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Al-Jabry, Hanadi, and Hamid Al-Asadi. "Enhancing Packet Reliability in Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks using a Proposed Distributed Dynamic Cooperative Protocol (DDCP) Routing Algorithm." Iraqi Journal for Electrical and Electronic Engineering 19, no. 2 (August 18, 2023): 158–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.37917/ijeee.19.2.18.
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Wireless Multimedia Sensor Networks (WMSNs) are being extensively utilized in critical applications such as environmental monitoring, surveillance, and healthcare, where the reliable transmission of packets is indispensable for seamless network operation. To address this requirement, this work presents a pioneering Distributed Dynamic Cooperation Protocol (DDCP) routing algorithm. The DDCP algorithm aims to enhance packet reliability in WMSNs by prioritizing reliable packet delivery, improving packet delivery rates, minimizing end-to-end delay, and optimizing energy consumption. To evaluate its performance, the proposed algorithm is compared against traditional routing protocols like Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) and Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), as well as proactive routing protocols such as Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR). By dynamically adjusting the transmission range and selecting optimal paths through cooperative interactions with neighboring nodes, the DDCP algorithm offers effective solutions. Extensive simulations and experiments conducted on a wireless multimedia sensor node testbed demonstrate the superior performance of the DDCP routing algorithm compared to AODV, DSR, and OLSR, in terms of packet delivery rate, end-to-end delay, and energy efficiency. The comprehensive evaluation of the DDCP algorithm against multiple routing protocols provides valuable insights into its effectiveness and efficiency in improving packet reliability within WMSNs. Furthermore, the scalability and applicability of the proposed DDCP algorithm for large-scale wireless multimedia sensor networks are confirmed. In summary, the DDCP algorithm exhibits significant potential to enhance the performance of WMSNs, making it a suitable choice for a wide range of applications that demand robust and reliable data transmission.
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Ke, Yun, and Yan Li. "Distributed Intrusion Detection and Research of Fragment Attack Based-on IPv6." Advanced Materials Research 268-270 (July 2011): 1797–801. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.268-270.1797.
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IPv6, the address has to aggregation, thus greatly reducing the length of the routing equipment routing table to improve the efficiency of routing and security, but then there is any possibility of network intrusion attack. This paper used to implement IPv6 Snort intrusion detection software, intrusion detection system is proposed as long as the server itself TCP / IP stack on the handling of data packets are different, the packet will bypass the intrusion detection system from the ground to produce a TCP fragment attack.
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HUC, FLORIAN, IGNASI SAU, and JANEZ ŽEROVNIK. "(ℓ, k)-ROUTING ON PLANE GRIDS." Journal of Interconnection Networks 10, no. 01n02 (March 2009): 27–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0219265909002431.
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The packet routing problem plays an essential role in communication networks. It involves how to transfer data from some origins to some destinations within a reasonable amount of time. In the (ℓ, k)-routing problem, each node can send at most ℓ packets and receive at most k packets. Permutation routing is the particular case ℓ = k = 1. In the r-central routing problem, all nodes at distance at most r from a fixed node v want to send a packet to v. In this article we study the permutation routing, the r-central routing and the general (ℓ, k)-routing problems on plane grids, that is square grids, triangular grids and hexagonal grids. We use the store-and-forward Δ-port model, and we consider both full and half-duplex networks. We first survey the existing results in the literature about packet routing, with special emphasis on (ℓ, k)-routing on plane grids. Our main contributions are the following: 1. Tight permutation routing algorithms on full-duplex hexagonal grids, and half duplex triangular and hexagonal grids. 2. Tight r-central routing algorithms on triangular and hexagonal grids. 3. Tight (k, k)-routing algorithms on square, triangular and hexagonal grids. 4. Good approximation algorithms (in terms of running time) for (ℓ, k)-routing on square, triangular and hexagonal grids, together with new lower bounds on the running time of any algorithm using shortest path routing. These algorithms are all completely distributed, i.e., can be implemented independently at each node. Finally, we also formulate the (ℓ, k)-routing problem as a WEIGHTED EDGE COLORING problem on bipartite graphs.
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Chen, Kang, and Haiying Shen. "Greedyflow: Distributed greedy packet routing between landmarks in DTNs." Ad Hoc Networks 83 (February 2019): 168–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adhoc.2018.09.010.
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Cavalieri, S., A. Di Stefano, and O. Mirabella. "Distributed routing in packet-switching networks by counterpropagation network." Applied Intelligence 4, no. 1 (March 1994): 67–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00872056.
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Ganesh, E. N. "Analysis of Distributed Packet Receiving in ADHOC Network Using Multicast Routing Protocol." Asian Journal of Computer Science and Technology 5, no. 2 (November 5, 2016): 17–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.51983/ajcst-2016.5.2.1769.
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The main purpose multicast routing protocol in MANET is to deliver the data to a group of receivers. Several researchers are proposed various multicast routing protocols to achieve the reliability and scalability in MANET. MANET suffers from high overhead and redundant data transmission due to multicasting. We propose a neural network based multicast routing protocol to overcome the highest overhead and delay thereby network life time and packet delivery ratio (PDR) are improved. This is achieved by identifying the probability of optimum forwarding group node based on the information augmented with the JOIN_QUERY packet. The performance evolution shows the proposed approach ensures the PDR and reducing the control overhead significantly.
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Batool, Rida, Nargis Bibi, Samah Alhazmi, and Nazeer Muhammad. "Secure Cooperative Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks." Applied Sciences 14, no. 12 (June 16, 2024): 5220. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app14125220.
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In wireless sensor networks (WSNs), sensor nodes are randomly distributed to transmit sensed data packets to the base station periodically. These sensor nodes, because of constrained battery power and storage space, cannot utilize conventional security measures. The widely held challenging issues for the network layer of WSNs are the packet-dropping attacks, mainly sinkhole and wormhole attacks, which focus on the routing pattern of the protocol. This thesis presents an improved version of the second level of the guard to the system, intrusion detection systems (IDSs), to limit the hostile impact of these attacks in a Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) environment. The proposed system named multipath intrusion detection system (MIDS) integrates an IDs with ad hoc on-demand Multipath Distance Vector (AOMDV) protocol. The IDS agent uses the number of packets transmitted and received to calculate intrusion ratio (IR), which helps to mitigate sinkhole attacks and from AOMDV protocol round trip time (RTT) is computed by taking the difference between route request and route reply time to mitigate wormhole attack. MATLAB simulation results show that this cooperative model is an effective technique due to the higher packet delivery ratio (PDR), throughput, and detection accuracy. The proposed MIDS algorithm is proven to be more efficient when compared with an existing LEACH-based IDS system and MS-LEACH in terms of overall energy consumption, lifetime, and throughput of the network.
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Yu, Yao, Yuhuai Peng, Xiaoling Li, Jinfeng Gao, and Xiaozhu Cong. "Distributed packet-aware routing scheme based on dynamic network coding." China Communications 13, no. 10 (October 2016): 20–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/cc.2016.7732009.
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Saad, Hadeel Noori. "Source routing: Best rout using genetic algorithm." Journal of Kufa for Mathematics and Computer 1, no. 2 (October 30, 2010): 35–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.31642/jokmc/2018/010204.
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The success of distributed multimedia traffic presents many challenges to the network designer, certain bandwidth as well as bounds on delay, loss probability and jitter in order to maintain reception quality are issues of Constraint Base Routing (CBR). Flow routing requires deterministic path coordination in comparison with data routing. This paper presents a new technique for best CBR-rout path computation using genetic algorithm. Available bandwidth, delay jitter, and path availability are the fitness function, the genetic algorithm try to optimize. Source routed packets were established to hold the complete elected path in packet header. All studies made on NS2 simulator, where SARBE approach for rapid on-line estimation of available bandwidth shows performance optimization on OSPF algorithm for multimedia streaming applications.
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Jin, Jifeng, Feng Tian, Zijian Yang, Hao Di, and Guotong Li. "A Disruption Tolerant Distributed Routing Algorithm in LEO Satellite Networks." Applied Sciences 12, no. 8 (April 9, 2022): 3802. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app12083802.
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The low earth orbit (LEO) constellation network has become a promising approach to provide global communication services, due to its advantages in wide global coverage, low transmission delay, and convenient networking. However, the instability of the intersatellite laser terminal and the high relative speed between adjacent satellites cause frequent network topology changing problems for data routing. In this paper, a disruption tolerant distributed routing algorithm (DTDR) is proposed, where the satellites calculate the alternate path for transmission when the network topology changes, which improves the performance of packet loss. Specifically, each satellite maintains the intersatellite link (ISL) information within a specified number of hops. When an ISL state changes within the specified number of hops, the corresponding satellite calculates and switches to the detour path. Furthermore, the traffic is balanced through the detour process. Various simulations were constructed and show that the proposed algorithm outperforms the existing algorithm in terms of packet loss ratio and transmission delay.
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SHINJO, K., S. SHIMOGAWA, J. YAMADA, and K. OIDA. "A STRATEGY OF DESIGNING ROUTING ALGORITHMS BASED ON IDEAL ROUTINGS." International Journal of Modern Physics C 10, no. 01 (February 1999): 63–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s012918319900005x.
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This paper proposes a strategy of designing routing algorithms for connectionless packet-switched networks. This strategy consists of three design elements as follows: [A] the notion of ideal routings is introduced to provide the upper performance limits attained by improving routing algorithm and it serves as a standard to measure the performance of other algorithms; [B] a method of constructing simple algorithms is presented under implementation conditions from ideal routings; [C] a method is described to enhance the performance limits of [A]. By using these elements, simple algorithms with a maximum degree of performance attainment are realized. By "degree of performance attainment", we mean that we can see how much room is left for the improvement of algorithms. We develop [A] and [B] with the performance measures of throughput and average packet delay and the M/M/1 queuing network. We decide ideal static routings and their performance limits from [A]. We obtain a new simple algorithm from [B] based on the notion of the ideal routings in implementation conditions. The designed algorithm improves the throughput and the average delay, which are comparable to those from ideal static routings. This improvement is contrasted to the adaptive and distributed OSPF (Open Shortest Path First), a standard Internet routing protocol.
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Oh, Sukho, DongYeop Hwang, Kangseok Kim, and Ki-Hyung Kim. "A hybrid mode to enhance the downward route performance in routing protocol for low power and lossy networks." International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks 14, no. 4 (April 2018): 155014771877253. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1550147718772533.
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An IPv6 routing protocol for low power and lossy networks provides an IPv6 communication for a wide range of applications in multi-hop mesh networks. The routing protocol for low power and lossy networks defines the creation and management of downward routes with two modes of operations: storing and non-storing modes. The storing and non-storing modes have weaknesses for memory constraints and packet traffic overheads, respectively. The storing mode may cause routing failures due to constraints on memory in routers and the non-storing mode may cause packet fragmentation that can become a factor for packet delays or loss. Then the problems may degrade the downward route performance in routing protocol for low power and lossy networks. Therefore, in this article, we propose a hybrid mode that combines the advantages of the existing two modes to improve the performance of downward packet transmission in routing protocol for low power and lossy networks networks. The proposed hybrid mode uses a new routing header format. The routing information for packet delivery is distributed with the extended routing header. We implement the proposed hybrid mode in Contiki OS environment to compare with existing techniques. From the experiment, it was observed that the proposed hybrid mode can improve the performance of downward packet transmission. Therefore, with the proposed hybrid mode, it is possible to configure a network enable to be composed of many leaf nodes with constrained memory. We also discuss future works.
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Ding, Weichen, Wenbin Zhai, Liang Liu, Ying Gu, and Hang Gao. "Detection of Packet Dropping Attack Based on Evidence Fusion in IoT Networks." Security and Communication Networks 2022 (July 9, 2022): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/1028251.
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Internet of Things (IoT) is widely used in environmental monitoring, smart healthcare, and other fields. Due to its distributed nature, IoT is vulnerable to various internal attacks. One of these attacks is the packet-dropping attack, which is very harmful. The existing packet-dropping attack detection algorithms are unsuitable for emerging resource-constrained IoT networks. For example, ML-based algorithms always inject numerous packets to obtain the training dataset. However, it is heavyweight for energy-limited nodes to forward these extra packets. In this paper, we propose a lightweight evidence fusion-based detection algorithm (EFDA), which leverages the packet forwarding evidence to identify malicious nodes. Firstly, EFDA finds the sequence numbers of dropped packets and their corresponding source nodes. Then, it traces the routing path of each dropped packet and collects evidence for detection. The evidence stored by nodes around the path record the node’s forwarding behaviors. Finally, the collected evidence is fused to evaluate the trust of nodes. Based on nodes’ trust, the K-means clustering is used to distinguish between malicious nodes and benign nodes. We conduct simulation experiments to compare EFDA with ML-based algorithms. The experimental results demonstrate that EFDA can detect the packet-dropping attack without injecting packets and achieve a higher detection accuracy.
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Gellman, Michael. "Oscillations in self-aware networks." Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 464, no. 2096 (April 15, 2008): 2169–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2007.0328.
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Adaptive routing is once again of interest owing to the possibility to couple online probing in networks with real-time dynamic and distributed control of paths and flows. Wireless networks, with their rapidly changing network conditions also create a need to revisit this issue. This paper uses measurements in a wired adaptive network test bed, the cognitive packet network (CPN), to investigate the pros and cons of adaptive routing. CPN routes packet flows through a store and forward network according to their quality of service (QoS) needs through an online distributed reinforcement learning mechanism. This paper investigates routing oscillations that occur due to the interaction of multiple flows and studies their effect on QoS in the context of CPN. Our results indicate that routing oscillations can be easily controlled by randomizing the route switching, and that from an overall QoS viewpoint increased switching can also lead to improved performance.
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Chung, Kyung-Yul, Byung-Ju Lim, Hoo-Rock Lee, and Keel-Soo Rhyu. "Simulation for sensor network packet routing protocols based on distributed-event." Journal of the Korean Society of Marine Engineering 37, no. 4 (May 31, 2013): 418–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.5916/jkosme.2013.37.4.418.
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Jiang, Nan, Yuan Zhi He, and Lei Guo. "Heuristic Algorithm Based Traffic Classified Routing Algorithm in Distributed Satellite Cluster Network." Applied Mechanics and Materials 738-739 (March 2015): 1150–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.738-739.1150.
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The architecture of distributed satellite cluster network (DSCN) is presented and the characteristics of DSCN topology change are illustrated. On the basis of analyzing the acquisition method of network status and route calculation, we proposed a heuristic algorithm Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) based traffic classified routing (ATCR) algorithm for DSCN. Simulation results shows that, ATCR algorithm can balance network traffic effectively, and the end-to-end delay of every traffic class is less than TCD algorithm. The end-to-end delay of traffic class A and class B is less than ACO algorithm which does not use traffic classification. ATCR has a better performance on packet delivery ratio than ACO and TCD because ATCR reduces the number of heavy load link as well as packet loss caused by congestion.
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Al-Essa, Raneen I., and Ghaida A. Al-Suhail. "AFB-GPSR: Adaptive Beaconing Strategy Based on Fuzzy Logic Scheme for Geographical Routing in a Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET)." Computation 11, no. 9 (September 4, 2023): 174. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/computation11090174.
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In mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), geographical routing provides a robust and scalable solution for the randomly distributed and unrestricted movement of nodes. Each node broadcasts beacon packets periodically to exchange its position with neighboring nodes. However, reliable beacons can negatively affect routing performance in dynamic environments, particularly when there is a sudden and rapid change in the nodes’ mobility. Therefore, this paper suggests an improved Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing Protocol, namely AFB-GPSR, to reduce routing overhead and increase network reliability by maintaining correct route selection. To this end, an adaptive beaconing strategy based on a fuzzy logic scheme (AFB) is utilized to choose more optimal routes for data forwarding. Instead of constant periodic beaconing, the AFB strategy can dynamically adjust beacon interval time with the variation of three network parameters: node speed, one-hop neighbors’ density, and link quality of nodes. The routing evaluation of the proposed protocol is carried out using OMNeT++ simulation experiments. The results show that the AFB strategy within the GPSR protocol can effectively reduce the routing overhead and improve the packet-delivery ratio, throughput, average end-to-end delay, and normalized routing load as compared to traditional routing protocols (AODV and GPSR with fixed beaconing). An enhancement of the packet-delivery ratio of up to 14% is achieved, and the routing cost is reduced by 35%. Moreover, the AFB-GPSR protocol exhibits good performance versus the state-of-the-art protocols in MANET.
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Velusamy, Gandhimathi, and Ricardo Lent. "Delay-Packet-Loss-Optimized Distributed Routing Using Spiking Neural Network in Delay-Tolerant Networking." Sensors 23, no. 1 (December 28, 2022): 310. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23010310.
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Satellite communication is inevitable due to the Internet of Everything and the exponential increase in the usage of smart devices. Satellites have been used in many applications to make human life safe, secure, sophisticated, and more productive. The applications that benefit from satellite communication are Earth observation (EO), military missions, disaster management, and 5G/6G integration, to name a few. These applications rely on the timely and accurate delivery of space data to ground stations. However, the channels between satellites and ground stations suffer attenuation caused by uncertain weather conditions and long delays due to line-of-sight constraints, congestion, and physical distance. Though inter-satellite links (ISLs) and inter-orbital links (IOLs) create multiple paths between satellite nodes, both ISLs and IOLs have the same issues. Some essential applications, such as EO, depend on time-sensitive and error-free data delivery, which needs better throughput connections. It is challenging to route space data to ground stations with better QoS by leveraging the ISLs and IOLs. Routing approaches that use the shortest path to optimize latency may cause packet losses and reduced throughput based on the channel conditions, while routing methods that try to avoid packet losses may end up delivering data with long delays. Existing routing algorithms that use multi-optimization goals tend to use priority-based optimization to optimize either of the metrics. However, critical satellite missions that depend on high-throughput and low-latency data delivery need routing approaches that optimize both metrics concurrently. We used a modified version of Kleinrock’s power metric to reduce delay and packet losses and verified it with experimental evaluations. We used a cognitive space routing approach, which uses a reinforcement-learning-based spiking neural network to implement routing strategies in NASA’s High Rate Delay Tolerant Networking (HDTN) project.
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Vimala, K., and Dr D. Maruthanayagam. "Comparative Analysis of Routing Algorithms to Enhance the Quality of Service in MANET." International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering (IJRTE) 11, no. 1 (May 30, 2022): 108–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.35940/ijrte.a6949.0511122.
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Mobile Ad hoc Network is a self-organizing, infrastructure-free, distributed wireless networks made up of various mobile devices. Quality-of-Service routing is most difficult task in MANET due to inherent characteristics–for example frequent dynamic topology, node mobility, resource scarcity, absence of centralized control, etc as well. The QoS variables of any MANET routing algorithms determine its performance. QoS routing is process of routing packets from source (S) to destination (D) based on QoS resource constraints such as bandwidth, delay, packet loss rate, cost, security, link stability, and so on. Swarm intelligence, which mimics the collective behaviour of biological organisms to handle routing problems and improve QoS in the network, has been one of most popular studies for network routing in recent years. Particle Swarm Optimization algorithm (PSO), Genetic Algorithm (GA) and Ant Colony Optimization algorithm (ACO) have all been shown to be effective for developing routing algorithms by improving QoS metrics in ad hoc networks using Swarm Intelligence (SI). The primary objective of this comparative study paper is to improve QoS parameters by applying swarm intelligence to MANET routing algorithms. Swarm intelligence-based routing algorithms will be more promising for the specific nature of adhoc networks, outperforming in real scenarios/constraints/environmental conditions and will be tuned and simulated to obtain an efficient and effective MANET routing protocol. This paper investigates four potential pre-existing approaches proposed for MANET routing problems. These routing algorithms are evaluated using various performance metrics such as packet delivery ratio, routing overhead, link failure prevention, energy consumption, accuracy, and throughput, among others.
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Farhan, Marwa K., and Muayad S. Croock. "Optimized routing algorithm for maximizing transmission rate in D2D network." Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 23, no. 1 (June 1, 2021): 575. http://dx.doi.org/10.11591/ijeecs.v23.i1.pp575-582.
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<span style="font-size: 9pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;">Wireless devices have been equiping extensive services over recent years. Since most of these devices are randomly distributed, a fundamental trade-off to be addressed is the transmission rate, latency, and packet loss of the ad hoc route selection in device to device (D2D) networks. Therefore, this paper introduces a notion of weighted transmission rate and total delay, as well as the probability of packet loss. By designing optimal transmission algorithms, this proposed algorithm aims to select the best path for device-to-device communication that maximizes the transmission rate while maintaining minimum delay and packet loss. Using the Lagrange optimization method, the lagrangian optimization of rate, delay, and the probability of packet loss algorithm (LORDP) is modeled. For practical designation, we consider the fading effect of the wireless channels scenario. The proposed optimal algorithm is modeled to compute the optimal cost objective function and represents the best possible solution for the corresponding path. Moreover, a simulation for the optimized algorithm is presented based on optimal cost objective function. Simulation results establish the efficiency of the proposed LORDP algorithm</span><span>.</span><span style="font-size: 9pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;">Wireless devices have been equiping extensive services over recent years. Since most of these devices are randomly distributed, a fundamental trade-off to be addressed is the transmission rate, latency, and packet loss of the ad hoc route selection in device to device (D2D) networks. Therefore, this paper introduces a notion of weighted transmission rate and total delay, as well as the probability of packet loss. By designing optimal transmission algorithms, this proposed algorithm aims to select the best path for device-to-device communication that maximizes the transmission rate while maintaining minimum delay and packet loss. Using the Lagrange optimization method, the lagrangian optimization of rate, delay, and the probability of packet loss algorithm (LORDP) is modeled. For practical designation, we consider the fading effect of the wireless channels scenario. The proposed optimal algorithm is modeled to compute the optimal cost objective function and represents the best possible solution for the corresponding path. Moreover, a simulation for the optimized algorithm is presented based on optimal cost objective function. Simulation results establish the efficiency of the proposed LORDP algorithm</span>
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Upendran, V., and R. Dhanapal. "Secure and Distributed On-Demand Randomized Routing in WSN." INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF COMPUTERS & TECHNOLOGY 15, no. 6 (April 13, 2016): 6850–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.24297/ijct.v15i6.3976.
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Security and energy efficiency is of paramount importance in a wireless sensor network. This is due to their vulnerabledeployment conditions and battery based power. This paper presents a secure and distributed algorithm that generatesroutes on-demand in a wireless sensor network. Dynamic route generation is facilitated by PSO, a metaheuristictechnique. Current network traffic in that route and charge contained in the candidate node are used as evaluationparameters along with the node distance, hence a huge reduction in the packet loss was observed. Experiments wereconducted and it was observed that the proposed algorithm exhibits very low selection overhead and also providesdistributed routs, which eventually lead to prolonged network lifetime.
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Kallitsis, Georgios, Vasileios Karyotis, and Symeon Papavassiliou. "On the Potential of Enhancing Delay-Tolerant Routing Protocols via Age of Information." Future Internet 14, no. 8 (August 17, 2022): 242. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/fi14080242.
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In this paper, we study the potential of using the metric of Age of Information (AoI) for enhancing delay-tolerant routing protocols. The latter have been proposed for alleviating the impact of long roundtrip time in networks operating in harsh environments, e.g., in distributed applications deployed in a desert/sparsely populated area without infrastructure, a space network, etc. Delay-tolerant routing protocols can prevent excessive packet timer expiration, but do not provide any packet delivery time guarantee. Thus, they are unsuitable for time-sensitive applications that are more intensely desired nowadays in the next generation networking applications. By incorporating AoI into the operation of delay-tolerant routing protocols, we aim at devising routing protocols that can cope with both long propagation times and challenges related to time-sensitivity in packet delivery. More specifically, in this work, we modify the operation of a well-known delay-tolerant routing protocol, namely FRESH, to make AoI-based packet forwarding decisions, aiming at achieving specific delay guarantees regarding the end-to-end delivery time. We investigate the advantages and disadvantages of such an approach compared to the traditional FRESH protocol. This work serves as a cornerstone for successfully demonstrating the potential of exploiting AoI in delay-tolerant routing and its applications.
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Vivek Sharma. "Impact of RREQ Packet Flooding Attack on Wireless Sensor Networks: A Simulation-Based Study." Communications on Applied Nonlinear Analysis 31, no. 2s (May 30, 2024): 277–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.52783/cana.v31.645.
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This paper analyzes the impact of RREQ packet flooding on WSNs through simulations. WSNs are vital for applications like surveillance, healthcare, and environmental monitoring. However, they are susceptible to DoS attacks, such as RREQ packet flooding, which disrupts normal operations by overwhelming the network with excessive route requests. The study evaluates the effect of RREQ flooding on WSN performance metrics, including throughput, end-to-end delay, packet delivery ratio, energy consumption, and routing load. It also reviews relevant literature to provide background information and identify gaps in current knowledge. Introduction: WSNs consist of distributed sensor nodes that collect and transmit data to a central base station for processing. WSNs face significant challenges, including malicious activities like DoS attacks, which aim to disrupt normal operations. RREQ packet flooding is a severe form of DoS attack that overwhelms the network with excessive Route REQuest packets, leading to communication channel saturation and congestion, thus hindering legitimate data transmission and compromising network performance. Objectives: The objective of this paper is to conduct an in-depth analysis of the effects of RREQ packet flooding on various performance metrics of WSNs through extensive simulations. The study aims to understand the repercussions of this attack on throughput, end-to-end delay, packet delivery ratio, energy consumption, and routing load. Additionally, the paper seeks to identify existing gaps in the understanding of the impact of RREQ packet flooding and provide insights that can inform the development of effective countermeasures to safeguard WSNs. Methods: The paper employs simulation-based methods to assess the impact of RREQ packet flooding on WSN performance. Various performance metrics such as throughput, end-to-end delay, packet delivery ratio, energy consumption, and routing load are evaluated. A thorough literature review is also conducted to contextualize the analysis and identify knowledge gaps. The simulations are designed to mimic real-world scenarios to provide accurate and relevant results. Results: The simulations reveal that RREQ packet flooding significantly affects WSN performance. Key findings include a decrease in throughput, an increase in end-to-end delay, a reduction in packet delivery ratio, higher energy consumption, and increased routing load. These results highlight the detrimental impact of RREQ packet flooding on the overall functionality and efficiency of WSNs. Conclusions: The paper concludes that RREQ packet flooding poses a substantial threat to the performance of WSNs. The findings underscore the importance of developing robust defense mechanisms to protect WSNs from such attacks. The insights gained from this study can inform the creation of more resilient and reliable WSNs, capable of withstanding RREQ packet flooding and similar threats.
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Ryu, Junghun, Eric Noel, and K. Wendy Tang. "Distributed and Fault-Tolerant Routing for Borel Cayley Graphs." International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks 8, no. 10 (October 1, 2012): 124245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/124245.
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We explore the use of a pseudorandom graph family, Borel Cayley graph family, as the network topology with thousands of nodes operating in a packet switching environment. BCGs are known to be an efficient topology in interconnection networks because of their small diameters, short average path lengths, and low-degree connections. However, the application of BCGs is hindered by a lack of size flexibility and fault-tolerant routing. We propose a fault-tolerant routing algorithm for BCGs. Our algorithm exploits the vertex-transitivity property of Borel Cayley graphs and relies on extra information to reflect topology change. Our results show that the proposed method supports good reachability and a small End-to-End delay under various link failures scenarios.
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Khaleghnasab, Rogayye, Karamollah Bagherifard, Samad Nejatian, Hamid Parvin, and Bahman Ravaei. "A New Energy-Efficient Multipath Routing in Internet of Things Based on Gray Theory." International Journal of Information Technology & Decision Making 19, no. 06 (October 22, 2020): 1581–617. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0219622020500388.
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Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of smart things. It indicates the ability that the mentioned physical things transfer information with each other. The characteristics of these networks, such as topology dynamicity and energy constraint, make the routing problem a challenging task in these networks. Traditional routing methods could not achieve the required performance in these networks. Therefore, developers of these networks have to consider specific routing methods in order to satisfy their requirements. One of the routing methods is utilization of the multipath protocols in which data are sent to its destination using multiple routes with separate links. One of such protocols is AOMDV routing protocol. In this paper, AOMDV is improved using gray system theory which chooses the best paths used for separate routes to send packets. To do this, Ad hoc On-demand Multipath Distance Vector (AOMDV) packet format is altered and some fields are added to it so that energy criteria, link expiration time, and signal-to-noise ratio can also be considered during selection of the best route. The proposed method named RMPGST-IoT is introduced which chooses the routes with highest rank for concurrent transmission of data, using a specific method based on the gray system theory. In order to evaluate the results, the proposed Routing Multipath based on Gray System Theory (RMPGST)-IoT method is compared to the Emergency Response IoT based on Global Information Decision (ERGID) and Ad hoc Delay-aware Distributed Routing Model (ADRM)-IoT approaches in terms of throughput, packet receiving rate, packet loss rate, average remaining energy, and network lifetime. The results demonstrate that the performance of the proposed RMPGST-IoT is superior to that of ERGID and ADRM-IoT approaches.
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Jim, Lincy Elizebeth, and Mark A. Gregory. "Utilisation of DANGER and PAMP signals to detect a MANET Packet Storage Time Attack." Australian Journal of Telecommunications and the Digital Economy 5, no. 2 (June 5, 2017): 61. http://dx.doi.org/10.18080/ajtde.v5n2.100.
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The dynamic distributed topology of a Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) provides a number of challenges associated with decentralised infrastructure where each node can act as the source, destination and relay for traffic. MANET’s are a suitable solution for distributed regional, military and emergency networks. MANETs do not utilise fixed infrastructure except where connectivity to carrier networks is required and MANET nodes provide the transmission capability to receive, transmit and route traffic from a sender node to the destination node. In this paper, we present a Packet Storage Time (PST) routing attack where an attacking node modifies its storage time and thereby does not forward packets to the intended recipient nodes. In the Human Immune System, cells are able to distinguish between a range of issues including foreign body attacks as well as cellular senescence. This paper presents an approach using Artificial Immune System based Danger signal (DS) and Pathogen Associated Molecular Pattern (PAMP) signal to identify a PST routing attack.
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Jim, Lincy Elizebeth, and Mark A. Gregory. "Utilisation of DANGER and PAMP signals to detect a MANET Packet Storage Time Attack." Journal of Telecommunications and the Digital Economy 5, no. 2 (June 5, 2017): 61–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.18080/jtde.v5n2.100.
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The dynamic distributed topology of a Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) provides a number of challenges associated with decentralised infrastructure where each node can act as the source, destination and relay for traffic. MANET’s are a suitable solution for distributed regional, military and emergency networks. MANETs do not utilise fixed infrastructure except where connectivity to carrier networks is required and MANET nodes provide the transmission capability to receive, transmit and route traffic from a sender node to the destination node. In this paper, we present a Packet Storage Time (PST) routing attack where an attacking node modifies its storage time and thereby does not forward packets to the intended recipient nodes. In the Human Immune System, cells are able to distinguish between a range of issues including foreign body attacks as well as cellular senescence. This paper presents an approach using Artificial Immune System based Danger signal (DS) and Pathogen Associated Molecular Pattern (PAMP) signal to identify a PST routing attack.
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Tavanam Venkata Rao, V. Kumara Swamy, K. A. Karthigeyan, S. Gopalakrishnan, T. Kalaichelvi, and S. Koteswari. "Energy Efficient Trust Based Data Communication using AODV Protocol in MANET." Journal of Advanced Research in Applied Sciences and Engineering Technology 32, no. 1 (August 19, 2023): 390–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.37934/araset.32.1.390405.
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MANET is a collection of mobile devices and small-scale infrastructure networks built without centralized control. Each node in these networks collaborates with the other nodes to serve as a host or router. Because the detection medium contains information about distributed communication transmitted through Internet resources, security is an essential aspect of the wireless sensor network. Due to security flaws in network routing attacks, most existing principles control power resources and topology structure responsibility in fewer security dependencies, resulting in various intrusion factors due to data breaches. This paper presents a secure routing mechanism for wireless sensor networks based on trust aware routing protocol. Most constraints the routing protocol is resilient in the presence of malicious nodes activities monitoring on the routing levels based on response portability and energy constraints. By concerning energy level-based security, we propose a Trust Aware Energy Efficient Routing Protocol (TAE2RP) using secure routing data transmission for improving lifetime maximization in WSN. Initially the Resistance Support Factor (RSF) was estimated based on the packet drop ratio by handling the data resemblance of route containing information. Then the routing levels behaviors are analyzed through Secure Surf-Channel Multicast Routing Protocol (SSCMRP). To evaluate the trust factor on packet transmission rate using TAE2RP. In addition, Redundant Array Shifting Encryption (RASE) was applied to secure the data packets. The authentication policy was enhanced through Master Node Digital signing authentication. This optimized the cost of security routing by handling energy balancing mechanisms to improve the higher security by concerning authentication to attain higher security.
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Yeremenko, O. S. "Two-level method of hierarchical-coordination QoS routing based on resource reservation." Radiotekhnika, no. 192 (March 30, 2018): 71–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.30837/rt.2018.1.192.11.
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A method of hierarchical-coordination QoS routing based on network resource reservation is proposed. The proposed method is based on the introduction of a two-level hierarchy of solutions. The lower level was responsible for ensuring a consistent solution of problems of the distributed source routing and reserving the link resource with the provision of end-to-end QoS requirements for the packet rate and average packet delay. The main task of the upper level is overload preventing of communication links during the reservation of their bandwidth initialized in distributed manner by each of the border routers of the network. It is established that the method provides an iterative calculation of the required control variables; the number of such iterations depended on the network structure, the amount of available network resources, the number of flows and their QoS requirements.
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Park, Sang-Hyun, Seungryong Cho, and Jung-Ryun Lee. "Energy-Efficient Probabilistic Routing Algorithm for Internet of Things." Journal of Applied Mathematics 2014 (2014): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/213106.
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In the future network with Internet of Things (IoT), each of the things communicates with the others and acquires information by itself. In distributed networks for IoT, the energy efficiency of the nodes is a key factor in the network performance. In this paper, we propose energy-efficient probabilistic routing (EEPR) algorithm, which controls the transmission of the routing request packets stochastically in order to increase the network lifetime and decrease the packet loss under the flooding algorithm. The proposed EEPR algorithm adopts energy-efficient probabilistic control by simultaneously using the residual energy of each node and ETX metric in the context of the typical AODV protocol. In the simulations, we verify that the proposed algorithm has longer network lifetime and consumes the residual energy of each node more evenly when compared with the typical AODV protocol.
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Wang, Xin Ying. "Building New Reliable Wireless Network by Using Distributed Control." Applied Mechanics and Materials 84-85 (August 2011): 160–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.84-85.160.
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With the development of the pioneering deployments in multi-hop wireless networks, although the relative research have not proven successful. The performance of routing and transport is often unstable due to contention induced packet losses, especially when the network is large and the offered load is high. A reliable wireless network architecture by using distributed control for large-scale multi-hop wireless networks has been present in this paper, The design objective is to optimize the control performance. This control performance is a complex function of the network parameters, such as throughput, packet delay and packet loss probabilities. The goal of optimizing the control performance imposes implicit tradeoffs on the wireless network design as opposed to the explicit tradeoffs typical in wireless data and voice applications. Our analysis suggests that our approach will deliver improved service to users while greatly reducing support effort and cost.
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Saitoh, Yoshihiko, Jun-nosuke Teramae, and Naoki Wakamiya. "Distributed multipath routing with packet allocation based on the attractor renewal model." Nonlinear Theory and Its Applications, IEICE 9, no. 1 (2018): 60–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1587/nolta.9.60.
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He, Xuan, Kai Niu, Zhiqiang He, Jiaru Lin, and Zhong-Yuan Jiang. "Efficient packet transportation on complex networks with nonuniform node capacity distribution." International Journal of Modern Physics C 26, no. 10 (June 24, 2015): 1550118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0129183115501181.
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Provided that node delivery capacity may be not uniformly distributed in many realistic networks, we present a node delivery capacity distribution in which each node capacity is composed of uniform fraction and degree related proportion. Based on the node delivery capacity distribution, we construct a novel routing mechanism called efficient weighted routing (EWR) strategy to enhance network traffic capacity and transportation efficiency. Compared with the shortest path routing and the efficient routing strategies, the EWR achieves the highest traffic capacity. After investigating average path length, network diameter, maximum efficient betweenness, average efficient betweenness, average travel time and average traffic load under extensive simulations, it indicates that the EWR appears to be a very effective routing method. The idea of this routing mechanism gives us a good insight into network science research. The practical use of this work is prospective in some real complex systems such as the Internet.
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CAVALIERI, S., A. DI STEFANO, and O. MIRABELLA. "NEURAL STRATEGIES TO HANDLE ROUTING IN COMPUTER NETWORKS." International Journal of Neural Systems 04, no. 03 (September 1993): 269–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0129065793000225.
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In this paper, the authors adopt a neural approach to deal with the problem of routing in a packet switching network. The aim is to define a routing strategy which will combine the advantages of both the centralized and the distributed approaches. The neural approach presented is based on the idea of inserting a neural network (N/N) into each node in the computer network which will be responsible for computing the route between its node and the immediately adjacent one. Two distributed routing solutions are presented in the paper based on an optimizing network and a mapping network. The routing obtainable and the implementation resources needed for the two approaches are evaluated. Finally, the performance offered by the neural strategies proposed is compared with that offered by classical distributed and centralized routing solutions. As a parameter of merit, the effect of overloading caused by the additional traffic present in each solution is used.
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Prof. Dr. Manar Y. Kashmola, Omar S. Almolaa,. "Distributed Deep Reinforcement Learning Computations for Routing in a Software-Defined Mobile Ad Hoc Network." Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education (TURCOMAT) 12, no. 6 (April 5, 2021): 1708–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.17762/turcomat.v12i6.3378.
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The need for reliable and flexible wireless networks has significantly increased in recent years, according to the growing reliance of an enormous number of devices on these networks to establish communications and access service. Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs) allow the wireless network to establish communications without the need for infrastructure by allowing the nodes to deliver each other’s packets to their destination. Such networks increased flexibility but require more-complex routing methods. In this study, we proposed a new routing method, based on Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL), that distributes the computations in a Software Defined Network (SDN) controller and the nodes, so that, no redundant computations are executed in the nodes to save the limited resources available on these nodes. The proposed method has been able to significantly increase the lifetime of the network, while maintaining a high Packet Delivery Rate (PDR) and throughput. The results also show that the End-to-End delay of the proposed method is slightly larger than existing routing methods, according to the need for longer alternative routes to balance the loading among the nodes of the MANET.
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Arya, Hemlata, and Atul Chauhan. "Effect of change of Antenna Model with the Variation of Pause Time for Reactive and Hybrid Routing Protocols in Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks." International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research 13, no. 07 (July 25, 2022): 505–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.14299/ijser.2022.07.02.
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The collection of the many mobile nodes forming a short lived infrastructure with the help of any centralized administration. Since there's a random and dynamic modification in topology due to the quality of host, so the requirement for a study dynamic routing protocol is needed. Mobile ad-hoc network have the attributes like wireless affiliation, continuously dynamic topology, distributed operation and simple deployment. It establishes a short lived affiliation wherever nodes will be part of or leave the network at any time. Communication takes place by routing protocols in effective and economical manner in wireless network. Economical protocols are accustomed forward information packets while not a lot of packet loss. The target of the present paper is to boost the performance of the reactive and hybrid routing protocols with different directional antenna i.e. Omni and Pattern antenna with variation of pause time. The performance metrics in the research paper is PDR, NRL, Throughput and Routing Overhead.
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Kousar, Rukhsana, Majed Alhaisoni, Shahbaz Abid Akhtar, Nadir Shah, Aamir Qamar, and Ahmad Karim. "A Secure Data Dissemination in a DHT-Based Routing Paradigm for Wireless Ad Hoc Network." Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing 2020 (August 24, 2020): 1–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2020/2740654.
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Over the past decade, distributed hash table- (DHT-) based routing protocols have been adopted in wireless ad hoc networks (WANETs) to achieve scalability in the route discovery phase by avoiding the flooding mechanism. The security aspects of the routing protocols based on the DHT mechanism are crucial to address and have not been discussed in the existing literature. Therefore, addressing the security issues in DHT-based routing protocols would prevent the service disruption, decrease the traffic overhead, and reduce the packet loss in the network. In this paper, several security issues are identified and elaborated through an example scenario. Moreover, a novel DHT-based routing protocol is proposed that uses a digital signature and the user’s trust in order to swap securely the logical identifiers (LIDs). Trust between nodes is established by the user’s acquaintance and the first visual contact. The proposed protocol vindicates its effectiveness via simulation results in terms of computation time, normalized overhead, percent improvement, and packet delivery ratio.
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Bruno, Raffaele, Marco Conti, and Maddalena Nurchis. "RELADO." International Journal of Adaptive, Resilient and Autonomic Systems 3, no. 3 (July 2012): 54–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/jaras.2012070104.
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Opportunistic routing is considered as one of the most promising techniques to effectively limit performance degradation in wireless mesh networks caused by unpredictable channel variations and high loss rates. This paradigm defers the selection of the next hop after the packet reception to take advantage of any opportunity provided by broadcast transmissions. Most of the existing opportunistic approaches base the forwarder selection on end-to-end principles. However, in multi-hop wireless environments the cost of a path is not uniformly distributed over space, nor constant over time, hence even two equal-cost paths might present significantly different link quality distributions one from the other. This encourages the use of localized context to implement a more accurate selection of the possible forwarders after each packet transmission. Hence, in this paper the authors propose RELADO, an adaptive opportunistic routing protocol able to efficiently combine end-to-end with local information to ensure transmission resilience across the network. With this flexibility, RELADO is able to reduce packet loss by ensuring the best trade-off between throughput maximization and packet progress. An extensive set of ns2 simulations confirms the potentiality of RELADO to improve network performance when compared to both legacy unicast and opportunistic routing protocols.
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WANG, Li-Jun. "Research on the Effectiveness of Distributed Packet Filtering Based on Inter-Domain Routing." Journal of Software 23, no. 8 (September 11, 2012): 2130–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.3724/sp.j.1001.2012.04134.
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Al-Asadi, Hamid Ali Abed. "A Novel and Enhanced Distributed Clustering Methodology for Large Scale Wireless Sensor Network Fields." Journal of Computational and Theoretical Nanoscience 16, no. 2 (February 1, 2019): 633–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/jctn.2019.7782.
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Wireless sensor network (WSN) is a grid of sensors possessing processor unit and trivial memory unit implanted on them. Trustworthy packet forwarding from nodes to sink seems to be the most substantial purpose of this sensor network. The customary routing algorithms could not be employed at this juncture since the sensor battery power is limited. To provide energy proficiency, sensors are normally grouped as non-overlapping groups. This research work provides a transitory summary on clustering procedures in sensor networks. An energy-efficient distributed clustering approach for impenetrable sensor networks, the Weight based clustering Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (WC-LEACH) is proposed and the outcomes are assessed in contradiction with the prevailing Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) and Hybrid Energy Efficient Distributed Clustering (HEED) methodologies. Simulation results obviously display an exceptional enhancement in packet delivery ratio, reduced packet loss, reduced energy consumption, increased throughput and increased lifetime for WSNs.
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Santhi Sri, T., J. Rajendra Prasad, and R. Kiran Kumar. "Distributed and Adaptive Efficient Energy Aware Routing Procedure for MANETs." International Journal of Engineering & Technology 7, no. 3.12 (July 20, 2018): 841. http://dx.doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v7i3.12.16514.
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In mobile ad hoc networks {MANET}, power or energy consumption is a complex representation to define extensive communication between different nodes. To define energy routing scenario with respect to efficient energy maintenance to decrease the over burden of the protocol hierarchy wireless communication. To achieve these goals, a Synchronization-based Efficient Energy (SEE) calculation is supported along with the position opportunistic routing protocol previously to reduce overhead burden of server to maintain efficient energy. It consists distributed and random nature in which node consists local communication by facilitate packet transmitting in between different intermediate nodes based on backward communication. Because of random routing scenario of ad hoc networks, maintenance of capacity of each node for relay configuration at each node is a complex task. Due to that further extension of SEE, we introduce Collaborative & Efficient Energy Aware Distributed (CEEAD) approach, which consists routing representation in energy awareness scenario for wireless networks and it also supports cluster head representation of each node based on its random changes of power consumption in network communication. Our proposed approach consists cluster connectivity at each node because random routing process for wireless ad hoc networks. Our experimental results show effective increasing of network life time with scalable data communication in wireless networks.
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Aslam, Muhammad, Fan Wang, Xiaopeng Hu, Muhammad Asad, and Ehsan Ullah Munir. "Multihopping Multilevel Clustering Heterogeneity-Sensitive Optimized Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks." Journal of Sensors 2017 (2017): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/5378403.
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Effective utilization of energy resources in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) has become challenging under uncertain distributed cluster-formation and single-hop intercluster communication capabilities. So, sensor nodes are forced to operate at expensive full rate transmission power level continuously during whole network operation. These challenging network environments experience unwanted phenomena of drastic energy consumption and packet drop. In this paper, we propose an adaptive immune Multihopping Multilevel Clustering (MHMLC) protocol that executes a Hybrid Clustering Algorithm (HCA) to perform optimal centralized selection of Cluster-Heads (CHs) within radius of centrally located Base Station (BS) and distributed CHs selection in the rest of network area. HCA of MHMLC also produces optimal intermediate CHs for intercluster multihop communications that develop heterogeneity-aware economical links. This hybrid cluster-formation facilitates the sensors to function at short range transmission power level that enhances link quality and avoids packet drop. The simulation environments produce fair comparison among proposed MHMLC and existing state-of-the-art routing protocols. Experimental results give significant evidence of better performance of the proposed model in terms of network lifetime, stability period, and data delivery ratio.
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K. Farhan, Marwa, and Muayad S. Croock. "D2D MULTI-OBJECTIVE ROUTE OPTIMIZATION IN MANET ENVIRONMENT." Iraqi Journal of Information and Communication Technology 5, no. 2 (August 22, 2022): 32–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.31987/ijict.5.2.199.
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Over the past decades, wireless networks and devices have experienced intensive growth. Route discovery and selection from device to device (D2D) that are randomly distributed came across services trade-offs. This paper presents an optimal routing technique for the MANET environment-based D2D network. The optimization method considers the Lagrange Multiplier approach to maximize bit rate along with constraints minimization of the latency and packet loss. This method is executed for D2D nodes by active route election for links. An intensive simulation is applied and the obtained simulation results manifest the effectiveness of the presented Lagrange Optimization of Rate, Delay, and Packet loss algorithm (LORDP) in the optimal routing as compared to the Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Genetic Algorithm (GA).
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Chinara, Suchismita, and Santanu Kumar Rath. "Topology Control by Transmission Range Adjustment Protocol for Clustered Mobile Ad Hoc Networks." ISRN Communications and Networking 2011 (October 28, 2011): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.5402/2011/147925.
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The growth of interest and research on multihop wireless network is exponential in recent years. In mobile ad hoc networks (MANET), the nodes play the role of routers to forward the packets of neighbor nodes as there is no fixed infrastructure available to do so. Clustering is a proven solution that maps the architecture of cellular networks into ad hoc networks. Here, selected nodes form the virtual backbone of the network and take part in packet routing. This achieves faster packet delivery as limited nodes are responsible for the same even though the network is not strongly connected. In this paper, a distributed topology adaptive clustering algorithm is designed that requires local information by the nodes for the formation of clusters. The role of cluster head is fairly distributed among the nodes to obtain a longer network lifetime. The change of cluster heads and the mobility of nodes disturb the node connectivity resulting in communication instability. To overcome such situations, a topology control protocol is developed that adjusts the transmission range of concerned mobile nodes to achieve local connectivity among nodes within the clusters even after the hand-off by the heads takes place.
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Faizan Ullah, Muhammad, Junaid Imtiaz, and Khawaja Maqbool. "Enhanced Three Layer Hybrid Clustering Mechanism for Energy Efficient Routing in IoT." Sensors 19, no. 4 (February 18, 2019): 829. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s19040829.
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Recently, different routing techniques were proposed for three layer clustering topology in Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) which outperform the basic two layer clustering hierarchy. The problem that remains in these approaches is the heavy control packet exchange between nodes after every round in order to choose efficient lower layer heads. Among these techniques is Hybrid Hierarchical Clustering Approach (HHCA), in which a distributed approach is proposed. According to HHCA, the upper layer heads are centrally selected by base station, while sensor nodes only have to select lower layer heads distributively. In this paper, enhanced three layer hybrid clustering mechanism is proposed that limits the exchange of control packets between nodes after every round for lower layer head selection. The energy of nodes are divided into levels upon which it is decided when nodes of a cluster need to enter into new cluster head selection phase. The proposed mechanism helps to limit control packet exchange between nodes to a large extent, at the same time keeping energy consumption between nodes balanced. Moreover, it is focused that higher layer heads are selected by base station in a manner that reduces backward transmission in the network as much as possible. Simulation results show that nodes in the proposed mechanism stay alive for a longer time as compared to other approaches, and it outperforms HHCA technique in network lifetime based on Half of the Nodes Alive (HNA) by 18 percent.
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Shankar, Shiva, Dr B. Sivakumar, and Dr G. Varaprasad. "IMPLEMENTING A NEW ALGORITHM FOR ANALYSIS OF PROTOCOL EFFICIENCY USING STABILITY AND DELAY TRADEOFF IN MANET." INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF COMPUTERS & TECHNOLOGY 2, no. 3 (June 30, 2012): 11–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.24297/ijct.v2i3a.2667.
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In this paper, we present an extensive ns-2.33 simulation basedperformance comparison of four widely known stability-orientedon-demand Mobile Adhoc Network (MANET) routingprotocols. Our simulations show that modified Power DSR(PDSR) routes are more stable than existing DSR routes, whichare more stable than DSDV and AODV routes. This also resultsin an increased packet delivery ratio for PDSR in comparison tothat of DSR and DSDV. On the other hand, based on the energyconsumed per packet and the average energy used per node,DSR is better than DSDV, which is better than PDSR. At lownetwork density and mobility, PDSR routes incur the lowestdelay and as the network density and node mobility increases,DSR incurs lower delay. Thus, we see a stability-delay-energyconsumption tradeoff among these three stability-orientedrouting protocols. Regarding the fairness of node usage, weobserve that routes get distributed more evenly with increase inthe node mobility and network density. But, still there is anappreciable variation in the energy consumption per node asonly the chain of nodes that form stable routes are exhausted to agreater extent. A routing protocol that incurs fewer transitionswill lose fewer data packets, create less routing overhead andalso maintain in-order data delivery. At the same time, bystaying with a long-lived route, the routing protocol may incur alonger end-to-end delay. We intend to explore this tradeoffbetween stability and delay and try to come with up a metric thatwould quantify the efficiency of a MANET routing protocolwith respect to both stability and delay. On these lines, weintroduce the idea of Stability-Delay Tradeoff (SDT) as ameasure of the efficiency of a MANET routing protocols.
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Zhang, Shuyun, Huifang Chen, and Lei Xie. "ASVMR: Adaptive Support-Vector-Machine-Based Routing Protocol in the Underwater Acoustic Sensor Network for Smart Ocean." Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 11, no. 9 (September 2, 2023): 1736. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse11091736.
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The underwater acoustic sensor network (UASN) plays a crucial role in collecting real-time data from remote areas of the ocean. However, the deployment of UASN poses significant challenges due to the demanding environmental conditions and the considerable expenses associated with its implementation. Therefore, it is essential to design an appropriate routing protocol to effectively address the issues of packet delivery delay, routing void, and energy consumption. In this paper, an adaptive support vector machine (SVM)-based routing (ASVMR) protocol is proposed for the UASN to minimize end-to-end delay and prolong the network lifetime. The proposed protocol employs a distributed routing approach that dynamically optimizes the routing path in real time by considering four types of node state information. Moreover, the ASVMR protocol establishes a “routing vector” spanning from the current node to the sink node and selects a suitable pipe radius according to the packet delivery ratio (PDR). In addition, the ASVMR protocol incorporates future states of sensor nodes into the decision-making process, along with the adoption of a waiting time mechanism and routing void recovery mechanism. Extensive simulation results demonstrate that the proposed ASVMR protocol performs well in terms of the PDR, the hop count, the end-to-end delay, and the energy efficiency in dynamic underwater environments.
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NARGUNAM, A. SHAJIN, and M. P. SEBASTIAN. "SECURITY AWARE ROUTING PROTOCOL FOR MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKS." International Journal of Information Acquisition 03, no. 03 (September 2006): 233–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0219878906000988.
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Secured communication in mobile ad hoc network is a crucial issue due to dynamic nature of the network topology. Due to lack of centralized control, issuing certificates from a centralized certification agent is not possible in ad hoc network. The major problem in providing security services in such infrastructure-less networks is how to manage the cryptographic keys that are needed. In MANET any node may compromise the packet routing functionality by disrupting the route discovery process. These unique characteristics of mobile ad hoc networks such as open network architecture, shared wireless medium, stringent resource constraints and highly dynamic topology cause a number of nontrivial challenges to security design. These challenges make a cause for building multi-fence security solution that achieves both extensive protection and desirable network performance. In particular, the absence of a central authorization facility in an open and distributed communication environment is a major challenge, especially due to the need for cooperative network operation. We propose a novel cluster based security scheme to protect mobile ad hoc network link layer and network layer operations of delivering packet over the multihop wireless channel. The dynamic network topology can be managed efficiently by the proposed cluster based architecture. A well-behaving node becomes a cluster member after the initial trust verification process. The membership validity period of a node depends on how long it has stayed and behaved well. Non-overlapping clusters are created using the dynamic cluster creation algorithm. The cluster construction is fully distributed so efficiency is not degraded by node mobility.
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Kim, Sungwook. "A better-performing Q-learning game-theoretic distributed routing for underwater wireless sensor networks." International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks 14, no. 1 (January 2018): 155014771875472. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1550147718754728.
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Underwater sensor networks have recently emerged as a promising networking technique for various underwater applications. However, the acoustic routing of underwater sensor networks in the aquatic environment presents challenges in terms of dynamic structure, high rates of energy consumption, long propagation delay, and narrow bandwidth. Therefore, it is difficult to adapt traditional routing protocols, which are known to be reliable in terrestrial wireless networks. In this study, we focus on the development of novel routing algorithms to tackle acoustic transmission problems in underwater sensor networks. The proposed scheme is based on reinforcement learning and game theory and is designed as a routing game model to provide an effective packet-forwarding mechanism. In particular, our Q-learning game paradigm captures the dynamics of the underwater sensor networks system in a decentralized, distributed manner. The results of a performance simulation analysis show that the proposed scheme can outperform existing schemes while displaying balanced system performance in terms of energy efficiency and underwater sensor networks throughput.
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B M, Pampapathi, Nageswara Guptha M, and M. S. Hema. "Energy Efficient Data Distribution on Cloud with Optimal Routing Path Based Congestion Control in WSN Environment." Journal of University of Shanghai for Science and Technology 23, no. 08 (August 14, 2021): 421–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.51201/jusst/21/08409.
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Presently, Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is the extremely standard services utilized in commercial in addition to industrial applications, owing to its technical development in the embedded computing devices’ processor, communication, along with less-power usage. Moreover, in the WSN’s advantages, the sensor data’s energy-efficient distribution onto the cloud data centre is amid the core challenges caused by higher data loads and also congestion. Aimed at overcoming these problems, this work proffers an energy-efficient Data Packet (DP) distribution protocol comprising an optimal routing path centred congestion control technique in the WSN environment. This system not just ponders the energy-efficient DP distribution nevertheless increments the sensor’s lifetime by choosing the Cluster Head (CH) centred on the sensor’s residual energy, packet loss factor, data forwarding rate, and minimal distance. Next, the numerous routing paths prevalent in inter-cluster and intra-clusters are detected utilizing the QLA2ODV method; the congested nodes are detected as of these paths utilizing LM-NN classifier; if congestion happens, the QLA2ODV distributes the DP onto the Base Station (BS) via the optimum congestion-free routing path. The optimal routing paths were elected as of the congestion-free paths utilizing the WFCSO method. Past obtaining the sensor data, the BS transmits the DPs onto the Fog Nodes (FNs). At last, the sensor data are effectively distributed onto the cloud data centres grounded on the data’s features and cloud features utilizing the BD-SBO technique. The experiential outcomes determine the proposed system’s effectiveness.