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Peng, Jiawei, Yijun Wu, and Kunfeng Yuan. "A research on the consensus mechanisms." Applied and Computational Engineering 16, no. 1 (October 23, 2023): 127–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.54254/2755-2721/16/20230853.
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A distributed and decentralized ledger widely used in the computer science and financial fields called blockchain has provided safe and fast transactions for multiple parties. Also, check the transaction by each node on the blockchain. The consensus mechanism is the core of the blockchain. It lets all the nodes reach an agreement for those transactions, which ensures security and accuracy and make Bitcoin valuable and popular. Two of the most mainstream Consensus mechanisms are Proof of Work (PoW) and Proof of Stake (PoS), and Proof of Authority (PoA) is the new one that will apply in the future. Many discourses talk about consensus mechanisms, most of which are review papers. Those papers mainly show a specific aspect of a consensus mechanism or introduce the primary notion, but they rarely explain the corresponding relationship between theories and cryptocurrency. So, the purpose is to give a clear structure, connect the consensus mechanism to its application and simplify the reader's understanding. This paper aims to provide an overview of the consensus mechanism, including its general definition, concepts of different mechanism variants, and advantages and disadvantages. For the structure below, the essay introduces the notion of consensus mechanism and how PoW, PoS, and PoA work. Then summarize the papers based on these three consensus mechanisms, describing the theories of many consensus mechanisms and comparing the advantages and disadvantages. The essay also creates a comparison table about these three consensus mechanisms to embody the content above the stem better.
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Nirvikar Katiyar, Et al. "Decentralized Consensus Mechanisms in Blockchain: A Comparative Analysis." International Journal on Recent and Innovation Trends in Computing and Communication 11, no. 11 (December 31, 2023): 706–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.17762/ijritcc.v11i11.10075.
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Blockchain technology relies on decentralized consensus mechanisms that allow distributed networks of nodes to agree on the state of a ledger without central coordination. This paper provides a comparative analysis of major consensus protocols utilized in blockchain systems, including proof-of-work (PoW), proof-of-stake (PoS), delegated proof-of-stake (DPoS), practical Byzantine fault tolerance (PBFT), and federated consensus. We analyze the core principles behind each mechanism, strengths and weaknesses in terms of security, scalability, energy efficiency, and decentralization. We also provide examples of major blockchain platforms utilizing these protocols. Our analysis finds that no consensus mechanism optimizes across all attributes, with inherent tradeoffs between decentralization, transaction throughput, energy use, and finality. Hybrid models are emerging which aim to balance these tradeoffs.
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Zhao, Mingrui, Chunjing Shi, and Yixiao Yuan. "Blockchain-Based Lightweight Authentication Mechanisms for Industrial Internet of Things and Information Systems." International Journal on Semantic Web and Information Systems 20, no. 1 (December 15, 2023): 1–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijswis.334704.
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The industrial internet of things (IIoT) necessitates robust cross-domain authentication to secure sensitive on-site equipment data. This paper presents a refined reputation-based lightweight consensus mechanism (LRBCM) tailored for IIoT's distributed network structures. Leveraging node reputation values, LRBCM streamlines ledger consensus, minimizing communication overhead and complexity. Comparative experiments show LRBCM outperforms competing mechanisms. It maintains higher throughput as the number of participating nodes increases and achieves a throughput approximately 10.78% higher than ReCon. Moreover, runtime analysis demonstrates LRBCM's scalability, surpassing ReCon by approximately 12.79% with equivalent nodes and transactions. In addition, as a combination of LRBCM, the proposed distributed lightweight authentication mechanism (ELAM) is rigorously evaluated against the security of various attacks, and its resilience is confirmed. Experiments show that ELAM has good efficiency while maintaining high security.
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Tang, H., F. R. Yu, M. Huang, and Z. Li. "Distributed consensus-based security mechanisms in cognitive radio mobile ad hoc networks." IET Communications 6, no. 8 (2012): 974. http://dx.doi.org/10.1049/iet-com.2010.0553.
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Coelho, Igor M., Vitor N. Coelho, Rodolfo P. Araujo, Wang Yong Qiang, and Brett D. Rhodes. "Challenges of PBFT-Inspired Consensus for Blockchain and Enhancements over Neo dBFT." Future Internet 12, no. 8 (July 30, 2020): 129. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/fi12080129.
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Consensus mechanisms are a core feature for handling negotiation and agreements. Blockchain technology has seen the introduction of different sorts of consensus mechanism, ranging from tasks of heavy computation to the subtle mathematical proofs of Byzantine agreements. This paper presents the pioneer Delegated Byzantine Fault Tolerance (dBFT) protocol of Neo Blockchain, which was inspired by the Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT). Besides introducing its history, this study describes proofs and didactic examples, as well as novel design and extensions for Neo dBFT with multiple block proposals. Finally, we discuss challenges when dealing with strong Byzantine adversaries, and propose solutions inspired on PBFT for current weak-synchrony problems and increasing system robustness against attacks. Key Contribution: Presents an overview of the history of PBFT-inspired consensus for blockchain, highlighting its current importance on the literature, challenges and assumptions. Contributes to the field of Distributed Consensus, proposing novel extensions for the Neo dBFT (dBFT 2.0+, dBFT 3.0 and dBFT 3.0+), with new insights on innovative consensus mechanisms.
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Li, Zhihu, Bing Zhao, Hongxia Guo, Feng Zhai, and Lin Li. "A Privacy-Preserving Consensus Mechanism for ADMM-Based Peer-to-Peer Energy Trading." Symmetry 15, no. 8 (August 10, 2023): 1561. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/sym15081561.
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In the electricity market, prosumers are becoming more and more prevalent due to the fast development of distributed energy resources and demand response management, which also promote the appearance of peer-to-peer (P2P) trading mechanisms for energy. Optimization-based methods are efficient tools to design the P2P energy trading negotiation mechanism. However, the main drawback for market mechanisms based on optimization methods is that the incentive compatibility cannot be satisfied, which means participants can obtain more profit by providing untruthful biddings. To overcome this challenge, a novel consensus mechanism based on Proof of Solution (PoSo) is proposed for P2P energy trading. The optimization results will be verified by neighboring agents according to the KKT conditions in a fully decentralized and symmetric manner, which means agents will check each other’s solutions. However, the verification process may leak the private information of agents, and a privacy-preserving consensus mechanism is designed using Shamir’s secret sharing method. After that, we explore a method to realize that trusted agents can recover the right information even under the misbehavior of malicious agents by inheriting the philosophy of Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT). The numerical results demonstrate the effectiveness and efficiency of our proposed consensus mechanisms. In more detail, (1) when the message delivery success rate is not lower than 0.7, the consensus mechanisms almost guarantee success; (2) if the proportion of untrusted agents satisfies 4f+1≤Nωn, the proposed method guarantees the correctness of the consensus verification results; (3) the communication times among agents can be highly reduced by more than 60% by only verifying the optimality of the received results for the first three and last few iterations.
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Yi, Pan. "A Novel Trade Transaction Agreement Algorithm Using Blockchain Consensus Mechanism." Scientific Programming 2021 (October 18, 2021): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/5343337.
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Blockchain, the underlying technology of Bitcoin, has been deeply studied in various fields after its development in recent years. As a typical decentralized distributed data storage system, consensus reached among all participants in a blockchain system requires a consensus mechanism to be realized. In order to make blockchain applicable to different application scenarios, different consensus mechanisms have been proposed. With the further development of blockchain applications, more and more studies have been conducted on the consensus mechanism. However, some existing consensus mechanisms still have some problems in various aspects. Therefore, this paper proposes a trade deal algorithm based on the blockchain mechanism of consensus. First of all, according to PBFT, the lack of a dynamic problem in the VPBFT voting mechanism was introduced. The node system is divided into four types with different responsibilities and gives the number of relations between nodes. When the number of nodes is changed, it can be calculated according to the quantity relation, ensuring dynamic. Second, a data anonymous transaction and authentication protocol is designed. In the protocol, when the seller sells data, the mapping relationship between the real identity and the false identity of the data owner is blinded and sent to the buyer. When the buyer wants to verify their identity, the seller’s identity can only be verified with the authentication of the blockchain. The proposed algorithm is superior to the current consensus in terms of time and energy consumption, throughput, and fault tolerance methods, which is proven through experimental tests and simulation analysis.
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Aluko, Oladotun, and Anton Kolonin. "Proof-of-Reputation: An Alternative Consensus Mechanism for Blockchain Systems." International Journal of Network Security & Its Applications 13, no. 04 (July 31, 2021): 23–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.5121/ijnsa.2021.13403.
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Blockchains combine other technologies, such as cryptography, networking, and incentive mechanisms, to enable the creation, validation, and recording of transactions between participating nodes. A consensus algorithm is used in a blockchain system to determine the shared state among distributed nodes. An important component underlying any blockchain-based system is its consensus mechanism, which principally determines the performance and security of the overall system. As the nature of peer-topeer(P2P) networks is open and dynamic, the security risk within that environment is greatly increased mostly because nodes can join and leave the network at will. Thus, it is important to have a system that can check against malicious behaviour. In this work, we propose a reputation-based consensus mechanism for blockchain-based systems, Proof-of-Reputation(PoR) where the nodes with the highest reputation values eventually become part of a consensus group that determines the state of the blockchain.
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Xu, Ronghua, Deeraj Nagothu, and Yu Chen. "EconLedger: A Proof-of-ENF Consensus Based Lightweight Distributed Ledger for IoVT Networks." Future Internet 13, no. 10 (September 24, 2021): 248. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/fi13100248.
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The rapid advancement in artificial intelligence (AI) and wide deployment of Internet of Video Things (IoVT) enable situation awareness (SAW). The robustness and security of IoVT systems are essential for a sustainable urban environment. While blockchain technology has shown great potential in enabling trust-free and decentralized security mechanisms, directly embedding cryptocurrency oriented blockchain schemes into resource-constrained Internet of Video Things (IoVT) networks at the edge is not feasible. By leveraging Electrical Network Frequency (ENF) signals extracted from multimedia recordings as region-of-recording proofs, this paper proposes EconLedger, an ENF-based consensus mechanism that enables secure and lightweight distributed ledgers for small-scale IoVT edge networks. The proposed consensus mechanism relies on a novel Proof-of-ENF (PoENF) algorithm where a validator is qualified to generate a new block if and only if a proper ENF-containing multimedia signal proof is produced within the current round. The decentralized database (DDB) is adopted in order to guarantee efficiency and resilience of raw ENF proofs on the off-chain storage. A proof-of-concept prototype is developed and tested in a physical IoVT network environment. The experimental results validated the feasibility of the proposed EconLedger to provide a trust-free and partially decentralized security infrastructure for IoVT edge networks.
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Petrescu, M., and R. Petrescu. "Log Replication in Raft vs Kafka." Studia Universitatis Babeș-Bolyai Informatica 65, no. 2 (December 12, 2020): 66. http://dx.doi.org/10.24193/subbi.2020.2.05.
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The implementation of a fault-tolerant system requires some type of consensus algorithm for correct operation. From Paxos to View-stamped Replication and Raft multiple algorithms have been developed to handle this problem. This paper presents and compares the Raft algorithm and Apache Kafka, a distributed messaging system which, although at a higher level, implements many concepts present in Raft (strong leadership, append-only log, log compaction, etc.).This shows that mechanisms conceived to handle one class of problems (consensus algorithms) are very useful to handle a larger category in the context of distributed systems.
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Alrowaily, Majed Abdullah, Mansoor Alghamdi, Ibrahim Alkhazi, Ahmad B. Hassanat, Musab Mutasim Saeed Arbab, and Charles Z. Liu. "Modeling and Analysis of Proof-Based Strategies for Distributed Consensus in Blockchain-Based Peer-to-Peer Networks." Sustainability 15, no. 2 (January 12, 2023): 1478. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su15021478.
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Blockchain technology has a wide range of applicability in the fields of transportation infrastructure construction and maintenance, transportation big data analysis and application, expressway toll collection, and logistics. The core technology lies in the distributed, decentralized, immutable, and programmable features brought about by consensus. This paper studies the dynamic analytical modeling of Proof-Based Consensus (PBC) strategies in blockchain systems, focusing on basic strategies, including Proof of Work (PoW), Proof of Stake (PoS), Proof of Authority (PoA), and Proof of Luck (PoL), which can be extended to other PBC models. We focus on modeling these typical strategies and discuss their solution characteristics in terms of algorithmic mechanisms and principles. The relevant results can be used for quantitative analysis and evaluation of distributed consensus based on the model.
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Bowlin, Edgar, Mohammad S. Khan, Biju Bajracharya, Bhargav Appasani, and Nicu Bizon. "Challenges and Solutions for Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks Based on Lightweight Blockchains." Vehicles 5, no. 3 (August 19, 2023): 994–1012. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vehicles5030054.
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Current research with Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks (VANETs) has focused on adapting an efficient consensus mechanism and reducing the blockchain size while maintaining security. Care must be taken when implementing blockchains within VANET applications to leverage the chains’ strengths while mitigating their weaknesses. These chains can serve as distributed ledgers that provide storage for more than financial transactions. The security provided by longer blockchains constitutes a nearly immutable, decentralized data structure that can store any data relevant to the applications. However, these chains must be adapted to the ad-hoc, resource-constrained environments found in VANETs. In the absence of abundant resources and reliable network connections, chain operation and maintenance must address the challenges presented by highly mobile nodes in novel ways, including situations such as emergency messaging that require real-time responses. Researchers have included different mechanisms to realize lightweight blockchains, such as adding reputation to existing consensus mechanisms, condensing the consensus committees, using geographical information, and monitoring a nodes behavior in attempts to adapt blockchains to these domains. This paper analyzes the challenges and gives solutions for these different mechanisms to realize lightweight blockchains for VANETs.
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El-Taie, Mustafa, and Aaras Y. Kraidi. "Crafting Resilient Consensus Mechanisms for The Web3.0 Network Through Edge Intelligence." International Journal of Wireless and Ad Hoc Communication 8, no. 1 (2024): 21–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.54216/ijwac.080103.
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The era of independent, secure, and scalable networks and applications that Web3.0 promised has arrived. The resilience and reliability of the network are directly tied to the architecture of the consensus mechanisms used in this context. In the paper "Crafting resilient consensus mechanisms for the Web3.0 network through edge intelligence," the authors describe a novel approach to strengthening consensus protocols by leveraging edge computing and artificial intelligence. The primary purpose of this project is to improve Web 3.0 security by implementing consensus methods based on edge intelligence. The goal of this attempt is to reduce the inefficiencies, scalability challenges, and environmental concerns associated with more conventional approaches such as proof-of-work and proof-of-stake. The proposed method combines real-time network research with local transaction verification. This eventually leads to more scalable, secure, and effective consensus procedures, which increases the resilience and greatly decreases the cost of Web3.0 networks.The proposed method recognizes the inefficiencies, lack of scalability, and environmental unfriendliness of standard consensus procedures like the Proof of Work (PoW) and Proof of Stake (PoS) consensus processes. This approach makes use of edge intelligence in real time to assess the state of the network and make appropriate adjustments in response. What emerges is a consensus process that is greener, more scalable, and more successful overall. In addition, we provide the local transaction verification (LTV) technique, which allows edge nodes to validate transactions locally, therefore reducing latency and maximizing transaction efficiency. Our findings demonstrate how edge intelligence might improve Web3.0 consensus processes. Extensive simulations and tests show that the suggested approaches outperform conventional consensus mechanisms in terms of efficiency, security, and scalability. Cost reductions for Web3.0 network operators are also emphasized to emphasize the value of our strategy. Consensus procedures for Web3.0 networks that include edge intelligence provide a viable path toward attaining the required resilience, efficiency, and scalability. This study lays the way for a new age of distributed systems, guaranteeing the resiliency and flexibility essential to the success of Web3.0
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Khamar, Jalpa, and Hiren Patel. "Performance Analysis of Reputation based Proof of Credibility Consensus Mechanism for Blockchain based Applications." International Journal on Recent and Innovation Trends in Computing and Communication 11, no. 7s (July 13, 2023): 503–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.17762/ijritcc.v11i7s.7029.
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Blockchain is a decentralized transaction and data management technology first developed for the Bitcoin cryptocurrency. Blockchain technology is gaining popularity due to its core attributes which provides security, anonymity and data integrity without any involvement of third party. Consensus mechanism is a procedure by which all peers in the blockchain network agrees to a common agreement on the current state of the distributed ledger. It plays vital role in increasing efficiency of any blockchain environment. Though we have many consensus mechanisms working currently in different areas but they still lack in parameters like status of validators, latency, node failure etc. In Our proposed algorithm Proof of credibility, we have tried to incorporate all above factors in it. We have also implemented two or more factors of proposed algorithm and have evaluated and compared with existing consensus algorithm. In future research we aim to implement RPoC in any blockchain network and then we will evaluate it in terms of different evaluation parameters such as performance, security, scalability.
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Chang, Jenghorng, and Fanpyn Liu. "A Byzantine Sensing Network Based on Majority-Consensus Data Aggregation Mechanism." Sensors 21, no. 1 (January 2, 2021): 248. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21010248.
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In the current Internet of Things era, digital devices form complex interconnections. The statuses of objects of interest are monitored using sensors, and distributed wireless sensor networks are formed from numerous sensor nodes. Many Byzantine fault tolerance mechanisms in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) were proposed from Byzantine agreement which even with a few faulty nodes in a sensor network, most healthy nodes can reach a consensus, perform data transmission tasks, and maintain network operation. In this study, this mechanism was utilized together with the majority function technique; in particular, the proposed method uses original sensor signals to define a threshold to assert a binary value of one or zero, thereby performing data judgment and aggregation. This approach reduces node energy consumption and enables the nodes to quickly reach a consensus. Moreover, the operating performance of the network can be maintained even when problems such as node failure and faults occur within the fault tolerance range. Compared with existing algorithms, the proposed data aggregation mechanism exhibits a better network life cycle and can effectively extend the flexibility of network operations.
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Platt, Moritz, and Peter McBurney. "Sybil in the Haystack: A Comprehensive Review of Blockchain Consensus Mechanisms in Search of Strong Sybil Attack Resistance." Algorithms 16, no. 1 (January 6, 2023): 34. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/a16010034.
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Consensus algorithms are applied in the context of distributed computer systems to improve their fault tolerance. The explosive development of distributed ledger technology following the proposal of “Bitcoin” led to a sharp increase in research activity in this area. Specifically, public and permissionless networks require robust leader selection strategies resistant to Sybil attacks in which malicious attackers present bogus identities to induce byzantine faults. Our goal is to analyse the entire breadth of works in this area systematically, thereby uncovering trends and research directions regarding Sybil attack resistance in today’s blockchain systems to benefit the designs of the future. Through a systematic literature review, we condense an immense set of research records (N = 21,799) to a relevant subset (N = 483). We categorise these mechanisms by their Sybil attack resistance characteristics, leader selection methodology, and incentive scheme. Mechanisms with strong Sybil attack resistance commonly adopt the principles underlying “Proof-of-Work” or “Proof-of-Stake” while mechanisms with limited resistance often use reputation systems or physical world linking. We find that only a few fundamental paradigms exist that can resist Sybil attacks in a permissionless setting but discover numerous innovative mechanisms that can deliver weaker protection in system scenarios with smaller attack surfaces.
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Wang, Hao, Shenglan Ma, Chaonian Guo, Yulei Wu, Hong-Ning Dai, and Di Wu. "Blockchain-Based Power Energy Trading Management." ACM Transactions on Internet Technology 21, no. 2 (March 30, 2021): 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3409771.
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Distributed peer-to-peer power energy markets are emerging quickly. Due to central governance and lack of effective information aggregation mechanisms, energy trading cannot be efficiently scheduled and tracked. We devise a new distributed energy transaction system over the energy Industrial Internet of Things based on predictive analytics, blockchain, and smart contract technologies. We propose a solution for scheduling distributed energy sources based on the Minimum Cut Maximum Flow theory. Blockchain is used to record transactions and reach consensus. Payment clearing for the actual power consumption is executed via smart contracts. Experimental results on real data show that our solution is practical and achieves a lower total cost for power energy consumption.
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Zhao, Wenbing. "Fast Paxos Made Easy." International Journal of Distributed Systems and Technologies 6, no. 1 (January 2015): 15–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijdst.2015010102.
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Distributed consensus is one of the most important building blocks for distributed systems. Fast Paxos is one of the latest variants of the Paxos algorithm for distributed consensus. Fast Paxos allows an acceptor to cast a vote for a value of its choice unilaterally in a fast round, thereby eliminating a communication step for reaching consensus. As a tradeoff, the coordinator must build a quorum that is bigger than the simple majority used in Classic Paxos. This article presents the theory, implementation, and a comprehensive performance evaluation of the Fast Paxos algorithm. The theory is described in an easier-to-understand way compared with the original article by Lamport. In particular, an easy-to-implement value selection rule for the coordinator is derived. In the implementation of Fast Paxos for state-machine replication, a number of additional mechanisms are developed to cope with practical scenarios. Furthermore, the experiments reveal that Fast Paxos is most appropriate for use in a single-client configuration. The presence of two or more concurrent clients even in a local area network would incur frequent collisions, which would reduce the system throughput and increase the mean response time as experienced by clients. Due to frequent collisions, Fast Paxos actually performs worse than Classic Paxos in the presence of moderate to large number of concurrent clients.
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Arslan, Caglar, Selen Sipahioğlu, Emre Şafak, Mesut Gözütok, and Tacettin Köprülü. "Comparative Analysis and Modern Applications of PoW, PoS, PPoS Blockchain Consensus Mechanisms and New Distributed Ledger Technologies." Advances in Science, Technology and Engineering Systems Journal 6, no. 5 (October 2021): 279–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.25046/aj060531.
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Deng, Weichu, Teng Huang, and Haiyang Wang. "A Review of the Key Technology in a Blockchain Building Decentralized Trust Platform." Mathematics 11, no. 1 (December 26, 2022): 101. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/math11010101.
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Currently, the trust mechanisms of various Internet application platforms are still built under the orders of centralized authorities. This centralized trust mechanism generally suffers from problems such as excessive power of central nodes, single point of failure and data privacy leakage. Blockchain is a new type of distributed data architecture with non-tamperability, openness and transparency, and traceability, which can achieve secure and trustworthy sharing of data without the participation of third-party authorities. The decentralized trust mechanism built based on the blockchain provides a new research paradigm with broad development prospects to solve the problem of establishing reliable information sharing under the environmental conditions of incomplete reliability in finance, healthcare, energy, and data security. In response to the issues exposed by centralized trust mechanisms in recent years, based on the critical technology of blockchain, this paper surveys the relevant literature around the vital issue of building a decentralized and secure trust mechanism. First, the decentralized trust mechanism architecture is sorted out by comparing different decentralized platforms. The blockchain is divided into the data layer, network layer, consensus layer, contract layer and application layer, which correspond to the theory, implementation, operation, extension, and application of the decentralized trust mechanism of a blockchain, a district-centric platform. Secondly, the principles and technologies of blockchain are elaborated in detail, focusing on the underlying principles, consensus algorithms, and smart contracts. Finally, blockchain problems and development directions are summarized in light of relevant literature.
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Kera, Denisa Reshef. "Dining Philosophers, Byzantine Generals, and the Various Nodes, Users, and Citizens under Blockchain Rule." AETiC Special Issue on Next Generation Blockchain Architecture, Infrustracture and Applications 3, no. 5 (December 15, 2019): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.33166/aetic.2019.05.001.
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Agreements, consensuses, protocols, resource-sharing, and fairness are all examples of social and political metaphors that define and shape new computational algorithms. The thought experiments and allegories about resource-sharing or agreement between nodes played a vital role in the development of "concurrent programming" (enabling processor power-sharing and process synchronization) and still later in the development of distributed computing (facilitating data access and synchronization). These paved the way for current concepts of consensus mechanisms, smart contracts, and other descriptions of cryptocurrencies, blockchain, distributed ledger, and hashgraph technologies, paradoxically reversing the relations between metaphor and artifact. New computing concepts and algorithmic processes, such as consensus mechanisms, trustless networks, and automated smart contracts or DAOs (Distributed Autonomous Organizations), aim to disrupt social contracts and political decision-making and replace economic, social, and political institutions (e.g., law, money, voting). Rather than something that needs a metaphor, algorithms are becoming the metaphor of good governance. Current fantasies of algorithmic governance exemplify this reversal of the role played by metaphors: they reduce all concepts of governance to automation and curtail opportunities for defining new computing challenges inspired by the original allegories, thought experiments, and metaphors. Especially now, when we are still learning how best to govern the transgressions and excesses of emerging distributed ledger technologies, productive relations between software and allegory, algorithms and metaphors, code and law are possible so long as they remain transitive. Against this tyranny of algorithms and technologies as metaphors and aspirational models of governance, we propose sandboxes and environments that allow stakeholders to combine prototyping with deliberation, algorithms with metaphors, codes with regulations.
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Akbar, Nur Arifin, Amgad Muneer, Narmine ElHakim, and Suliman Mohamed Fati. "Distributed Hybrid Double-Spending Attack Prevention Mechanism for Proof-of-Work and Proof-of-Stake Blockchain Consensuses." Future Internet 13, no. 11 (November 12, 2021): 285. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/fi13110285.
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Blockchain technology is a sustainable technology that offers a high level of security for many industrial applications. Blockchain has numerous benefits, such as decentralisation, immutability and tamper-proofing. Blockchain is composed of two processes, namely, mining (the process of adding a new block or transaction to the global public ledger created by the previous block) and validation (the process of validating the new block added). Several consensus protocols have been introduced to validate blockchain transactions, Proof-of-Work (PoW) and Proof-of-Stake (PoS), which are crucial to cryptocurrencies, such as Bitcoin. However, these consensus protocols are vulnerable to double-spending attacks. Amongst these attacks, the 51% attack is the most prominent because it involves forking a blockchain to conduct double spending. Many attempts have been made to solve this issue, and examples include delayed proof-of-work (PoW) and several Byzantine fault tolerance mechanisms. These attempts, however, suffer from delay issues and unsorted block sequences. This study proposes a hybrid algorithm that combines PoS and PoW mechanisms to provide a fair mining reward to the miner/validator by conducting forking to combine PoW and PoS consensuses. As demonstrated by the experimental results, the proposed algorithm can reduce the possibility of intruders performing double mining because it requires achieving 100% dominance in the network, which is impossible.
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Li, Ming, Wenyu Zhang, Meng Yang, Hongyong Liu, Jie Ren, Jiageng Dai, and Shuailiang Yao. "Research on Certification and Circulation Mode of Green Electricity Environmental Value Based on Blockchain." E3S Web of Conferences 385 (2023): 02004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202338502004.
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In the process of green power trading, green power reflects the value of electricity energy and green environment, and green certificates aim to reduce the pressure of new energy subsidies and guide the concept of green electricity consumption. In order to promote the integration of new energy through market-oriented mechanisms, ensure the basic income of new energy projects, reflect the environmental value of green electricity, promote the sustainable development of the new energy industry, and meet the needs of users for green electricity at the same time, this paper constructs a blockchain-based green electricity environmental value authentication and circulation method by using the characteristics of blockchain centralization, distributed ledger, consensus mechanism, and smart contract.
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Zhu, Wangshu. "Introduction and analysis of bitcoin-based blockchain technology principle." Applied and Computational Engineering 14, no. 1 (October 23, 2023): 31–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.54254/2755-2721/14/20230755.
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Blockchain technology is a technology that inherently solves trust issues. It has the character-istics of decentralization, distributed storage, tamper resistance, security, and transparency. It ensures reliable communication between nodes that do not trust each other through consensus mechanisms, smart contracts, and other means. Blockchain stores each transaction data on each transaction node to make the data public and transparent, and generates the data into a blockchain.. As a relatively new distributed database system, blockchain has expanded to many other fields since the initial digital currency, but its development is seriously constrained by problems such as large storage overhead and low query efficiency. In order to find a suita-ble optimization method, select the representative blockchain system Bitcoin, analyze its data structure, data storage and data query processing mechanism, discuss the problems existing in the two functions of storage and query, summarize the existing relevant optimization methods, and look forward to the main research problems of the blockchain system represented by Bitcoin in the future.
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Su, Xiaohang, Peng Liu, Haoran Jiang, and Xinyu Yu. "Neighbor event-triggered adaptive distributed control for multiagent systems with dead-zone inputs." AIMS Mathematics 9, no. 4 (2024): 10031–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.3934/math.2024491.
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<abstract><p>The paper focused on the distributed tracking problem for a specific class of multi-agent systems, characterized by bandwidth constraint and dead zone actuators, where the bandwidth limitations exist in neighbor agents and the dead zone nonlinearity refers to a generalized mathematical model. Initially, a series of event-triggered mechanisms with relative thresholds were established for neighbor agents, ensuring that control signals were transmitted only when necessary. Next, the generalized dead zone models were decomposed into two parts: indefinite terms with control coefficients and disturbance-like terms, resulting in unpredictability and damaging effects. Subsequently, based on the backstepping procedure, final consensus controllers with multiple polynomial compensators were constructed. These controllers offset the coupling coefficients caused by event-triggered mechanisms and dead zone non-smooth. Stability analysis was given to substantiate the theoretical correctness of this method and support the claim of Zeno behavior avoidance. Finally, simulation studies were performed for the feasibility of our proposed methodology.</p></abstract>
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Meng, Mingming, and Yuancheng Li. "SFedChain: blockchain-based federated learning scheme for secure data sharing in distributed energy storage networks." PeerJ Computer Science 8 (June 29, 2022): e1027. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj-cs.1027.
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The intelligence of energy storage devices has led to a sharp increase in the amount of detection data generated. Data sharing among distributed energy storage networks can realize collaborative control and comprehensive analysis, which effectively improves the clustering and intelligence. However, data security problems have become the main obstacle for energy storage devices to share data for joint modeling and analysis. The security issues caused by information leakage far outweigh property losses. In this article, we first proposed a blockchain-based machine learning scheme for secure data sharing in distributed energy storage networks. Then, we formulated the data sharing problem into a machine-learning problem by incorporating secure federated learning. Innovative verification methods and consensus mechanisms were used to encourage participants to act honestly, and to use well-designed incentive mechanisms to ensure the sustainable and stable operation of the system. We implemented the scheme of SFedChain and experimented on real datasets with different settings. The numerical results show that SFedChain is promising.
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Zhang, Xiaohui, Mingying Xue, and Xianghua Miao. "A Consensus Algorithm Based on Risk Assessment Model for Permissioned Blockchain." Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing 2022 (August 26, 2022): 1–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/8698009.
Full textAbstract:
Blockchain is characterized by privacy, traceability, and security features as a novel framework of distributed ledger technologies. Blockchain technology enables stakeholders to conduct trusted data sharing and exchange without a trusted centralized institution. These features make blockchain applications attractive to enhance trustworthiness in very different contexts. Due to unique design concepts and outstanding performance, blockchain has become a popular research topic in industry and academia in recent years. Every participant is anonymous in a permissionless blockchain represented by cryptocurrency applications such as Bitcoin. In this situation, some special incentive mechanisms are applied to the permissionless blockchain, such as “mined” native cryptocurrency to solve the trust issues of the permissionless blockchain. In many use cases, permissionless blockchain has bottlenecks in transaction throughput performance, which restricts further application in the real world. A permissioned blockchain can reach a consensus among a group of entities that do not establish an entire trust relationship. Unlike permissionless blockchains, the participants must be identified in permissioned blockchains. By relying on the traditional crash fault-tolerant consensus protocols, permissioned blockchains can achieve high transaction throughput and low latency without sacrificing security. However, how to balance the security and consensus efficiency is still the issue that needs to be solved urgently in permissioned blockchains. As the core module of blockchain technology, the consensus algorithm plays a vital role in the performance of the blockchain system. Thus, this paper proposes a new consensus algorithm for permissioned blockchain, the Risk Assessment-based Consensus (RAC) protocol, combined with the decentralized design concept and the risk-node assessment mechanism to address the unbalance issues of performance in speed, scalability, and security.
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Kumar R, Nithish. "Comparative Study of Proof of Work (PoW) and Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS) Blockchain Consensus Algorithm." International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology 9, no. VI (July 15, 2021): 650–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2021.36425.
Full textAbstract:
As opposed to the current system, that is controlled by a central authority, blockchain was invented by Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008 as a distributed ledger system. A major development in the technology came with the introduction of virtual cryptocurrencies where transactions were recorded and verified by miners or validators at various nodes in different locations. Since these transaction records are available to everyone, this solved the current problem of excessive double spending. In a decentralized system like blockchain, a reliable mechanism was necessary to verify the integrity of all transactions. This led to the introduction of a variety of consensus mechanisms. This paper presents the results of a comparative study between Proof of Work and Delegated Proof of Stake, both of which have been widely used in Blockchain projects recently. Based on the above, this study will primarily discuss a brief explanation of the workings of both algorithms, comparisons between them, and various factors impacting these algorithms from a crypto currency standpoint.
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Li, Zhihu, Haiqing Xu, Feng Zhai, Bing Zhao, Meng Xu, and Zhenwei Guo. "A Privacy-Preserving, Two-Party, Secure Computation Mechanism for Consensus-Based Peer-to-Peer Energy Trading in the Smart Grid." Sensors 22, no. 22 (November 21, 2022): 9020. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s22229020.
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Consumers in electricity markets are becoming more proactive because of the rapid development of demand–response management and distributed energy resources, which boost the transformation of peer-to-peer (P2P) energy-trading mechanisms. However, in the P2P negotiation process, it is a challenging task to prevent private information from being attacked by malicious agents. In this paper, we propose a privacy-preserving, two-party, secure computation mechanism for consensus-based P2P energy trading. First, a novel P2P negotiation mechanism for energy trading is proposed based on the consensus + innovation (C + I) method and the power transfer distribution factor (PTDF), and this mechanism can simultaneously maximize social welfare and maintain physical network constraints. In addition, the C + I method only requires a minimum set of information to be exchanged. Then, we analyze the strategy of malicious neighboring agents colluding to attack in order to steal private information. To defend against this attack, we propose a two-party, secure computation mechanism in order to realize safe negotiation between each pair of prosumers based on Paillier homomorphic encryption (HE), a smart contract (SC), and zero-knowledge proof (ZKP). The energy price is updated in a safe way without leaking any private information. Finally, we simulate the functionality of the privacy-preserving mechanism in terms of convergence performance, computational efficiency, scalability, and SC operations.
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Chatziamanetoglou, Dimitrios, and Konstantinos Rantos. "Blockchain-Based Cyber Threat Intelligence Sharing Using Proof-of-Quality Consensus." Security and Communication Networks 2023 (February 13, 2023): 1–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2023/3303122.
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Cyber threat intelligence (CTI) is contextualised knowledge, built on information that is collected, processed, analysed, and disseminated to the right audience, in order to comprehend a malicious threat actor’s motivation, goals, objectives, targets, and attack behaviours. The CTI value increases by the ability to be shared, consumed, and actioned timely, by the right stakeholders, based always on quality standards and parameters, which boost the cyber security community to understand how adversaries act and to counter the constantly emerging sophisticated cyber threats. In this article, along with the identification of research gaps, after a comparison between existing research studies in the similar scope of CTI evaluation and sharing mechanisms, we propose a blockchain-based cyber threat intelligence system architecture, which collects, evaluates, stores, and shares CTI, enabling tamper-proof data and exclusion of untrustworthy evaluation peers, while evaluating, at the same time, the quality of CTI Feeds against a defined set of quality standards. The evaluation of the data is performed utilising a reputation and trust-based mechanism for selecting validators, who further rate the CTI feeds using quality-based CTI parameters, while the consensus for preserving the fairness of the results and their final storage is performed via the recently introduced proof-of-quality (PoQ) consensus algorithm. The data, which are stored in the proposed ledger, constitute a reliable, distributed, and secure repository of CTI Feeds and contain their objective evaluation, as well as the performance of the validators who participated in each evaluation, while these data can be further used for assessing the reputation of CTI Sources. Finally, in order to assess the proposed system’s reliability, integrity, and tolerance against malicious activities, the model is subject to a theoretical analysis using a probabilistic simulation, taking into account various aspects and features of the integrated mechanisms. The results show that the tolerance against malicious validators is acceptable, even when the ratio between legitimately vs. maliciously behaving validators is 1 : 50.
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Clifton, Guy Travis, Mace Rothenberg, Paolo Antonio Ascierto, Glenn Begley, Michael Cecchini, Joseph Paul Eder, Francois Ghiringhelli, et al. "Developing a definition of immune exclusion in cancer: results of a modified Delphi workshop." Journal for ImmunoTherapy of Cancer 11, no. 6 (June 2023): e006773. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jitc-2023-006773.
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Checkpoint inhibitors represent an effective treatment approach for a variety of cancers through their inhibition of immune regulatory pathways within the tumor microenvironment (TME). Unfortunately only a minority of patients with cancer achieve clinical benefit from immunotherapy, with the TME emerging as an important predictor of outcomes and sensitivity to therapy. The extent and pattern of T-cell infiltration can vary prominently within/across tumors and represents a biological continuum. Three immune profiles have been identified along this continuum: ‘immune-desert’ or ‘T-cell cold’ phenotype, ‘immune-active’, ‘inflamed’, or ‘T-cell hot’ phenotype, and ‘immune excluded’ phenotype. Of the three profiles, immune excluded remains the most ill-defined with no clear, universally accepted definition even though it is commonly associated with lack of response to immune checkpoint inhibitors and poor clinical outcomes. To address this, 16 multidisciplinary cancer experts from around the world were invited to participate in a symposium using a three-round modified Delphi approach. The first round was an open-ended questionnaire distributed via email and the second was an in-person discussion of the first round results that allowed for statements to be revised as necessary to achieve a maximum consensus (75% agreement) among the rating committee (RC). The final round questionnaire was distributed to the RC via email and had a 100% completion rate. The Delphi process resulted in moving us closer to a consensus definition for immune exclusion that is practical, clinically pertinent, and applicable across a wide range of cancer histologies. A general consensus of the role of immune exclusion in resistance to checkpoint therapy and five research priorities emerged from this process. Together, these tools could help efforts designed to address the underlying mechanisms of immune exclusion that span cancer types and, ultimately, aid in the development of treatments to target these mechanisms to improve patient outcomes.
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Cao, Jiangdong, and Wei Cao. "Bitcoin mining, the way to process transaction information or the way to make money?" INSIST 4, no. 1 (April 1, 2019): 191. http://dx.doi.org/10.23960/ins.v4i1.191.
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Bitcoin is a crypto currency introduced by Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008. It has the features of decentralization cross-border and fixed total amount and has become one of the most widely used crypto-currencies. Bitcoin, as a new digital currency system, innovatively makes the use of cryptographic elements and consensus mechanisms and builds up a secure decentralized system. The Blockchain, as the core of Bitcoin, uses peer-to-peer network communications and backs up transaction data in every node of the system, thus creating a huge distributed public book. It is essentially a decentralized distributed ledger database, and the decentralization means that the transaction is broadcast to the entire network, where everyone is involved in book keeping. In order to make every participant in the Blockchain willing to participate in the bookkeeping, the reward mechanism of the Bitcoin system is mining. This article first introduces the concept of Blockchain technology, then expounds the principle and the operation mechanism of the Bitcoin and the Bitcoin mining principle, introduces an example of Bitcoin mining in-depth study and analysis, finally, summarize and prospect the development of the Bitcoin mining.
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Ahmed, Jaafar, Andrii Karpenko, Olga Tarasyuk, Anatoliy Gorbenko, and Akbar Sheikh-Akbari. "Consistency issue and related trade-offs in distributed replicated systems and databases: a review." Radioelectronic and Computer Systems, no. 2 (May 25, 2023): 171–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.32620/reks.2023.2.14.
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Distributed replicated databases play a crucial role in modern computer systems enabling scalable, fault-tolerant, and high-performance data management. However, achieving these qualities requires resolving a number of trade-offs between various properties during system design and operation. This paper reviews trade-offs in distributed replicated databases and provides a survey of recent research papers studying distributed data storage. The paper first discusses a compromise between consistency and latency that appears in distributed replicated data storages and directly follows from CAP and PACELC theorems. Consistency refers to the guarantee that all clients in a distributed system observe the same data at the same time. To ensure strong consistency, distributed systems typically employ coordination mechanisms and synchronization protocols that involve communication and agreement among distributed replicas. These mechanisms introduce additional overhead and latency and can dramatically increase the time taken to complete operations when replicas are globally distributed across the Internet. In addition, we study trade-offs between other system properties including availability, durability, cost, energy consumption, read and write latency, etc. In this paper we also provide a comprehensive review and classification of recent research works in distributed replicated databases. Reviewed papers showcase several major areas of research, ranging from performance evaluation and comparison of various NoSQL databases to suggest new strategies for data replication and putting forward new consistency models. In particular, we observed a shift towards exploring hybrid consistency models of causal consistency and eventual consistency with causal ordering due to their ability to strike a balance between operations ordering guarantees and high performance. Researchers have also proposed various consistency control algorithms and consensus quorum protocols to coordinate distributed replicas. Insights from this review can empower practitioners to make informed decisions in designing and managing distributed data storage systems as well as help identify existing gaps in the body of knowledge and suggest further research directions.
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Gumerov, Emil A., and Tamara V. Alekseeva. "Development of the blockchain architecture of the Industrial Internet of Things system of the enterprise." Journal Of Applied Informatics 16, no. 95 (October 29, 2021): 16–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.37791/2687-0649-2021-16-5-16-32.
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The development of the digital economy in the modern world requires solving the issue of security of Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) applications. A large number of distributed, network-based, IIoT devices managed by intelligent programs (software agents) require protection. A successful attack on any IIoT device will lead to hacking of the IIoT application and to large financial losses, as well as to the termination of the IIoT application, therefore, the research topic is relevant. The purpose of this article is to radically solve the security problem of the IIoT application by developing a blockchain architecture of the application. The authors were tasked with investigating all aspects of the blockchain system that ensure the security of IIoT application devices. The peculiarity of the blockchain system is that its participants are software agents that control the application devices. As a result of the research, the concept of the blockchain architecture of the IIoT application is proposed. He mechanisms of consensus of intelligent programs of IIoT devices as equal active participants of the blockchain network are investigated. The consensus mechanism and the cryptographic system of the distributed registry of the blockchain network increase the information security of the IIoT application. The synergistic effect of the blockchain system and intelligent systems of software agents of IIoT application devices significantly increases the efficiency of the solution. Intelligent systems of software agents and IIoT applications are effectively trained on the blockchain platform, and as a result, we get a decentralized supercomputer in the form of a blockchain system.
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Ma, Liang, and Gang Xu. "Distributed Resilient Voltage and Reactive Power Control for Islanded Microgrids under False Data Injection Attacks." Energies 13, no. 15 (July 25, 2020): 3828. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13153828.
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This paper addresses the problem of voltage and reactive power control of inverter-based distributed generations (DGs) in an islanded microgrid subject to False Data Injection (FDI) attacks. To implement average voltage restoration and reactive power sharing, a two-layer distributed secondary control framework employing a multiagent system (MAS)-based dynamic consensus protocol is proposed. While communication network facilitates distributed control scheme, it leads to vulnerability of microgrids to malicious cyber-attacks. The adverse effects of FDI attack on the secondary controller are analyzed, and the necessary and sufficient conditions to model stealthy attack and probing attack are discussed in detail. A trust-based resilient control strategy is developed to resist the impacts of FDI attack. Based on the forward-backward consistency criterion, the self-monitoring and neighbor-monitoring mechanisms are developed to detect the misbehaving DGs. A group decision-making mechanism is also introduced to settle conflicts arising from the dishonest trust index caused by colluding attacks. A novel mitigation countermeasure is designed to eliminate the adversarial effects of attack: the discarding information mechanism is used to prevent the propagation of false data in the cooperative network while the recovery actions are designed to correct the deviations of collective estimation error in both transient disturbance and continuous FDI attack scenarios. Through a theoretical analysis, it is proved that the proposed mitigation and recovery mechanism can maintain the correct average estimates of voltage and reactive power, which ensures the secondary control objectives of microgrids under FDI attack. Simulation results on an islanded microgrid show the effectiveness and resilience of the proposed control scheme.
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Raza, Zeeshan, Irfan ul Haq, Muhammad Muneeb, and Omair Shafiq. "Energy Efficient Multiprocessing Solo Mining Algorithms for Public Blockchain Systems." Scientific Programming 2021 (October 31, 2021): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/9996132.
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Blockchain as a decentralized distributed ledger is revolutionizing the world with a secure design data storage mechanism. In the case of Bitcoin, mining involves a process of packing transactions in a block by calculating a random number termed as a nonce. The nonce calculation is done by special nodes called miners, and all the miners follow the Proof of Work (PoW) mining mechanism to perform the mining task. The transaction verification time in PoW-based blockchain systems, i.e., Bitcoin, is much slower than other digital transaction systems such as PayPal. It needs to be quicker if a system adapts PoW-based blockchain solutions, where there are thousands of transactions being computed at a time. Besides this, PoW mining also consumes a lot of energy to calculate the nonce of a block. Mining pools resulting into aggregated hashpower have been a popular solution to speed up the PoW mining, but they can be attacked by using different types of attacks. Parallel computing can be used to speed up the solo mining methods by utilizing the multiple processes of the contributing processors. In this research, we analyze various consensus mechanisms and see that the PoW-based blockchain systems have the limitations of low transaction confirmation time and high energy consumption. We also analyze various types of consensus layer attacks and their effects on miners and mining pools. To tackle these issues, we propose parallel PoW nonce calculation methods to accelerate the transaction verification process especially in solo mining. We have tested our techniques on different difficulty levels, and our proposed techniques yield better results than the traditional nonce computation mechanisms.
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Jerbi, Wassim, Omar Cheikhrouhou, Abderrahmen Guermazi, and Hafedh Trabelsi. "Blockchain-Based Data Storage for Internet of Things Networks." International Journal of Business Data Communications and Networking 19, no. 1 (March 26, 2024): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijbdcn.341590.
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Consensus mechanisms are fundamental to blockchain technology, ensuring network integrity and the orderly progression of transactions. However, the predominant proof of work method, while widely adopted, has raised concerns regarding its energy-intensive nature and lack of scalability. In response, this research explores alternative consensus methods tailored to participants' engagement in blockchain storage activities. We conducted a comprehensive review of existing approaches, examining their reusability and efficacy. Concurrently, we observed a growing demand for distributed storage solutions driven by escalating data volumes. Our investigation identified areas for improvement in existing storage blockchains, motivating the development of our own system, BlockStock. This protocol, meticulously designed, aims to enhance intelligent data storage management reliably and robustly. Through rigorous performance evaluations, including assessments of power consumption, throughput, and data transfer times, BlockStock demonstrates superior efficacy and cost-effectiveness. These findings underscore its significance as a notable advancement in blockchain-based storage solutions, offering a promising avenue for future research and application.
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Peng, Zeshun, Yanfeng Zhang, Qian Xu, Haixu Liu, Yuxiao Gao, Xiaohua Li, and Ge Yu. "NeuChain." Proceedings of the VLDB Endowment 15, no. 11 (July 2022): 2585–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.14778/3551793.3551816.
Full textAbstract:
Blockchain serves as a replicated transactional processing system in a trustless distributed environment. Existing blockchain systems all rely on an explicit ordering step to determine the global order of transactions that are collected from multiple peers. The ordering consensus can be the bottleneck since it must be Byzantine-fault tolerant and can scarcely benefit from parallel execution. In this paper, we propose an ordering-free architecture that makes ordering implicit through deterministic execution. Based on this novel architecture, we develop a permissioned blockchain system NeuChain. A number of key optimizations such as asynchronous block generation and pipelining are leveraged for high throughput and low latency. Several security mechanisms are also designed to make our system robust to malicious attacks. Our geo-distributed experimental results show that NeuChain can achieve 47.2--64.1X throughput improvement over HyperLedger Fabric and 1.6--12.2X throughput improvement over the state-of-the-art high performance blockchains.
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Cai, Weihong, Xin Du, and Jianlong Xu. "A Personalized QoS Prediction Method for Web Services via Blockchain-Based Matrix Factorization." Sensors 19, no. 12 (June 19, 2019): 2749. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s19122749.
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Personalized quality of service (QoS) prediction plays an important role in helping users build high-quality service-oriented systems. To obtain accurate prediction results, many approaches have been investigated in recent years. However, these approaches do not fully address untrustworthy QoS values submitted by unreliable users, leading to inaccurate predictions. To address this issue, inspired by blockchain with distributed ledger technology, distributed consensus mechanisms, encryption algorithms, etc., we propose a personalized QoS prediction method for web services that we call blockchain-based matrix factorization (BMF). We develop a user verification approach based on homomorphic hash, and use the Byzantine agreement to remove unreliable users. Then, matrix factorization is employed to improve the accuracy of predictions and we evaluate the proposed BMF on a real-world web services dataset. Experimental results show that the proposed method significantly outperforms existing approaches, making it much more effective than traditional techniques.
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Xevgenis, Michael, Dimitrios G. Kogias, Ioannis Christidis, Charalampos Patrikakis, and Helen C. Leligou. "Evaluation of a Blockchain-Enabled Resource Management Mechanism for NGNs." International Journal of Network Security & Its Applications 13, no. 5 (September 30, 2021): 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.5121/ijnsa.2021.13501.
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A new era in ICT has begun with the evolution of Next Generation Networks (NGNs) and the development of human-centric applications. Ultra-low latency, high throughput, and high availability are a few of the main characteristics of modern networks. Network Providers (NPs) are responsible for the development and maintenance of network infrastructures ready to support the most demanding applications that should be available not only in urban areas but in every corner of the earth. The NP’s must collaborate to offer high- quality services and keep their overall cost low. The collaboration among competitive entities can in principle be regulated by a trusted 3rd party or by a distributed approach/technology which can guarantee integrity, security, and trust. This paper examines the use of blockchain technology for resource management and negotiation among NPs and presents the results of experiments conducted in a dedicated real testbed. The implementation of the resource management mechanism is described in a Smart Contract (SC) and the testbeds use the Raft and the IBFT consensus mechanisms respectively. The goal of this paper is two-fold: to assess its performance in terms of transaction throughput and latency so that we can assess the granularity at which this solution can operate (e.g. support resource re-allocation among NPs on micro-service level or not) and define implementation-specific parameters like the consensus mechanism that is the most suitable for this use case based on performance metrics.
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Bai, Jie, Yanhui Du, and Tianliang Lu. "Internet Rumor Reporting System Based on the Blockchain Incentive Mechanism." Mobile Information Systems 2021 (October 18, 2021): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/7500639.
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This study examined the characteristics of internet rumors in the user-generated content (UGC) mode, analysed the advantages of using the blockchain technology to curb internet rumors, and proposed a framework of the internet rumor reporting system based on the blockchain incentive mechanism. With Truffle as a development framework, intelligent contracts such as create, read, update, and delete were created using Solidity. The end users were connected to the blockchain using the MetaMask plugin. Finally, rewards were obtained by the participants, and the decentralizing program Dapp was created. The results showed that the TRUES could support multiuser reporting and execute intelligent contracts automatically and efficiently in a complex internet rumor environment; for the range of 1–2896 participants, virtual currency rewards could be obtained in 0.5–2.5 d. The conclusion showed that the internet rumor reporting system under the blockchain incentive mechanism had the characteristics of multilevel management, and distributed ledger and digital signatures contributed to the retention and traceability of rumors. Intelligent contracts and consensus mechanisms have obvious advantages in dealing with the complex forms of internet rumors.
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AlMuraie, Eman A., Norah A. Algarni, and Nidhal Sh Alahmad. "UPPER-SECONDARY SCHOOL SCIENCE TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE INTEGRATING MECHANISMS AND IMPORTANCE OF STEM EDUCATION." Journal of Baltic Science Education 20, no. 4 (August 15, 2021): 546–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.33225/jbse/21.20.546.
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This study aimed to recognize upper-secondary school science teachers’ perceptions of the meaning, importance, and integrating mechanisms of science, technology, engineering, math (STEM) education, taking in to account the differences between the science teachers’ perceptions according to their specialties, years of experience, and degrees. A closed-ended questionnaire was distributed among 700 science teachers (biology, physics, and chemistry) in Riyadh, and 255 teachers responded. The results showed a strong alignment in the upper-secondary school science teachers’ perceptions of the meaning and the importance of STEM education, although there was less of a consensus regarding the integrating mechanisms. There were statistically significant differences in the physics teachers’ perceptions of STEM meaning, although there were otherwise no significant differences by specialty in the science teachers’ perceptions of the importance of STEM education and its integration mechanisms. Furthermore, the teachers showed no statistically significant differences in STEM’s meaning, importance, or integrating mechanisms according to their years of experience. Based on the results, recommendations included intensifying professional development programs on utilizing technology, engineering, and mathematics in learning science concepts and application. Keywords: integration mechanisms, science teachers, STEM education, teachers’ perceptions, upper secondary school
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Gahlawat, Monica. "Survey of Online Identity Management Techniques on Blockchain." International Journal of Security and Privacy in Pervasive Computing 12, no. 4 (October 2020): 19–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijsppc.2020100102.
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Secure identity management is one of the controversial topics in the cybersecurity landscape. The user needs to rely on third-party providers for managing their personal information, which is a big security concern. Traditional identity systems typically suffer from single points of failure, lack of interoperability, and privacy issues such as encouraging mass data collection and user tracking. Blockchain technology has the potential to support novel data ownership and governance models with built-in control and consent mechanisms, which may benefit both users and businesses by alleviating these concerns. Blockchain-based systems provide the possibility for their users to insert their data in this distributed ledger. Users can trust the blockchain as it is leveraging consensus mechanisms to validate and gather the transactions in immutable blocks. The transparent and decentralized nature of the blockchain network enables the development of a non-refutable and unbreakable record of data, which is the fundamental feature of many applications, such as identity management.
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Balatska, Valeriia, and Ivan Opirskyy. "ENSURING THE CONFIDENTIALITY OF PERSONAL DATA AND SUPPORTING CYBER SECURITY WITH THE HELP OF BLOCKCHAIN." Cybersecurity: Education, Science, Technique 4, no. 20 (2023): 6–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.28925/2663-4023.2023.20.619.
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The recent increase in security breaches and digital surveillance highlights the need to improve privacy and security, especially of users' personal data. Advances in cybersecurity and new legislation promise to improve the protection of personal data. Blockchain and distributed ledger (DTL) technologies provide new opportunities to protect user data through decentralized identification and other privacy mechanisms. These systems can give users greater sovereignty through tools that allow them to own and control their own data. The purpose of the article is to research blockchain technology and mechanisms for achieving reliability in blockchain for the protection and security of personal data. Decentralized and federated identity systems give users control over what, when and how much of their personal information can be shared and with whom. These systems can also reduce cybersecurity threats. Through various consensus algorithms, blockchain-based privacy solutions allow users to better manage their data and ensure that the data and models derived from it are more accurate, honest and reliable.
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B, Shreya. "Blockchain in IOT Security." International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology 12, no. 4 (April 30, 2024): 1074–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2024.59962.
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Abstract: The Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm is rapidly transforming various industries by enabling the interconnection of billions of devices. However, the pervasive deployment of IoT devices also introduces significant security challenges, including data integrity, confidentiality, and device authentication. Blockchain technology, initially popularized by cryptocurrencies, has emerged as a promising solution to enhance the security of IoT ecosystems. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the integration of blockchain technology into IoT security frameworks. We explore various blockchain-based security mechanisms, including distributed ledger technology, smart contracts, consensus algorithms, and cryptographic techniques, and analyze their effectiveness in addressing IoT security concerns. Furthermore, we discuss the current state-of-the-art implementations, challenges, and future research directions for leveraging blockchain in IoT security.
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Sadique, Kazi Masum, Rahim Rahmani, and Paul Johannesson. "DIdM-EIoTD: Distributed Identity Management for Edge Internet of Things (IoT) Devices." Sensors 23, no. 8 (April 17, 2023): 4046. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23084046.
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The Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm aims to enhance human society and living standards with the vast deployment of smart and autonomous devices, which requires seamless collaboration. The number of connected devices increases daily, introducing identity management requirements for edge IoT devices. Due to IoT devices’ heterogeneity and resource-constrained configuration, traditional identity management systems are not feasible. As a result, identity management for IoT devices is still an open issue. Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) and blockchain-based security solutions are becoming popular in different application domains. This paper presents a novel DLT-based distributed identity management architecture for edge IoT devices. The model can be adapted with any IoT solution for secure and trustworthy communication between devices. We have comprehensively reviewed popular consensus mechanisms used in DLT implementations and their connection to IoT research, specifically identity management for Edge IoT devices. Our proposed location-based identity management model is generic, distributed, and decentralized. The proposed model is verified using the Scyther formal verification tool for security performance measurement. SPIN model checker is employed for different state verification of our proposed model. The open-source simulation tool FobSim is used for fog and edge/user layer DTL deployment performance analysis. The results and discussion section represents how our proposed decentralized identity management solution should enhance user data privacy and secure and trustworthy communication in IoT.
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Gong, Wen. "Reshaping the EFL Formative Assessment Pedagogy With Blockchain Technology." International Journal of English Linguistics 13, no. 1 (November 7, 2022): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v13n1p12.
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Blockchain technology is a distributed database with features such as no forgery, full traceability, openness, and transparency which is superior in establishing trust mechanisms and brings new opportunities for finance, healthcare, technology, and education. As a required course of all universities in China, College English has a large demographic covering millions of students. But the traditional EFL summative assessment model fails to fully reflect the L2 learner’s learning process and increment performance. The current paper focuses on the novel applications of blockchain in the educational domain and how blockchain technology reshapes the EFL Formative Assessment framework in the consensus mechanism to achieve a decentralized and highly trusted learning process record and evaluation. This innovative approach aims at improving the openness, transparency, and fairness of the EFL learning process by recording and monitoring the teachers’ and students’ behaviors. The research findings of this paper provide preliminary exploration for L2 evaluation and supply some inspiration to policymakers, EFL practitioners, and technology developers about the potential usages of digital credentials anchored on blockchains.
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Sariff, Nohaidda, and Zool Hilmi Ismail. "Broadcast Event-Triggered Control Scheme for Multi-Agent Rendezvous Problem in a Mixed Communication Environment." Applied Sciences 11, no. 9 (April 22, 2021): 3785. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11093785.
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This paper addresses the communication issue encountered by a hybrid controller when finding consensus in terms of the rendezvous target point in a broadcast and communication environment. This issue may result in a high level of computation and the utilization of agent resources when a continuous communication is required by agents to meet convergence requirements. Thus, an event-triggered system was integrated into the design of a broadcast and distributed consensus linear controller using the simultaneous perturbation stochastic algorithm (SPSA). The agent’s movement towards the rendezvous point is based on the broadcast value, whereas the next agent’s state position depends on the distributed local controller output. The communication error obtained during communication between the agent and neighbors is only added to the gradient approximation error of the SPSA if the event-triggered function is violated. As a result, in our model, the number of channel utilizations was lower and the agents’ performances were preserved. The efficiencies and effectiveness of the proposed controller have been compared with the traditional sampling broadcast time-triggered (BTT) approach. The time and iterations required by the broadcast event-triggered (BET) system were less than 40.42% and 21% on average as compared to BTT. The trajectory was not the same—the BET showed scattered movements at the initial stage, whereas BTT showed a linear movement. In terms of the number of channels, 28.91% of channels were preserved during the few hundred iterations. Consequently, a variety of hybrid controllers with event-triggered mechanisms can be proposed for other multi-agent motion coordination tasks.
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AlSkaif, Tarek, Bart Holthuizen, Wouter Schram, Ioannis Lampropoulos, and Wilfried van Sark. "A Blockchain-Based Configuration for Balancing the Electricity Grid with Distributed Assets." World Electric Vehicle Journal 11, no. 4 (September 30, 2020): 62. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/wevj11040062.
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This paper explores a future perspective to foster the provision of balancing services to the electricity grid by distributed assets. One recent test case, initiated by the Dutch Transmission System Operator (TSO), was to operate an Electric Vehicle (EV) fleet on the automatic Frequency Restoration Reserve (aFRR) market, which entails fast and automated reserves. To achieve that in a decentralised, automated and transparent manner, the role of blockchain technology for this specific application is explored. We propose a novel configuration that can serve as a basis for deploying distributed assets for aFRR markets using blockchain or any alternative Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT). Automation can be achieved via the deployment of smart contracts, which also results in transparency in the system. The blockchain configurations are designed for three phases in the aFRR market, namely: (i) Operational planning and scheduling by a balancing service provider (i.e., formulation and submission of aFRR bid), (ii) Real-time operations (i.e., activation and measurements), and (iii) Verification and settlement (i.e., imbalance correction and financial settlement). The paper concludes that the scalability of distributed assets that can participate in the system, combined with the large transaction times and energy consumption of some consensus mechanisms, could put limitations on the proposed architecture. Future research should address benchmarking studies of other alternatives (e.g., DLTs, such as the ones based on directed acyclic graphs, and non-DLT solutions) with the proposed blockchain solution.
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Juričić, Vedran, Matea Radošević, and Ena Fuzul. "Optimizing the Resource Consumption of Blockchain Technology in Business Systems." Business Systems Research Journal 11, no. 3 (November 1, 2020): 78–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/bsrj-2020-0028.
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AbstractBackgroundBlockchain technology has gained a great public interest due to the appearance of cryptocurrencies, a digital asset used for exchanging funds. Although blockchain calculations offer the benefits of security and reduced costs, blockchain is still strongly criticised for its lack of usefulness and resource-heavy consumption.ObjectivesThe aim of this research is to provide different insights into blockchain technology and to propose NP-complete problems as a suitable alternative to the current consensus algorithm.Methods/approachThis research discusses the current state of proposed alternatives, projects such as distributed volunteering for scientific purposes and different consensus algorithms within cryptocurrencies but focusing on incorporating NP-complete problems as a secondary, more useful option.ResultsUsing the properties of NP-complete problems, it is possible to solve various problems in different areas, such as science, biology, medicine and finance, but also to improve business processes, optimize markets, payments and supply chains while decreasing environmental costs.ConclusionsThis paper shows that the alternative mechanisms are being developed and used to substitute an existing Blockchain algorithm with a more efficient one. It also suggests further investigation in this area because the alternatives greatly improve blockchain’s usability and efficiency.