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Published: 4 June 2021

Last updated: 13 February 2022

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1

Miller, R., B. Whitehill, and D. Deere. "A national approach to risk assessment for drinking water catchments in Australia." Water Supply 5, no. 2 (September 1, 2005): 123–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2005.0029.

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This paper comments on the strengths and weaknesses of different methodologies for risk assessment, appropriate for utilisation by Australian Water Utilities in risk assessment for drinking water source protection areas. It is intended that a suggested methodology be recommended as a national approach to catchment risk assessment. Catchment risk management is a process for setting priorities for protecting drinking water quality in source water areas. It is structured through a series of steps for identifying water quality hazards, assessing the threat posed, and prioritizing actions to address the threat. Water management organisations around Australia are at various stages of developing programs for catchment risk management. While much conceptual work has been done on the individual components of catchment risk management, work on these components has not previously been combined to form a management tool for source water protection. A key driver for this project has been the requirements of the National Health and Medical Research Council Framework for the Management of Drinking Water Quality (DWQMF) included in the draft 2002 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG). The Framework outlines a quality management system of steps for the Australian water industry to follow with checks and balances to ensure water quality is protected from catchment to tap. Key steps in the Framework that relate to this project are as follows: Element 2 Assessment of the Drinking Water Supply System• Water Supply System analysis• Review of Water Quality Data• Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment Element 3 Preventive Measures for Drinking Water Quality Management• Preventive Measures and Multiple Barriers• Critical Control Points This paper provides an evaluation of the following risk assessment techniques: Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP); World Health Organisation Water Safety Plans; Australian Standard AS 4360; and The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines – Drinking Water Quality Management Framework. These methods were selected for assessment in this report as they provided coverage of the different approaches being used across Australia by water utilities of varying: scale of water management organisation; types of water supply system management; and land use and activity-based risks in the catchment area of the source. Initially, different risk assessment methodologies were identified and reviewed. Then examples of applications of those methods were assessed, based on several key water utilities across Australia and overseas. Strengths and weaknesses of each approach were identified. In general there seems some general grouping of types of approaches into those that: cover the full catchment-to-tap drinking water system; cover just the catchment area of the source and do not recognise downstream barriers or processes; use water quality data or land use risks as a key driving component; and are based primarily on the hazard whilst others are based on a hazardous event. It is considered that an initial process of screening water quality data is very valuable in determining key water quality issues and guiding the risk assessment, and to the overall understanding of the catchment and water source area, allowing consistency with the intentions behind the ADWG DWQM Framework. As such, it is suggested that the recommended national risk assessment approach has two key introductory steps: initial screening of key issues via water quality data, and land use or activity scenario and event-based HACCP-style risk assessment. In addition, the importance of recognising the roles that uncertainty and bias plays in risk assessments was highlighted. As such it was deemed necessary to develop and integrate uncertainty guidelines for information used in the risk assessment process. A hybrid risk assessment methodology was developed, based on the HACCP approach, but with some key additions and modifications to make it applicable to varying catchment risks, water supply operation needs and environmental management processes.

2

Hamilton, D. J., Á. Ambrus, R. M. Dieterle, A. S. Felsot, C. A. Harris, P. T. Holland, A. Katayama, et al. "Regulatory limits for pesticide residues in water (IUPAC Technical Report)." Pure and Applied Chemistry 75, no. 8 (January 1, 2003): 1123–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1351/pac200375081123.

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National governments introduced residue limits and guideline levels for pesticide residues in water when policies were implemented to minimize the contamination of ground and surface waters. Initially, the main attention was given to drinking water.Regulatory limits for pesticide residues in waters should have the following characteristics: definition of the type of water, definition of the residue, a suitable analytical method for the residues, and explanation for the basis for each limit.Limits may be derived by applying a safety factor to a no-effect-level, or from levels occurring when good practices are followed and also passing a safety assessment, or from the detection limit of an analytical method, or directly by legislative decision.The basis for limits and guideline values issued by WHO, Australia, the United States, New Zealand, Japan, Canada, European Union, and Taiwan is described, and examples of the limits are provided. Limits have been most commonly developed for drinking water, but values have also been proposed for environmental waters, effluent waters, irrigation waters, and livestock drinking waters. The contamination of ground water is of concern because it may be used as drinking water and act as a source of contamination for surface waters. Most commonly, drinking water standards have been applied to ground water.The same terminology may have different meanings in different systems. For example, guideline value (GV) in WHO means a value calculated from a toxicology parameter, whereas in Australia, a GV is at or about the analytical limit of determination or a maximum level that might occur if good practices are followed. In New Zealand, the GV is the concentration where aesthetic significance is influenced.The Australian health value (HV) is conceptually the same as the WHO GV. The New Zealand maximum acceptable value (MAV) and the Canadian maximum acceptable concentration (MAC) are also conceptually the same as the WHO GV.Each of the possible ways of defining the residues has its merits. A residue limit in water expressed as the sum of parent and toxicologically relevant transformation products makes sense where it is derived from the acceptable daily intake (ADI). For monitoring purposes, where it is best to keep the residue definition as simple as possible for the sake of practical enforcement and economy, theparent or a marker residue is preferable. It is also possible for parent and degradation products (hydrolysis and photolysis products and metabolites) to become physically separated as the water moves through soil strata, which suggests that separate limits should be set for parent and important degradation products.The Commission has made 12 recommendations for regulatory limits for pesticide residues in water. The recommendations will act as a checklist for authorities introducing or revising limits or guidelines for pesticide residues in water.

3

Rakhmanin, Yu A., N. A. Egorova, G. N. Krasovsky, R. I. Mikhailova, and A. V. Alekseeva. "SILICON: ITS BIOLOGICAL IMPACT UNDER DIETARY INTAKE AND HYGIENIC STANDARDIZATION OF ITS CONTENT IN DRINKING WATER. A REVIEW." Hygiene and sanitation 96, no. 5 (March 27, 2019): 492–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.18821/0016-9900-2017-96-5-492-498.

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By the prevalence in the earth’s crust, silicon occupies the second place after oxygen. In different quantities silicon always presents in water and food products.The average daily dietary intake of silicon in Western world is about 20-50 mg/day. The biological role of silicon in human organism is still not clear, but it assumed to be necessary for processes of bone mineralization, collagen synthesis, it has a positive effect on the state of skin, hair, and nails, contributes to the prevention of atherosclerosis and Alzheimer disease. A number of scientific research is devoted to biological effects of silicon in animals and human subjects under intake with food and water, and substantiation of silicon (maximum admissible concentrations (MAC) in drinking water. In Chuvashia there was investigated the regional (geographical) pathology, which may be related with an increased silicon intake in association with the sharp imbalances of trace and macro elements in drinking water. Some measures were implemented to identify the possible role of silicon in etiology of Balkan endemic nephropathy. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report summarized materials for the experimental evaluation of the toxicity and harmless levels of silicon intake with food and water in animals. A series of studies was executed to simulate the development of silicon urolithiasis and for the elucidation of the role of macro- and microelements accompanying the intake of silicon into the body in stone formation. There are studied potential therapeutic effects of water soluble silicon compounds on human health. The standards of silicon in drinking water are regulated only in Russia and Australia. At the same time in our country there were formed two opposing points of view in relation to the hygienic standardization of silicon. The first is one - MAC of silicon in drinking water needs to be cancelled, the second - MAC of silicon in the water needs to be tightened. To resolve the contradictions it is advisable to use both the experience of harmonization of standards with international requirements, and the principle of silicon regional standardization, taking into consideration the biogeochemical characteristics of geographic areas. When searching the literature databases PubMed and CyberLeninka were used.

4

Merrett, Hew Cameron, Wei Tong Chen, and Jao Jia Horng. "A Systems Analysis Approach to Identifying Critical Success Factors in Drinking Water Source Protection Programs." Sustainability 11, no. 9 (May 6, 2019): 2606. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su11092606.

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The success of source protection in ensuring safe drinking water is centered around being able to understand the hazards present in the catchment then plan and implement control measures to manage water quality risk to levels which can be controlled through downstream barriers. The programs in place to manage source protection are complex sociotechnical systems involving policy, standards, regulators, technology, human factors and so on. This study uses System Theoretic Process Analysis (STPA) to analyze the operational hazards of a typical drinking water source protection (DWSP) program and identify countermeasures to ensure safe operations. To validate the STPA results a questionnaire was developed based on selective grouping of the initial countermeasures identified and distributed to specialists in DWSP in Taiwan, Australia and Greece. Through statistical analysis using Principle Components Analysis (PCA), the study identified four critical success factors (CSFs) for DWSP based on the questionnaire responses. The four CSFs identified were “Policy and Government Agency Support of Source Protection”, “Catchment Risk Monitoring and Information”, “Support of Operational Field Activities” and “Response to Water Quality Threats”. The results of this study provide insight into the approach of grouping of source protection measures to identify a series of targeted CSF for operational source protection programs. Using CSF can aid catchment management agencies in ensuring that the risk level in the catchment is managed effectively and that threats to public health from drinking water are managed appropriately.

5

Kus, B., J. Kandasamy, S. Vigneswaran, and H. K. Shon. "Analysis of first flush to improve the water quality in rainwater tanks." Water Science and Technology 61, no. 2 (January 1, 2010): 421–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.823.

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Although most Australians receive their domestic supply from reticulated mains or town water, there are vast areas with very low population densities and few reticulated supplies. In many of these areas rainwater collected in tanks is the primary source of drinking water. Heavy metals have recently become a concern as their concentration in rain water tanks was found to exceed recommended levels suitable for human consumption. Rainwater storage tanks also accumulate contaminants and sediments that settle to the bottom. Although not widely acknowledged, small amounts of contaminants such as lead found in rain water (used as drinking water) may have a cumulative and poisonous effect on human health over a life time. This is true for certain factors that underlie many of the chronic illnesses that are becoming increasingly common in contemporary society. The paper reports on a study which is part of a project that aims to develop a cost effective in-line filtration system to improve water quality in rainwater tanks. To enable this, the characteristics of rainwater need to be known. One component of this characterization is to observe the effects of the first flush on a rainwater tank. Samples of the roof runoff collected from an urban residential roof located in the Sydney Metropolitan Area in the initial first few millimetres of rain were analysed. The results show that bypassing the first 2 mm of rainfall gives water with most water quality parameters compliant with the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG) standards. The parameters that did not comply were lead and turbidity, which required bypassing approximately the first 5 mm of rainfall to meet ADWG standards. Molecular weight distribution (MWD) analysis showed that the concentration of rainwater organic matter (RWOM) decreased with increasing amount of roof runoff.

6

Bąk, Joanna. "Wise use of water in smart cities - possibilities and limitations." E3S Web of Conferences 30 (2018): 01014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20183001014.

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The need to save water is due, inter alia, to the paradigm of sustainable development. There are many ways to minimize the consumption of high quality water supplied by the water supply network. These include the simplest way and those complex, requiring additional installation. The lack of water is a big problem, but not only water deficit are dangerous. There is a possibility of secondary water pollution in the water supply network due to changes in network parameters. Changes in these parameters may occur due to reduced demand for water by residents and, as a result, reduced water flow - at the same pipe diameter. The article includes a review with comparative analysis of various classification systems for the tap fittings and other sanitary equipment, such as the Water Efficiency Label (WELL) in Europe or the Water Efficiency Labelling and Standards (WELS) in Australia. Several types of perlators and flow regulators were compared in the research section. This equipment was tested in the household. The possibilities of minimizing water consumption by using them was collated. In addition, the work also analyses the evolution of water consumption in Poland in recent years and their possible relationship with the threats quality of drinking water supplied to consumers.

7

Dryer, D. J., G. V. Korshin, A. Heitz, and C. Joll. "Characterization of proton and copper binding properties of natural organic matter from an Australian drinking water source by differential absorbance spectroscopy." Water Supply 8, no. 6 (December 1, 2008): 611–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2008.140.

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This study examined the effects of changes in pH and copper concentration on the absorbance spectra of natural organic matter (NOM) from a reservoir in Western Australia. Differential absorbance spectra generated for this NOM under changing pH and copper concentration conditions revealed features that could be correlated to the activity of distinct types of chromophores. A comparison of results with those generated for experiments with standard Suwannee River fulvic acid highlighted important differences in chemistry between the two samples.

8

Levett, K. J., J. L. Vanderzalm, D. W. Page, and P. J. Dillon. "Factors affecting the performance and risks to human health of on-site wastewater treatment systems." Water Science and Technology 62, no. 7 (October 1, 2010): 1499–509. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.434.

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Aerobic wastewater treatment systems (aerobic systems) are the preferred choice in a region overlying a karstic aquifer used for drinking water supplies, as they are thought to provide better protection to groundwater and human health than standard septic systems. However, aerobic systems in operation do not always perform to design standard; while this is often blamed on lack of maintenance, few studies have investigated the link directly. This study investigates the performance of domestic on-site wastewater treatment systems in South Australia, and compares effluent quality to maintenance records. Effluent from 29 septic tanks and 31 aerobic systems was analysed for nutrients, physico-chemical parameters and microbiological indicators. Aerobic systems generally provided greater treatment than septic tanks, yet most aerobic systems did not meet regulatory guidelines with high levels of indicator bacteria in 71% of samples. The effect of system size, number of household occupants and maintenance on aerobic system treatment performance was analysed: chlorine levels were positively correlated with time of last service, and nutrient concentrations were positively correlated with the number of occupants. A microbial risk assessment revealed the observed irrigation practices to be high risk; and sufficient residence time in the aquifer cannot be guaranteed for protection of groundwater used for drinking. Additional preventive measures such as irrigation management or post treatment of drinking water supply (such as UV disinfection) are required to meet public health targets.

9

Mullenger, J., G. Ryan, and J. Hearn. "A water authority's experience with HACCP." Water Supply 2, no. 5-6 (December 1, 2002): 149–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2002.0163.

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South East Water Limited (SEWL) is one of three retail water authorities operating in Melbourne, Australia. It was the first water authority in Australia to obtain HACCP accreditation for the supply of drinking water, in November 1999. This article presents an overview of the first two years' experience in developing and establishing a food safety management plan using Codex Alimentarius Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) to ensure the water reaching customers is safe, aesthetically pleasant and meets operating licence requirements. HACCP has improved the way in which our distribution and reticulation systems are managed, primarily through the refinement and optimisation of standard operating procedures. In addition, more consideration has been given to the development of contingency plans and the appropriate use of system redundancy to ensure quality of supply. Accreditation was only the beginning of a process. Once attained, there was an ongoing need to maintain and refine hazard measurement and reduction procedures. The major challenge for SEWL has been the integration of HACCP company-wide. Spreading of HACCP was directly achieved through the involvement of operators, key personnel and subcontractors in the assessment of hazards and evaluating the appropriateness of critical control points. This not only assisted with improvements to the existing system, and the identification of system strengths and weaknesses, but was also an integral component in awareness training for HACCP. It was through assessment workshops and training that operators were able to see HACCP as primarily a summary of current practices, but with the focus of improving or maintaining water quality. The net benefits of HACCP are difficult to quantify. Overall there is a greater understanding of water quality issues, more streamlined work procedures, and an improved response to customer enquires relating to water quality. This has been most clearly demonstrated by a net decrease in customer complaints over the two years since HACCP was implemented.

10

Edwards, Louise, and Helen Crabb. "Water quality and management in the Australian pig industry." Animal Production Science 61, no. 7 (2021): 637. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/an20484.

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Context Water is the first nutrient and an essential component of all agricultural production systems. Despite its importance there has been limited research on water, and in particular, the impact of its availability, management and quality on production systems. Aims This research sought to describe the management and quality of water used within the Australian pig industry. Specifically, the water sources utilised, how water was managed and to evaluate water quality at both the source and the point of delivery to the pig. Methods Fifty-seven commercial piggeries across Australia participated in this study by completing a written survey on water management. In addition, survey participants undertook physical farm parameter measurements including collecting water samples. Each water sample was tested for standard quality parameters including pH, hardness, heavy metals and microbiological status. Key results Responses were received from 57 farms, estimated to represent at least 22% of ‘large’ pig herds. Bore water was the most common water source being utilised within the farms surveyed. Management practices and infrastructure delivering water from the source to the point of consumption were found to differ across the farms surveyed. Furthermore, water was regularly used as a delivery mechanism for soluble additives such as antibiotics. The quality of water at the source and point of consumption was found to be highly variable with many parameters, particularly pH, hardness, salinity, iron, manganese and microbiological levels, exceeding the acceptable standard. Conclusions In general, water quality did not appear to be routinely monitored or managed. As a result, farm managers had poor visibility of the potential negative impacts that inferior water quality or management may be having on pig production and in turn the economics of their business. Indeed, inferior water quality may impact the delivery of antibiotics and in turn undermine the industry’s antimicrobial stewardship efforts. Implications The study findings suggest that water quality represents a significant challenge to the Australian pig industry. Access to drinking water of an acceptable quality is essential for optimal pig performance, health and welfare but also to ensure farm to fork supply chain integrity, traceability and food safety.

11

Barrington, Dani, Kathryn Fuller, and Andrew McMillan. "Water safety planning: adapting the existing approach to community-managed systems in rural Nepal." Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 3, no. 3 (May 6, 2013): 392–401. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2013.120.

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Water Safety Plans (WSPs) improve the quality and secure the quantity of drinking water supplies, and hence improve public health outcomes. In developing countries such as Nepal, thousands of residents die each year as a result of poor water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services and WSPs show great promise for improving both health and livelihoods. The Nepali Non-Governmental Organisation Nepal Water for Health (NEWAH) has been working in partnership with Engineers Without Borders Australia and WaterAid Nepal to develop a WSP methodology suited to rural, community-managed water supply systems. Three pilot projects were undertaken incorporating community-based hazard management into the standard World Health Organization and Nepali Department of Water Supply and Sewerage WSP approaches. The successes and challenges of these pilots were assessed, and it was determined that community education, behaviour change, and the distribution of simplified WSP documentation to households and managers were essential to implementing successful WSPs within this context. This new WSP methodology is currently being mainstreamed throughout all of NEWAH's WASH projects in rural Nepal, as well as being shared with the wider Nepali WASH sector.

12

Zappia, L. R., M. Alessandrino, S. Garbin, P. Pringle, A. Heitz, C. Joll, D. Masters, et al. "Comparison of methods for the determination of biodegradable dissolved organic carbon in potable water supply: use of a novel biofilm." Water Supply 8, no. 6 (December 1, 2008): 633–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2008.143.

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Potable water treatment in the state of Western Australia is challenged in many instances by the presence of high and variable levels of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), particularly in surface water supplies. In recent years the effects of climate change on local sources, in combination with the ever-present requirement for on-going disinfection effectiveness and disinfection by-product regulation has driven the need for the development of innovative, sustainable processes for the removal of DOC. Extensive pilot plant studies over a number of years have demonstrated the effectiveness of biological filtration for cost-effectively managing a variety of high DOC source waters, consequently biofiltration is seen as a process of choice for organics removal in drinking water in Western Australia. Although there are a number of indicators for measuring the efficacy of organic carbon reduction across biological treatment processes (e.g., DOC concentration, SUVA, etc), none currently are able to reliably inform on the change in the “non-refractory” organic carbon component of DOC (i.e. biodegradable dissolved organic carbon [BDOC]) which arises from microbiological metabolic activity in the biological treatment process. Knowledge of this parameter is of critical importance to the understanding of biological stability of the finished water entering a distribution system. We have therefore investigated a number of analytical procedures in order to develop a robust test method to accurately quantify this important aspect of biofilter performance. The paper reports a comparison between conventional and rapid methods for the determination of BDOC using immobilised biofilms enriched on deep aquifer water. Effective sample collection, preparation and method of analytical analysis, method validation using natural source water with and without addition of standard amounts of assimilable organic carbon (e.g. acetate), and reproducibility of test results are discussed.

13

Sharma, Ashok K., Stephen Cook, Grace Tjandraatmadja, and Alan Gregory. "Impediments and constraints in the uptake of water sensitive urban design measures in greenfield and infill developments." Water Science and Technology 65, no. 2 (January 1, 2012): 340–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2012.858.

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Water sensitive urban developments are designed with integrated urban water management concepts and water sensitive urban design measures. The initiatives that may be included are the substitution of imported drinking water with alternative sources using a fit-for-purpose approach and structural and non-structural measures for the source control of stormwater. A water sensitive approach to urban development can help in achieving sustainability objectives by minimising disturbance to ecological and hydrological processes, and also relieve stress on conventional water systems. Water sensitive urban developments remain novel in comparison with conventional approaches, so the understanding and knowledge of the systems in regards to their planning; design; implementation; operation and maintenance; health impacts and environmental impacts is still developing and thus the mainstream uptake of these approaches faces many challenges. A study has been conducted to understand these challenges through a detailed literature review, investigating a large number of local greenfield and infill developments, and conducting extensive consultation with water professionals. This research has identified the social, economic, political, institutional and technological challenges faced in implementing water sensitive urban design in greenfield and infill developments. The research found in particular that there is the need for long-term monitoring studies of water sensitive urban developments. This monitoring is important to validate the performance of novel approaches implemented and improve associated guidelines, standards, and regulatory and governance frameworks, which can lead to mainstream acceptance of water sensitive urban development approaches. The dissemination of this research will help generate awareness among water professionals, water utilities, developers, planners and regulators of the research challenges to be addressed in order to achieve more mainstream acceptance of water sensitive approaches to urban development. This study is based on existing water sensitive urban developments in Australia, however, the methodology adopted in investigating impediments to the uptake of these developments can be applied globally. It is hoped that insights from this study will benefit water professionals in other countries where there is also a move towards water sensitive urban development.

14

Davies, Tom, and Stanislaw Paul MAJ. "Wastewater Automation – The Development of a Low Cost, Distributed Automation System." Modern Applied Science 11, no. 6 (April 23, 2017): 41. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/mas.v11n6p41.

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In developed countries wastewater management is considered a vital aspect of community health and wellbeing. Failures in wastewater management may result in the release of pathogens into natural water bodies and in extreme circumstances into drinking water. Illnesses caused by contamination range from gastroenteritis and viral infections to death. As such in Australia it is a highly regulated industry accountable to a range of state authorized bodies such as Department of Environment Regulations (DER) and Department of Health (DoH) . The Shire of Moora was made responsible for their wastewater system in 2013. An analysis of this system found that the SCADA system conveyed fault location but no alarm status information. It should be noted that alarm status is needed in order to determine required responses. In order to address this problem a range of different potential solutions were evaluated according to a wide range of ranked factors such as cost, security, features etc. This resulted in the design and implementation of a low cost, distributed wireless solution based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard. The authors believe this is the first implementation of this system in a rural/regional environment.

15

Munro, Nancy B., and Curtis C. Travis. "Drinking-water standards." Environmental Science & Technology 20, no. 8 (August 1986): 768–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es00150a002.

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Cothern, C. Richard, and Joseph A. Cotruvo. "Letters. Drinking Water standards." Environmental Science & Technology 20, no. 11 (November 1986): 1068. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es00153a604.

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Carney, Michael. "European Drinking Water Standards." Journal - American Water Works Association 83, no. 6 (June 1991): 48–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.1991.tb07162.x.

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Sayre, Ida M. "International Standards for Drinking Water." Journal - American Water Works Association 80, no. 1 (January 1988): 53–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.1988.tb02980.x.

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Kocher, D. C. "DRINKING WATER STANDARDS FOR RADIONUCLIDES." Health Physics 80, no. 5 (May 2001): 486–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004032-200105000-00009.

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Smith, A. "EPIDEMIOLOGY AND ARSENIC DRINKING WATER STANDARDS." Epidemiology 14, Supplement (September 2003): S135. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00001648-200309001-00335.

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ROSE, JULIAN. "Europe to toughen drinking-water standards." Environmental Science & Technology 29, no. 4 (April 1995): 171A. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es00004a735.

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COTRUVO, J. A. "Drinking Water Standards and Risk Assessment." Water and Environment Journal 3, no. 1 (February 1989): 6–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1989.tb01360.x.

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Cotruvo, Joseph A. "Drinking water standards and risk assessment." Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 8, no. 3 (September 1988): 288–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0273-2300(88)90016-5.

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Bhargava, Devendra Swaroop. "Expression for Drinking Water Supply Standards." Journal of Environmental Engineering 111, no. 3 (June 1985): 304–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9372(1985)111:3(304).

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Marshall, Henry M., Robyn Carter, Matthew J. Torbey, Sharri Minion, Carla Tolson, Hanna E. Sidjabat, Flavia Huygens, Megan Hargreaves, and Rachel M. Thomson. "Mycobacterium lentiflavumin Drinking Water Supplies, Australia." Emerging Infectious Diseases 17, no. 3 (March 2011): 395–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1703.090948.

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Marchesan, M., and J. Morran. "Tastes associated with products in contact with drinking water." Water Science and Technology 49, no. 9 (May 1, 2004): 227–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2004.0577.

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Over the past 9 years the Australian Water Quality Centre (AWQC) has conducted testing in accordance with Australian and New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 4020 - “Products for use in contact with drinking water” (1999). A test included as part of this standard is taste of water extracts. This test assesses the ability of products to impart discernible taste to drinking water using panellists trained in accordance with Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater - Flavour Profile Analysis 2170 B (1999). Over 1000 products from companies worldwide, have been assessed at the AWQC in accordance with AS/NZS 4020 including pipes, valves, tap fittings and numerous other products used in contact with water. The products must not impart any discernible taste to obtain compliance and be deemed suitable for use in contact with drinking water. This study compiles the products assessed and the types of tastes obtained from both chlorinated and non-chlorinated extracts. In particular the study focuses on taste associated with polyethylene pipes, coatings and valves, which in some instances have been problematic. Analysis revealed that most taste problems occur when chlorinated water has been used in extraction experiments and this is in line with consumer complaints regarding taste imparted by plumbing products. The collation of this data provides a valuable assessment for manufacturers, the water industry and consumers.

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Coates, D. B., and J. H. Ternouth. "Phosphorus kinetics of cattle grazing tropical pastures and implications for the estimation of their phosphorus requirements." Journal of Agricultural Science 119, no. 3 (December 1992): 401–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021859600012247.

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SUMMARYTwelve yearling Droughtmaster heifers were grazed on a tropical grass/legume pasture in north-east Australia for 1 year in four paddocks, each of 4 ha. One paddock was fertilized annually with 10 kg P/ha (treatment HPF). The other three paddocks had low soil P and low pasture P status. In one of the low soil P paddocks, P was added to the drinking water (treatment HPS) but no supplement was provided in the other two paddocks (treatments LP1 and LP2). In February, May and August 1989, the P kinetics of the heifers were monitored following oral administration of ruminal chromic oxide capsules and i/v injection of 32P. At the same times, oesophageal-fistulated steers were grazed in the paddocks to obtain extrusa samples to estimate the P content and digestibility of selected forage.The liveweight gain per heifer was higher in the HP treatments (196 kg) than in the LP treatments (152 kg). The intake, absorption and excretion of P were closely related but the faecal excretion of P relative to P intake was less in heifers with than without P supplement. The P intakes of the LP heifers were about half the quantities recommended in the nutrient feeding standards for the observed food intakes and weight gains. The coefficients of P absorption in the LP heifers in May and August were high (> 0·8) and did not decrease with age or liveweight. The coefficients of P absorption of heifers given supplementary P were as high as those for LP heifers, but those of heifers on the fertilized pasture were significantly lower in May and August. The endogenous faecal excretion of P was related to P intake but more closely to dry matter intake and plasma inorganic P together. The reasons for the difference between observed P intakes of LP heifers and recommended requirements are discussed in relation to the assessment of P requirements of grazing cattle. The results from this experiment suggest that recommended P requirements are higher than necessary to sustain the measured liveweight gains of cattle on grass/legume pastures in the tropics.

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Hikal, Wafaa M. "Parasitic Contamination of Drinking Water and Egyptian Standards for Parasites in Drinking Water." Open Journal of Ecology 10, no. 01 (2020): 1–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oje.2020.101001.

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Ohanian, Edward V. "New Approaches in Setting Drinking Water Standards." Journal of the American College of Toxicology 11, no. 3 (May 1992): 321–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10915819209141869.

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The Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1986 required that the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) establish standards for 83 contaminants by June 1989, and at least 25 added standards by January 1991, then 25 more every three years hence. Conceptually, the regulatory process employed by EPA consists of two steps. First, a detailed health risk assessment of a contaminant is performed in order to determine the Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (nonenforceable health goal) in water that should result in no known or anticipated health effects and allows adequate margin of safety. Second, the results of risk assessment and management (taking best available technology, treatment techniques, cost, and other means into consideration) are combined to derive the Maximum Contaminant Level (enforceable standard) which is set as close to the MCLG as feasible. With this overall regulatory process in mind, a detailed risk assessment process (hazard identification, dose-response assessment, human exposure assessment, and risk characterization) used in setting drinking water standards is discussed. In addition, this article discusses our efforts in exploring new and improved risk assessment methodologies addressing the mechanism of action of toxicants, relative source contribution, weight of evidence, carcinogenic potency, and toxicokinetics.

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Nicolson, N. J. "Nitrate concentrations and standards for drinking water." Journal of Biological Education 22, no. 4 (December 1988): 242–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00219266.1988.9654994.

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Bruvold, William H., and Jeffrey I. Daniels. "Standards for Mineral Content in Drinking Water." Journal - American Water Works Association 82, no. 2 (February 1990): 59–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.1990.tb06920.x.

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Hayes, C. R., A. J. Bates, A. H. Goodman, J. P. Vinson, and T. P. Sadler. "Meeting Standards for Lead in Drinking Water." Water and Environment Journal 11, no. 4 (August 1997): 257–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1997.tb00126.x.

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Wai, Lily. "Locating U.S. national standards for drinking water." Journal of Government Information 22, no. 2 (March 1995): 101–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/1352-0237(94)00042-5.

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Belzer, Richard B. "Achieving Economically Feasible Drinking Water Regulation." Journal of Benefit-Cost Analysis 11, no. 2 (2020): 294–318. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/bca.2019.21.

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Abstract United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has regulated drinking water since the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). Congress directed it to achieve three conflicting goals: (i) establish stringent nationwide standards, (ii) ensure that these standards are both technologically and economically feasible, and (iii) accommodate significant differences in cost among water systems of different sizes with different water sources. USEPA chose to emphasize goal (i) at the expense of (ii) and (iii). In 1986, Congress intensified its preference for (i), was silent concerning goal (ii), and criticized USEPA for failing to achieve goal (iii). In lieu of economic feasibility, the Agency substituted “affordability,” defined as expenditures up to 2.5 % of national median household income irrespective of the benefits. This imposed deadweight losses, and substantial inequities on rural areas, low-income communities, and low-income households generally. In 1996, Congress directed USEPA to use benefit-cost analysis positively and normatively. Regulations issued since 1996 do not appear to comply, however. A review of post-1996 drinking water standards indicates that most were certified by USEPA as having benefits that justified costs, but these determinations were unsupported by the Agency’s own regulatory impact analyses. This article proposes that USEPA define by regulation that “economic feasibility” means marginal benefits exceed marginal costs for the smallest water system subject to SDWA, and that all future drinking water standards must be economically feasible. Economic efficiency would be greatly enhanced and the pervasive inequities of “affordability” greatly diminished. Unlike “affordability,” this definition is objective and compatible with lay intuition about the meaning of key regulatory terms.

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Gurian, Patrick L., and Joel A. Tarr. "The origin of federal drinking water quality standards." Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Engineering History and Heritage 164, no. 1 (February 2011): 17–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/ehah.9.00009.

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Lemley, Ann T. "Safe Drinking Water Act: Amendments, Regulations and Standards." Journal of Environmental Quality 19, no. 1 (January 1990): 160. http://dx.doi.org/10.2134/jeq1990.00472425001900010031x.

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Eggertson, L. "Safe drinking water standards for First Nations communities." Canadian Medical Association Journal 174, no. 9 (April 25, 2006): 1248. http://dx.doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.060399.

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Walters, Kim, and Geoff Cram. "Drinking water in schools: hygiene standards at fountains." Nutrition & Food Science 32, no. 1 (February 2002): 9–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00346650210412132.

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Brown, Joseph P., and Anna M. Fan. "Arsenic: risk assessment for california drinking water standards." Journal of Hazardous Materials 39, no. 2 (November 1994): 149–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3894(94)00057-3.

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Slavik, Irene, Keila Roberta Oliveira, Peter Batista Cheung, and Wolfgang Uhl. "Water quality aspects related to domestic drinking water storage tanks and consideration in current standards and guidelines throughout the world – a review." Journal of Water and Health 18, no. 4 (June 17, 2020): 439–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2020.052.

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Abstract In many parts of the world, drinking water storage takes place in near-house or in-house tanks. This can impact drinking water quality considerably. International and numerous national standards and guidelines addressing the construction, installation and operation of domestic drinking water storage tanks are reviewed on their consideration of water quality aspects and the minimisation of health risks associated with drinking water storage. Several national and international standards and guidelines are reviewed in terms of drinking water quality requirements. Factors that have an impact on water quality in relation to the use of domestic drinking water storage tanks are summarised comprehensively. The impact of the domestic storage of drinking water on water quality, the points and locations of use, their positioning, the materials they are made of, their design and operation, as well as aspects of how they are operated and maintained is outlined and discussed in detail. Finally, the incorporation of aspects regarding water quality in drinking water storage tanks in standards and guidelines is presented and assessed. To make the use of domestic drinking water storage tanks safer and more efficient, recommendations for modifications, improvements and extensions of respective standards are made.

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Hall, Nathalie. "Drinking water: A solution for drought-ridden Australia." Filtration & Separation 44, no. 5 (June 2007): 40–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0015-1882(07)70150-7.

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Walsh, M., G. Wallner, and P. Jennings. "Radioactivity in drinking water supplies in Western Australia." Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 130 (April 2014): 56–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2013.12.016.

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Brennan, R., and E. McBean. "A performance assessment of arsenic-iron removal plants in the Manikganj District of Bangladesh." Journal of Water and Health 9, no. 2 (April 25, 2011): 317–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2011.107.

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In Bangladesh, arsenic contamination of groundwater, microbial contamination of surface water and seasonally variable rainfall make reliable access to acceptable quality drinking water a challenge. Arsenic-iron removal plants (AIRPs) are a relatively inexpensive way of removing arsenic from groundwater for access to safer drinking water. This study evaluated the performance of 21 (of 105) AIRPs installed by a local non-governmental organization (Society for People's Action in Change and Equity) with financial assistance from the Australian High Commission, Dhaka, under the Direct Aid Program of the Australian Government. All AIRPs achieved the Bangladesh standard for arsenic in drinking water of 50 μg L−1 and 17 achieved the World Health Organization guideline of 10 μg L−1. The AIRPs removed 87% of influent arsenic, on average. After cleaning, poor arsenic and iron removal was observed for about 2 days due to inadequate residence time. Chemical processes that may influence AIRP performance are also discussed herein, including iron and arsenic oxidation, arsenic co-precipitation with iron, multiple iron additions, interference by organics, and iron crystallization. Effluent faecal coliform counts were generally low, though were slightly higher than influent counts. Overall, AIRPs were shown to possess considerable promise for use in areas with high natural iron where users are concerned about arsenic and/or iron in their drinking water.

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Handam, Natasha Berendonk, José Augusto Albuquerque dos Santos, Antonio Henrique Almeida de Moraes Neto, Maria De Fátima Leal Alencar, Caroline Ferraz Ignacio, and Adriana Sotero-Martins. "Drinking water quality in Brazilian urban slums." Ambiente e Agua - An Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Science 15, no. 3 (May 15, 2020): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.4136/ambi-agua.2532.

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The study analyzed the quality of drinking water used in Brazilian urban slum residences according to the standards established in Brazilian regulations. Bacteriological (n=231) and physicochemical parameters (n=134) were analyzed, as the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater establishes. The results revealed that contaminants in the water consumed, for the most part, exceed the limits of drinking water quality standards, putting the population's health at risk and reinforcing the urgency of the need for public policies.

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Mohammed, Zainab Bahaa. "Evaluation the water quality of the potable water network in Al-Shuala/ Baghdad City." Iraqi Journal of Physics (IJP) 13, no. 28 (February 4, 2019): 116–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.30723/ijp.v13i28.249.

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In this research, the water quality of the potable water network inAl-Shuala Baghdad city were evaluated and compare them with theIraqi standards (IQS) for drinking water and World HealthOrganization standards (WHO), then water quality index (WQI) werecalculator: pH, heavy metals (lead, cadmium and iron), chlorides,total hardness, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solid andelectrical conductivity. Water samples are collected weekly duringthe period from February 2015 to April 2015 from ten sites. Resultsshow that the chlorides, total dissolved solid and electricalconductivity less than acceptable limit of standards, but totalhardness and heavy metals in some samples higher than acceptablelimit of standards while the other parameter is good.WQI shows thatresults is excellent and good for drinking for all location and monthsexcept site (2) gave higher value (65.184) in March and site (9) gavehigh value (57.78, 57.23) at March and April indicate that sites ispoor for drinking water.

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Roser, D., N. Ashbolt, J. Ongerth, and G. Vesey. "Proficiency testing of Cryptosporidium and Giardia analyses - an Australian case study." Water Supply 2, no. 3 (July 1, 2002): 39–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2002.0083.

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An inter-laboratory proficiency trial was undertaken as a prelude to a survey of Australian drinking source waters for Cryptosporidium and Giardia oo/cysts. Specific aims included measuring the recovery of protozoan control material from representative source waters, identifying laboratory errors and assessing the utility of pre-stained reference oo/cysts. Five experienced laboratories were provided with coded vials containing oo/cysts or blanks for spiking 10 L water samples (11 replicate environmental, 5 filtered) or to be analysed directly (16 Count Control vials). Each laboratory reported both their standard counts and details of how each oo/cyst image was interpreted and confirmed. A sixth laboratory provided flow cytometry prepared seed material and reference analyses. Average recoveries for 10 L samples ranged from 0-67% and 0-72%, for environmental and filtered tap water respectively, depending on laboratory and sample type. The best performing laboratory obtained high recoveries, ranging from 45% to 66% for tap water and 63% to 81% for environmental water. Nonetheless, recovery from tap water and environmental sample analysed simultaneously by the same laboratory could differ markedly (1% v. 48% in one case). Poor recovery and false positives were encountered despite the experience of the participants. Inconsistencies in reporting were introduced by the different procedures for confirming oocysts and cysts. The trial showed that obtaining reliable estimates of environmental protozoan loads is still a concern for water managers.

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Pinto, Vívian Gemiliano, Léo Heller, and Rafael Kopschitz Xavier Bastos. "Drinking water standards in South American countries: convergences and divergences." Journal of Water and Health 10, no. 2 (March 7, 2012): 295–310. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2012.087.

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In this paper we present a comparative assessment of drinking-water standards from almost all South American countries, using the USA and the Canadian standards and the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines as references. Similarities and discrepancies between standards/guidelines were identified through descriptive analyses and, in the case of chemical standards, clustering techniques. In general, one or another of the four consecutive editions of the WHO Guidelines were shown to be quite influential in setting drinking-water standards in the region, but not so much the USA and the Canadian standards. Considerable discrepancies between South American drinking-water standards were found, mainly with respect to chemical substances. Questions are raised about their scientific basis and/or the practicalities for their enforcement. In conclusion, the paper highlights that many drinking-water regulations in South America need updating, taking on the approach of health-based targets in setting these standards, as well as that of a broader risk-based preventive management in the entire supply system to assure water safety.

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Utami, Ayu Widya, Dwi Nowo Martono, and Haruki Agustina. "Water Quality Assessment of West Tarum Canal for Drinking Water Supply." E3S Web of Conferences 277 (2021): 04003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202127704003.

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West Tarum Canal (WTC) is a canal that drains raw water from the Jatiluhur Dam. Nearly 81% of the raw water for drinking water used by Jakarta’s people comes from this canal. However, various land uses such as agriculture, industry, settlements, and infrastructure development impact WTC’s water quality. This research aims to assess WTC’s water quality in 2016-2020 based on water quality standards set by the Government and using the STORET method. The results of this research indicate that the concentrations of TDS (142-351 mg/L), Fe (0.1-0.15 mg/L), Mn (0.03-0.1 mg/L) are meet the standards, while DO (3.6-4.9 mg/L), BOD (4-10 mg/L), COD (13-30 mg/L) are not meet the standards. Almost all monitoring points have pH values between 5.75-7.68 that are meet the standards. The STORET score of WTC is from -26 to -38 with an average of -30, which indicates that WTC’s water quality is moderately polluted. Water contamination in WTC will burden the drinking water processing and ultimately affect the community’s ability to pay for drinking water. This research also shows the need for integrated management of WTC from upstream to downstream and the need to increase collaboration between stakeholders in carrying out this management.

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van der Aa, Monique. "Classification of mineral water types and comparison with drinking water standards." Environmental Geology 44, no. 5 (May 16, 2003): 554–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00254-003-0791-4.

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Khafiya, Nida'an, Linda Dewanti, and Wiwin Retnowati. "Comparation Between Station Management and Water Source on the Quality of Refill Drinking Water in Surabaya." Health Notions 4, no. 10 (October 31, 2020): 338–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.33846/hn41005.

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Drinking water is both a basic human need and a strong determinant of health. In Indonesia, there are drinking water refill stations (DWRS) which conveniently offer refill drinking water at affordable price. This study aims to determine whether station management amd raw water source influence the quality of drinking water. This cross-sectional study used primary data from questionnaires filled by DWRS owners and secondary data about the quality of refill drinking water from the Surabaya City Health Department. Data was then analyzed by using Chi-Square and Mann-Whitney tests. From 33 registered DWRSs, only 18 stations fulfilled all quality standards of drinking water. Some DWRSs failed to pass microbiological (n=13) and chemical (n=2) standards. All DWRS passed the physical standard. There was no significant difference found in duration of operation (pmicro = 0.956, pchemical = 0.382), production capacity (pmicro = 0.384; pchemical = 0.495). There was no significant difference found in terms of station management and raw water sources on the quality of refill drinking water. Keywords: drinking water refill station (DWRS); duration of operation; production capacity; raw water source