma electron temperature and electron density, which are measurements vital to the understanding of the plasma. Although conventional TS is a well proven method and used in almost all MCF devices in current operation, it too must advance and adapt to the demanding environment of ITER. In this thesis we explore two advanced Thomson scattering techniques which aim to address some of the challenges of ITER TS, through three independent experiments performed on three separate devices. Chapter 1 provides a brief introduction to MCF as part of the solution to the current global energy crisis. Chapter 2 introduces the general theory of Thomson scattering and a description of the advanced techniques under investigation. Chapter 3 describes the dual-laser TS experiment performed in RFX-mod, Padova, during the first year of the PhD. To the author’s knowledge, this was the first successful practical testing of this advanced technique. Chapter 4 describes the polarimetric TS experiment performed in JET, Oxford, during the second year of the PhD. To the author’s knowledge, this was the first successful practical testing of this advanced technique. Chapter 5 describes the dual-laser TS experiment performed in LHD, Japan, during the second year of the PhD. To the author’s knowledge, this was the second successful practical testing of this technique. The experiments performed and described in this thesis demostrate the feasibility of these two previously untested advanced TS techniques, which are both of great interest for application in the next generation of fusion devices.
I contenuti di questa tesi sono stati svolti nella cornice della ricerca globale sulla Fusione nucleare a Confinamento Magnetico (FCM). Il progetto guida per la FCM è ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor), in costruzione a Cadarache, nel sud della Francia, e con messa in esercizio prevista per il 2025. ITER è una macchina senza precedenti, che spinge all’estremo i limiti della tecnologia e della scienza in tutti i settori, e il campo della diagnostica di plasma non fa eccezione. Lo scattering Thomson (ST) è una delle diagnostiche più potenti tra quelle disponibili su una macchina a fusione, ed è in grado di misurare con elevata risoluzione spaziale e temporale la temperatura e la densità degli elettroni, misure chiave per lo studio dei plasmi. Sebbene lo ST sia una diagnostica già collaudata e in uso su quasi tutte le macchine a fusione esistenti, anch’esso deve essere migliorato e reso adatto agli esigenti requisiti di ITER. In questo lavoro di tesi sono state esplorate due tecniche di scattering Thomson avanzato che hanno lo scopo di risolvere alcune delle sfide dello ST di ITER attraverso tre esperimenti indipendenti svolti su tre macchine separate. Capitolo 1 fornisce una breve introduzione alla FCM vista come parte della soluzione all’attuale crisi globale dell’energia. Capitolo 2 introduce la teoria generale dello scattering di Thomson e una descrizione delle tecniche avanzate trattate in questo lavoro di tesi. Capitolo 3 descrive l’esperimento di ST con laser duale svolto su RFX-mod, Padova, durante il primo anno di dottorato. Questo è stato per l’autore il primo esperimento svolto con successo su questa tecnica avanzata. Capitolo 4 descrive l’esperimento di ST polarimetrico svolto su JET, Oxford, durante il secondo anno di dottorato. Questo è stato per l’autore il primo esperimento svolto con successo su questa tecnica avanzata. Capitolo 5 descrive l’esperimento di ST con laser duale svolto su LHD, Giappone, durante il secondo anno di dottorato. Questo è stato per l’autore il secondo esperimento svolto con successo su questa tecnica avanzata. Gli esperimenti svolti, descritti in questo lavoro di tesi, dimostrano la fattibilità di queste due tecniche di ST avanzato, mai testate prima, e che sono entrambe di grande interesse per l’applicazione sulla prossima generazione di macchine a fusione.

碩士
國立交通大學
光電工程學系
100
In this thesis, we successfully fabricate the remote phosphor package in White light-emitting diodes (WLEDs) by pulsed spray coating (PSC) method. The advantages of the remote phosphor packages could effectively reduce the backscattering and exhibit the higher luminous efficiency. However, the yellow ring effect is the serious problem in the remote phosphor packages. Therefore, we developed the two efficient packaging configurations including dual-layer remote phosphor package and ZrO2-type remote phosphor package to obtain the high luminous efficiency and high quality WLEDs First, the dual-layer phosphor structure is demonstrated to enhance the light output in the remote phosphor structure. With inserting the thin silicone layer in the phosphor layer, the utilization of blue light could be enhanced, which leads to the higher luminous flux and provides a color stability of light. Furthermore, the simulation results indicated that more blue rays efficiently trapped in the embedding layer and the absorption probability of phosphor could be enhanced. Meanwhile, the results indicated that the dual-layer structure has the higher intensity in blue and yellow components than the conventional remote phosphor package. Next, the effect of the inhomogeneous angular-dependent CCT in the remote phosphor package has been regarded as the urgent issue to overcome. In this study, the PSC method is employed to spray the ZrO2 nano-particales onto the surface of the conventional remote phosphor structure and Luxeon package in WLEDs to improve the uniformity of CCT distribution. The superior scattering capability of ZrO2 nano-particles not only improve the CCT distribution but also solve the yellow effect.

During the quarter of a century that followed World War II, Western Europe enjoyed the most spectacular prosperity in history. While the population of Western Europe increased by less than 20 per cent, the gross domestic product rose by 286 per cent. Economists explained that depression and economic crisis were things of the past. In mid-October 1973, however, a dramatic event ended European prosperity. The Arab oil-exporting countries made a political decision against the West by introducing an oil embargo, increasing prices. Six years later, a second oil crisis followed, and, between 1973 and 1980, led altogether to a tenfold increase in oil prices. It soon turned out that the politically ignited oil crisis simply made the crisis manifest. Most paradoxically, the postwar prosperity in Europe undermined itself, and paved the way for a deep economic crisis. This article examines the ideological consequences of the dual economic and political crises of the 1960s and 1970s, focusing on neoliberal revolution, de-statisation, and deregulation. It also discusses the financial crisis and the economic restructuring in Europe.

Born in New Bern in 1758 to a prominent colonial official, Richard Dobbs Spaight rose quickly in North Carolina politics, becoming an aide-de-camp to Governor Richard Caswell in 1778. He later served as speaker of the lower house of the state assembly, as a member of Congress under the Articles of Confederation, and as governor. As a delegate to the federal Constitutional Convention, Spaight made one highly significant procedural motion: to permit a delegate to request reconsideration of a previously decided issue. A Federalist and a conservative, Spaight believed in the rule of elite, and in his mind, public-spirited slave-owners. In the late 1790s, however, he became a Democratic-Republican. A partisan feud led to his death in a duel with Federalist John Stanly in 1802.

The author challenges the classic view that the Festival was a dull and sterile political event, and shows how the estimate of the importance of the Festival changed from that of early historians, who saw the Festival as an event remarkable for its level of public participation, to the later view of it as a purely political oddity unworthy of detailed evaluation He discusses the public controversies as to the importance of the Festival during the celebrations of the Bicentenary of the Revolution and how the new use of previously disregarded or rejected local regional and national archival material has led him to the view that the Festival was, on the contrary a vibrant and important event within the context of the Revolution, and one worthy of more careful and detailed study.

Abstract There are two parts to this chapter. The first relays the continued rise of a PSG agenda driven by staff who favored “demand side” governance. This includes the replacement of the 2000 Public Sector Strategy with the 2007 (and, later, 2012) Governance and Anti-Corruption Strategy. The normal bureaucratic politicking and sector policy debates were present throughout this period. However, during these years there was an added dimension: Bank President, Paul Wolfowitz. His dismissal of the new draft Strategy, his behavior before the Bank’s Board, and the resulting public airing of Bank staff complaints ensnarled the sector agenda. The astute “use” of civil society actors by certain Bank staff to lend support to their demand side governance agenda had a dual purpose: to push back against broader concerns about Wolfowitz and to push forward a demand side dominance of sector policy. While Wolfowitz’ early departure is not removable from his internal behaviors and conflicts of interest, his attempts to alter lending incentives and to override internal staff discussions about this agenda ultimately led to his early exit. The second part of the chapter details a continued ascendancy of PSG under a new Bank President. This led to PSG (and by extension, PSM) achieving a first for any Bank sector, past or present: the creation of a Bank-wide Governance and Anti-Corruption Council with the remit to link demand side governance (and public sector management) with other sectors of Bank work. By 2012, this sector had become the Bank’s DNA.

Abstract: This chapter provides an overview of the central themes and arguments in the book, a brief chapter outline, and a discussion of research methodology. Besides being in the forefront of commercial credit, Britain also led the way during the eighteenth century in creating and sustaining an intellectual justification for a credit economy based on gold, most clearly articulated in Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations (1776). Smith’s conjectural history of gold and later modifications hewed closely to the twin categories of class and status, which molded the changing contours of British society during the decades on either side of 1800. Gold’s dual role in this history provides a useful map for exploring Britain’s ascendance during the century after 1750. The dominant British discourse on gold, which privileged its use as currency over decoration, aligns with an interpretation of that century as radically modern, whereby Britain took a comfortable if short-lived lead in the race among nations for wealth and power. Against a forward-looking story that identifies gold as a modernizing motor, the nagging prevalence of decorative gold in Britain and its empire supports a contrary narrative that emphasizes continuity rather than a radical break. In this story, the rise of a modern credit economy shared space with an empire that depended as much on ornamental splendor as on economic and racial subordination and an impulse to draw from the past in order to create a habitable present in the face of rising levels of population and class division.

Worldwide, transportation accounts for roughly a quarter of the total final energy demand and a similar share of energy-based carbon dioxide emissions (IEA, 2016f). The transport sector has the most homogenous of fuel mixes, with petroleum-based products accounting for roughly 95% of the overall final share (Kahn Ribeiro et al., 2012). Biofuels and other options, like electric vehicles, have the potential to displace a notable portion of petroleum and CO2 emissions in the transport sector. Global use of ethanol, the most widely used among biofuels, has grown significantly in recent years. Between 2000 and 2010 alone, ethanol utilization increased 350% worldwide, with trade increasing by a factor of 5 and usage equaling 74 billion liters in 2010 (Valdes, 2011). This chapter examines the underlying roots of the biofuels transition in Brazil. Two micro-shifts—one that is government- led and a second that is industry-led—are evaluated, demonstrating how a new, energy market and industry can develop at a national scale through the retooling of existing industries and infrastructure. Insights on policy inflections, market longevity, and dual-use technology are also covered. Brazil is the historical leader in biofuels and the only country to substantially alter its automotive fuel mix with ethanol, shifting from 1% in 1970 to 34% in 2014 (see the section entitled “Modern Transition” later in this chapter). Ranked sixth globally for its population of roughly 206 million people and eighth for its economy of $3.1 trillion in mid-2016 (CIA, n.d.), Brazil has been a leading pioneer in the production and export of ethanol, its principal biofuel. In 2015, Brazilian ethanol equaled 28% of the global supply (Renewable Fuel Association [RFA], 2016). The country is known for having the lowest production costs of ethanol (Goldemberg, 2008; Shapouri, and Salassi, 2006; Valor International, 2014). Brazil also has a unique distribution network of more than 35,000 fuel stations supplying the renewable fuel (Agência Nacional do Petróleo, Gás Natural e Biocombustíveis, 2008).

Looking back to the progress achieved in the areas of conventional separation and reactor design, it seems that major advances have now been made. This has led to increasing research into methods in which reaction and separation are combined in a single unit. The equipment in which this dual function is carried out is sometimes referred to as the combo reactor. Combo reactors can be of two types, separation oriented and reaction oriented. In the first, reaction is used to achieve efficient separation, such as in the separation of p-cresol from its mixture with m-cresol. This method need not necessarily be restricted to separation, for it can also be attractive from the reaction point of view in the following scenario: the required product from a process comes out with a byproduct of low value in a very difficultly separable mixture of the two. If the byproduct can be converted to a useful coproduct in an easily separable mixture with the primary product, then we would have an attractive process. Alternatively, there can be two unimportant by-products in a difficultly separable mixture which can be converted to an easily separable mixture of useful products. An interesting example of this is illustrated later in this chapter. In the second, separation is used to enhance the reaction. An example of this is the intentional biphasing of a homogeneous liquid-phase reaction by addition of a second liquid phase. The second phase can act in several ways to enhance the productivity of the system. Another example is the large-scale version of the chemist’s apparatus in which a reflux column condenser is connected to a batch reactor (usually a round-bottomed flask) as shown in Figure 25.1. The product and the heat of reaction are continuously removed, and the reactant is returned to the reactor. Modeling of type 1 systems leads to equations for the separation factor of a mixture enhanced by reaction. For type 2 systems, on the other hand, equations are obtained for the conversion or yield enhanced by separation. If the component separated is the desired product, it is really immaterial which definition is used.

There is a celebrated Flemish painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. It depicts the age-old battle between Carnival and Lent. Carnival—a time of high spirits, led in this vision by a fat man on a beer-barrel, carousing and brandishing a pig’s head on a spit—is opposed by Lent, deflating the happy excitement and bringing in a time of sobriety and abstinence. Bruegel’s understanding of these opposed rhythms of rural life in the sixteenth-century Netherlands was acute: he was nicknamed ‘Peasant Bruegel’ for his habit of dressing like the local people, to mingle unnoticed with the crowds, all the better to observe their lives and activities. Bruegel’s vision of the age-old rhythm of life, in the form of an eternal oscillation between two opposing modes, may be taken to a wider stage. From the late Archaean to the end of the Proterozoic, the Earth has alternated between two climate modes. Long episodes of what may be regarded as rather dull stability, best exemplified by what some scientists refer to as the ‘boring billion’ of the mid-Proterozoic, are punctuated by the briefer, though more satisfyingly dramatic, glacial events. This alternation of Earth states persisted into the last half-billion years of this planet’s history—that is, into the current eon, the Phanerozoic. If anything, the pattern became more pronounced, as if it had become an integral part of the Earth’s slowly moving clockwork. There were three main Phanerozoic glaciations—or more precisely, there were three intervals of time when the world possessed large amounts of ice—though in each of these, the ice waxed and waned in a rather complex fashion, and none came close to a Snowball-like state. Thus, these intervals often now tend to be called ‘icehouse states’ rather than glaciations per se. Between these, there were rather longer intervals—greenhouse states—in which the world was considerably warmer; though again, this warmth was variable, and at times modest amounts of polar ice could form. Of the Earth’s Phanerozoic icehouse states, two are in the Palaeozoic Era: one, now termed the ‘Early Palaeozoic Icehouse’ centred on the boundary between the Ordovician and Silurian periods, peaking some 440 million years ago; and a later one centred on the Carboniferous and early Permian periods, 325 to 280 million years ago.

Abstract This study presents a reservoir simulation framework to investigate the oil production uplift performance of Radial Jet Drilling (RJD) technology for a naturally fractured diatomite reservoir undergoing waterflooding. The findings from the study can help better design a field trial and plan Surveillance, Analysis and Optimization (SA&O) activities. The framework allows for the flexible definition of various parameters that control the topology of the RJD well (including number penetrated layers, number of radials per layer, and radial segment length) as well as the pressure drop along the radial segment (including the segment roughness and hydrodynamic diameter). The framework relies on advanced wellbore modeling capabilities that compute the pressure drops inside the well; this allows for the consideration of radial segment collapse whenever the radial segment pressure is below a radial collapse pressure. The simulated behavior relied on a dual porosity dual permeability (DPDK) reservoir model that had been history-matched for primary depletion and waterflooding over a cumulative 72-year period. The RJD well oil production performance is evaluated over a 16-year period controlled with a bottomhole pressure constraint. The model is calibrated to representative type curves in the absence of radials (perforations only case) and in the presence of radials for a specified topology. Once the model has been calibrated, 162 simulation cases are considered to evaluate the sensitivity of the oil production uplift to various model parameters and operational conditions. Radial segment length, radial collapse pressure and number of penetrated layers showed the greatest impact on oil production uplift. Increasing radial segment length and number of penetrated layers and decreasing the radial collapse pressure led to an increase in oil production uplift. We introduced a cumulative radial segment length metric that accounts for the impact of number of penetrated layers, number of radials per layer, and radial segment length. For a fixed cumulative radial segment length, configurations with a higher number of penetrated layers and a lower number of radials per layer led to a higher oil production uplift. The simulation tool and framework developed can be used to assess the potential benefit of the RJD technology, including risks arising from radial segment collapse. For all radial collapse pressure scenarios, a gentle drawdown strategy proved to be the most consistent in terms of oil production uplift performance. Production performance monitoring (e.g., via dedicated test separators) can help identify major radial collapse events as evidenced by discontinuous trends in the oil production rate, gas/oil ratio, and/or water cut.

This numerical study investigates heat generation and cure during the unsaturated flow of thermosetting resins in woven, stitched or braided fiber mats during mold filling in liquid composite molding (LCM), a popular technology to manufacture polymer-matrix composites. This study is relevant to those mats, which can be characterized as a dual-scale porous medium. An iterative, control-volume approach, based on energy and cure balances in a two-layer model representing fiber tows and gaps between tows, is used for developing discretized equations for average temperatures and cures in the tows and gaps respectively. A significant difference in the temperatures and cures of the gap and tow regions is observed. The proposed model deviates significantly from the conventional single-scale model used in most LCM simulations and highlights the need to adopt a different approach in modeling cure and temperature in dual-scale fiber mats.

Abstract Running a fine grid model with 107 - 109 of cells is possible using a supercomputer with 103 - 106 of CPUs but may not be always cost-effective. The most cost-effective way is to use a coarse grid model that is much smaller but with static/dynamic profiles very close to the fine grid model. This paper proposes a new layer optimization and upscaling method with the aim for creating a consistent coarse grid model. Unlike the industry's existing layer optimization and upscaling methods, the proposed method performs layer optimization and upscaling fully integrated with the Lorenz coefficient and curves (LCC). Coarse grid layers and their permeabilities are created by minimizing the difference between fine and coarse grid LCCs. The process consists of static and dynamic optimizations. The former is measured by LCC while the latter by pressure, GOR, and water-cut. A new LCC-based permeability upscaling method is developed to preserve the fine grid multiphase flow behaviors. A satisfactory coarse grid model is achieved when both static and dynamic criteria are met. The proposed method has been successfully applied to a giant carbonate oil field in the Caspian Sea that consists of a matrix dominated platform and a fracture/karst dominated rim. Due to the field's complex geology and high H2S content (15%), a dual porosity, dual permeability compositional model has been created to model compositional sour crude flow within and between the matrix and fracture/karst features. The reservoir drive mechanisms are fluid expansion, miscible gas injection and aquifer drive. The reservoir is undersaturated and has an abnormally high initial reservoir pressure. The fine-grid static model contains 104 million cells (370×225×625×2) and the optimized upscaled coarse-grid dynamic model has 8.3 million cells (370×225×50×2). The upscaled model can be run efficiently on the company's existing HPC infrastructure with a maximum of 64 CPUs. Excellent matches of the Lorenz coefficient maps for reservoir total/zones and Lorenz curves at all wells between the fine and coarse grid models have been achieved. Matches on the dynamic variables, e.g., pressure, gas breakthrough time, and GOR growth, in all producers are within the defined acceptable tolerances. The high quality of the static and dynamic matches between the coarse- and fine-grid models confirms that the reservoir properties of the coarse-grid model is very close to the fine-grid model and can be used a base model for history matching and uncertainty analysis.